Contrastive Analysis, Cognitive &

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Contrastive analysis 

• The systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies.

• Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language.

Contrastive analysis 

If language is a set of habits and if L1 habitscan interfere with TL habits, then the properfocus of teaching should be on where the L1and TL differ, since these are going to bethe places which cause the most trouble forlearners. This is often referred to as theContrastive Analysis Hypothesis.

Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.

Lado detailed that one does a structure-by-structure comparison of the sound system, morphological system, syntactic system and even the cultural system of two languages for the purpose of discovering similarities and differences.

The ultimate goal of contrastive analysis is to predict areas that will be either easy or difficult for learners.

There are two positions that developed with regard to CA: (1) strong (2) weak.

The strong version (predictive) maintained that one could make predictions about learning and hence about the success of language teaching materials based on a comparison between two languages.

The weak version (explanatory) starts with an analysis of learners’ recurring errors (error analysis). It begins with what learners do and then attempts to account for those errors on the basis of native language-target language differences.

Contrastive analysis

• Takes language to be a set of habits and learning to bethe establishment of new habits.• Locates the major source of errors in the first language(habits).• We should be able to account for errors by consideringdifferences between L1 and TL.• Predicts greater differences lead to more errors.• Differences must be taught, similarities will beimplicitly transferred from the L1.• Difficulty/ease of learning a particular TL isdetermined by the differences between L1 and TL.

Contrastive analysis

• Second language learners do a lot of the samethings (e.g., over-regularization of forms like Hecomed).• Many errors that second language learners makecannot be traced to influence of their L1.• “Transfer of habits” doesn’t seem to be consistentacross languages. Zobl (1980) showed that Frenchlearners of English failed to show evidence of apredicted error, but English learners of French did.

Contrastive analysis

• Zobl (1980): In French, object pronouns generallycome before the verb: Je les vois ‘I see them (lit. Ithem see)’. In English object pronouns come afterthe verb: I see them.• French learners of English never produced *I themsee.• English learners of French did produce things like*Je vois elle (‘I see her’ cf. Je la vois).

Contrastive analysis

• Contrastive Analysis certainly doesn’t predictsubjective (psycholinguistic?) difficulty; a secondlanguage learner may very easily produce an erroneousform, or struggle and produce a correct form.• It is actually not at all straightforward to enumerate

the“differences” between languages (hence, it is hard topredict where problems would arise, under theContrastive Analysis Hypothesis).

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Cognitive theory

• A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of language learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of language learning, which sees language learning as an unconscious, automatic process.

Cognitivist Theory views human beings as having the innate capacity to develop logical thinking. This school of thought was influenced by Jean Piaget’s work where he suggests that logical thinking is the underlying factor for both linguistic and non-linguistic development.

The process of association has been used to describe the means by which the child learns to relate what is said to particular objects or events in the environment. The bridge by which certain associations are made is meaning. The extent and accuracy of the associations made are said to change in time as the child matures.

Cognitivists say that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions that are necessary for any kind of learning. The environment provides the material that the child can work on.

Cognitivists view the role of feedback in the learning process as important for affective reasons, but non-influential in terms of modifying or altering the sequence of development.

1. Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance.

2. Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is present. Activation is a learned response.

3. Memory is a large collection of nodes.

Language Learning as a Cognitive Process

Language Learning as a Cognitive Process

4. Controlled processing is not a learned response. It is a temporary activation of nodes in a sequence.

5. Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have been used.

6. Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i.e. knowing the ‘what’ of the language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge i.e. know the ‘how’ of the language system to employ strategies.

Cognitive theory

Example This view leads to a classroom focus on using learning strategies that have been observed in successful language learners and to a view of the learner as an 'information-processor', with limitations as to how much new information can be retained, and who needs strategies to be able to transfer information into memory.

Cognitive Theory In the classroom

Relevant activities include review and revision, class vocabulary bags, using a scaffolding approach with young learners, analysis and discussion of language and topics, inductive approaches and learner training.