copyright 2003 objectives: chapter 3: layer 2 ethernet ethernet fundamentals ethernet operations...
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Objectives:
Chapter 3: Layer 2 Ethernet
Ethernet Fundamentals Ethernet Operations Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection Switches and switching methods
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Introduction to Ethernet
• The success of Ethernet is due to its simplicity and ease of maintenance, as well as its ability to incorporate new technologies, reliability, and low cost of installation and upgrade.
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Comparing LAN Standards
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OSI Layer 1 and 2 Together Are the Access Protocols
• These are the delivery system protocols.
• Independent of:– Network OS– Upper-level protocols
• TCP/IP, IPX/SPX
• Sometimes called:– Access methods– Access protocols– Access technologies– Media access– LAN protocols– WAN protocols
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, Frame Relay, ATM, PPP, HDLC, and so on
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IEEE Standard• Divided OSI Layer 2 into two sublayers
– Media Access Control (MAC) – Traditional L2 features• Transitions down to media
– Logical link control (LLC) – New L2 features• Transitions up to the network layer
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Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Allows part of the data link layer to function independent of LAN access technologies (protocols / methods)– Provides services to network layer protocols, while
communicating with access technologies below it • LAN access technologies:
– Ethernet– Token Ring– FDDI
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Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Participates in the data encapsulation process– LLC PDU between Layer 3 and MAC sublayer.– Adds control information to the network layer data to
help deliver the packet. It adds two fields:• Destination Service Access Point (DSAP)• Source Service Access Point (SSAP)
• Supports both connectionless and connection-oriented upper-layer protocols.
• Allows multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single physical data link.
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Layer 2 Framing
• Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process; a frame is the Layer 2 protocol data unit.
• A single generic frame has sections called fields, and each field is composed of bytes.
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Framing
• Why framing is necessary• Frame format diagram• Generic frame format
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Why Framing Is Necessary
• Binary data is a stream of 1s and 0s.• Framing breaks the stream into decipherable
groupings:– Start and stop indicator fields– Naming or addressing fields– Data fields– Quality-control fields
• Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process.• A frame is the Layer 2 protocol data unit.
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Generic Frame Format• Start Frame field• Address fields (source and destination MAC)• Type/Length field• Data field• FCS (Frame Check Sequence) field• Frame Stop field
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Ethernet Frame Fields
Some of the fields permitted or required in an 802.3 Ethernet frame are as follows: – Preamble – Start Frame Delimiter – Destination Address – Source Address – Length/Type – Data and Pad – Frame Check Sequence (FCS) – Extension
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Ethernet Operation
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Media Access Control (MAC)
• Provides MAC addressing (naming)• Depending on access technology (Ethernet,
Token Ring, FDDI), provides the following:– Data transmission control– Collision resolution (retransmission)– Layer 2 frame preparation (data framing)– Frame check sequence (FCS)
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Naming (MAC address)
• Ethernet uses MAC addresses that are 48 bits in length and expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits.
• The first 6 hexadecimal digits, which are administered by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer or vendor and thus comprise the organizational unique identifier (OUI).
• The remaining 6 hexadecimal digits represent the interface serial number, or another value administered by the specific equipment manufacturer.
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Media Access Control (MAC) Protocols
• Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)– Logical bus topology – Physical star or extended star– Nondeterministic
• First-come, first-served • Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
– Logical ring– Physical star topology– Deterministic
• Token controls traffic– Older declining technology
• FDDI (IEEE 802.5)– Logical ring topology– Physical dual-ring topology– Deterministic
• Token controls traffic – Near-end-of-life technology
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Ethernet Errors
• The following are the sources of Ethernet error: – Simultaneous transmission occurring before slot time has
elapsed (collision or runt)– Simultaneous transmission occurring after slot time has
elapsed (late collision)– Excessively or illegally long transmission (jabber, long
frame and range errors)– Illegally short transmission (short frame, collision fragment
or runt)– Corrupted transmission (FCS error)– Insufficient or excessive number of bits transmitted
(alignment error)– Actual and reported number of octets in frame don't match
(range error)– Unusually long preamble or jam event (ghost or jabber)
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FCS and Beyond
• A received frame that has a bad frame check sequence, also referred to as a checksum Redundancy Check (CRC) error, differs from the original transmission by at least 1 bit.
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Error Handling
• Collisions are the mechanism for resolving contention for network access.
• Collisions result in network bandwidth loss that is equal to the initial transmission and the collision jam signal. This affects all network nodes, possibly causing significant reduction in network throughput.
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CSMA/CDCSMA/CDEthernet uses carrier sense, multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). Nodes monitor the bus (or Ether) to determine if it is busy. A node wishing to send data waits for an idle condition then transmits its message. Collisions can occur when two nodes transmit at the same time, thus nodes must monitor the cable when they transmit. When a collision occurs, both nodes stop transmitting frames and transmit a jamming signal. This informs all nodes on the network that a collision has occurred. Each of the nodes involved in the collision then waits a random period of time before attempting a re-transmission. As each node has a random delay time then there can be a prioritization of the nodes on the network.
CSMA/CDEthernet uses carrier sense, multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). Nodes monitor the bus (or Ether) to determine if it is busy. A node wishing to send data waits for an idle condition then transmits its message. Collisions can occur when two nodes transmit at the same time, thus nodes must monitor the cable when they transmit. When a collision occurs, both nodes stop transmitting frames and transmit a jamming signal. This informs all nodes on the network that a collision has occurred. Each of the nodes involved in the collision then waits a random period of time before attempting a re-transmission. As each node has a random delay time then there can be a prioritization of the nodes on the network.
Two nodes transmitat the same time
1
Nodes detect therehas been a collision
2
Nodes transmit ajamming signal
3
Nodes wait a randomperiod before retransmitting
4
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Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
Switch Memory buffering
switch
1111
2222
3333
4444
Abbreviated MAC addresses
• An Ethernet switch may use a buffering technique to store and forward frames.
• Buffering may also be used when the destination port is busy.
• The area of memory where the switch stores the data is called the memory buffer.
• This memory buffer can use two methods for forwarding frame:
– port-based memory buffering
– shared memory buffering
• In port-based memory buffering frames are stored in queues that are linked to specific incoming ports.
• Shared memory buffering deposits all frames into a common memory buffer which all the ports on the switch share.
•
Two switching methods
• Store-and-forward – The entire frame is received before any forwarding takes place. – The destination and source addresses are read and
filters are applied before the frame is forwarded. – CRC Check done
• Cut-through – The frame is forwarded through the switch before the entire frame is received. – This mode decreases the latency of the transmission,
but also reduces error detection.
•
Cut-through
Cut-through
• Fast-forward – Offers the lowest level of latency. – Fast-forward switching immediately forwards a packet after reading
the destination address. – There may be times when packets are relayed with errors. – Although this occurs infrequently and the destination network
adapter will discard the faulty packet upon receipt.
•
Cut-through
Cut-through• Fragment-free – Fragment-free switching filters out collision fragments before
forwarding begins. – Collision fragments are the majority of packet errors. – In a properly functioning network, collision fragments must be smaller than
64 bytes. – Anything greater than 64 bytes is a valid packet and is usually received
without error. – Fragment-free switching waits until the packet is determined not to be a
collision fragment before forwarding.
•
Two switching methods
• Adaptive cut-through– In this mode, the switch uses cut-through until it detects
a given number of errors. – Once the error threshold is reached, the switch changes
to store-and-forward mode.
•
Switches and broadcast domains
These are logical not physical representations of what happens to these frames.
• Switches flood frames that are:– Unknown unicasts– Layer 2 broadcasts– Multicasts (unless running multicast snooping or IGMP)
• Multicast are special layer 2 and layer 3 addresses that are sent to devices that belong to that “group”.
•
Symmetric and asymmetric switching
Note: Most switches are now 10/100, which allow you to use them symmetrically or asymmetrically.
•