conflict management info

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Conflict managementFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to:navigation, search

Conflict management involves implementing strategies to limit the negative aspects of conflictand to increase the positive aspects of conflict at a level equal to or higher than where the

conflict is taking place. Furthermore, the aim of conflict management is to enhancelearningandgroup outcomes (effectiveness or performance in organizational setting) (Rahim, 2002, p. 208).

It is not concerned with eliminating all conflict or avoiding conflict. Conflict can be valuable to

groups and organizations. It has been shown to increase group outcomes when managed properly(e.g. Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 2000; Bodtker & Jameson, 2001; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979; Khun

& Poole, 2000; DeChurch & Marks, 2001).

Contents[hide]

1 Definitions 1.1 Conflict 1.2 Substantive Vs. Affective 1.3 Organizational and Interpersonal Conflict

2 Conflict Resolution Vs. Conflict Management 3 Models of Conflict Management

3.1 Early Conflict Management Models 3.2 Khun and Pooles Model
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3.3 DeChurch and Markss Meta-Taxonomy 4 Current Conflict Management 5 Methodology has Changed 6 How to manage conflict

6.1 General Suggestions from Rahim's Criteria for Conflict Management (2002) 6.2 Other suggestions

7 Interpersonal Communication 8 Steps to Manage 9 International Conflict Management 10 Training 11 Counseling 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links

[edit] Definitions

[edit] Conflict

While no single definition of conflict exists, most definitions seem to involve the following

factors: that there are at least two independent groups, the groups perceive some incompatibilitybetween themselves, and the groups interact with each other in some way (Putnam and Poole,

1987). Two example definitions are, process in which one party perceives that its interests arebeing opposed or negatively affected by another party" (Wall & Callister, 1995, p. 517), and the

interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between

social entities (Rahim, 1992, p. 16).

There are several causes of conflict. Conflict may occur when:

A party is required to engage in an activity that is incongruent with his or her needs orinterests.

A party holds behavioral preferences, the satisfaction of which is incompatible withanother person's implementation of his or her preferences.

A party wants some mutually desirable resource that is in short supply, such that thewants of all parties involved may not be satisfied fully.

A party possesses attitudes, values, skills, and goals that are salient in directing his or herbehavior but are perceived to be exclusive of the attitudes, values, skills, and goals heldby the other(s).

Two parties have partially exclusive behavioral preferences regarding their joint actions. Two parties are interdependent in the performance of functions or activities.
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(Rahim, 2002, p. 207)

[edit] Substantive Vs. Affective

The overarching hierarchy of conflict starts with a distinction between substantive (also called

performance, task, issue, or active) conflict andaffective(also called relationship or [theopposite of] agreeable) conflict. If one could make a distinction between good and bad conflict,

substantive would be good and affective conflict would be bad. However, in a meta-analysis of

the current research, De Drue and Weingart (2003) showed that these two concepts are related to

each other (corrected correlation, = .54).

Substantive conflict deals with disagreements among group members about the content of the

tasks being performed or the performance itself (DeChurch & Marks, 2001; Jehn, 1995). This

type of conflict occurs when two or more social entities disagree on the recognition and solution

to a task problem, including differences in viewpoints, ideas, and opinions (Jehn, 1995; Rahim,2002).

Affective conflict deals with interpersonal relationships or incompatibilities (Behfar, Peterson,

Mannix, & Trochim, 2008). It is generated from emotions and frustration (Bodtker & Jameson,

2001), and has a detrimental impact on group or organizational outcomes (i.e. informationprocessing ability, cognitive functioning of group members, attributions of group members'

behavior, group loyalty, work group commitment, intent to stay in the present organization, and

job satisfaction) (Amason, 1996; Baron, 1997; Jehn, 1995; Jehn et al., 1999; Wall & Nolan,1986). Summarily stated, "relationship conflict interferes with task-related effort because

members focus on reducing threats, increasing power, and attempting to build cohesion rather

than working on tasks...The conflict causes members to be negative, irritable, suspicious, and

resentful" (Jehn, 1997, pp. 531-532; c.f. Rahim, 2002, p. 210).

Thus, [substantive] conflicts occur when group members argue over alternatives related to thegroup's task, whereas [affective] conflicts result over interpersonal clashes not directly related to

achieving the group's function (Amason, 1996; Guetzhow & Gyr, 1954; Jehn, 1992; Pinkley,

1990; Priem & Price, 1991) (c.f. DeChurch & Marks, 2001, p. 5).

In De Dreu and Weingart's 2003 meta-analysis, both substantive and affective conflict are

negatively related to team member satisfaction ( = -.32; -.56, respectively). Additionally,

substantive and affective conflict are negatively related to team performance ( = -.20; -.25,

respectively). It is important to note that 20% (5 of 25) of the studies used showed a positivecorrelation between substantive conflict and task performance. These relationships show the

severe negative impact that conflict can have on groups, and illustrate the importance of conflict

management.

[edit] Organizational and Interpersonal Conflict

Organizational conflict, whether it be substantive or affective, can be divided intointraorganizational and interorganizational. Interorganizational conflict occurs between two ormore organizations (Rahim, 2002). When different businesses are competing against one

another, this is an example of interorganizational conflict Intraorganizational conflict is conflict

within an organization, and can be examined based upon level (e.g. department, work team,

individual), and can be classified as interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup. Interpersonalconflict--once again--whether it is substantive or affective, refers to conflict between two or

more individuals (not representing the group they are a part of) of the same or different group at
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the same or different level, if in an organization. Interpersonal conflict can be divided into

intragroup and intergroup conflict. While the former--intragroup--occurs between members of agroup (or between subgroups within a group), the latter--intergroup--occurs between groups or

units in an organization (Rahim, 2002).

[edit] Conflict Resolution Vs. Conflict ManagementAs the name would suggest,conflict resolutioninvolves the reduction, elimination, or

termination of all forms and types of conflict. In practice, when people talk about conflict

resolutionthey tend to use terms likenegotiation,bargaining,mediation, orarbitration.

In line with the recommendations in the "how to" section, businesses can benefit from

appropriate types and levels of conflict. That is the aim of conflict management, and not the aim

ofconflict resolution. Conflict management does not necessarily implyconflict resolution.

Conflict management involves designing effective macro-level strategies to minimize thedysfunctions of conflict and enhancing the constructive functions of conflict in order to enhance

learning and effectiveness in an organization(Rahim, 2002, p. 208). Learning is essential for thelongevity of any group. This is especially true for organizations;Organizational learningis

essential for any company to remain in the market. Properly managed conflict increases learningthrough increasing the degree to which groups ask questions and challenge the status quo

(Luthans, Rubach, & Marsnik, 1995).

[edit] Models of Conflict ManagementThere have been many styles of conflict management behavior that have been researched in the

past century. One of the earliest,Mary Parker Follett(1926/1940) found that conflict wasmanaged by individuals in three main ways: domination,compromise, and integration. She also

found other ways of handling conflict that were employed by organizations, such asavoidance

and suppression.

[edit] Early Conflict Management Models

Blake and Mouton (1964) were among the first to present a conceptual scheme for classifying

the modes (styles) for handling interpersonal conflicts into five types: forcing, withdrawing,smoothing, compromising, and problem solving.

In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began using the intentions of the parties involved to

classify the styles of conflict management that they would include in their models. Both Thomas

(1976) and Pruitt (1983) put forth a model based on the concerns of the parties involved in theconflict. The combination of the parties concern for their own interests (i.e.assertiveness) and

their concern for the interests of those across the table (i.e.cooperativeness) would yield aparticular conflict management style. Pruitt called these styles yielding (low assertiveness/highcooperativeness), problem solving (high assertiveness/high cooperativeness), inaction (low

assertiveness/low cooperativeness), and contending (high assertiveness/low cooperativeness).

Pruitt argues that problem-solving is the preferred method when seeking mutually beneficial

options.

[edit] Khun and Pooles Model
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Khun and Poole (2000) established a similar system of group conflict management. In their

system, they split Kozans confrontational model into two sub models: distributive andintegrative.

Distributive - Here conflict is approached as a distribution of a fixed amount of positiveoutcomes or resources, where one side will end up winning and the other losing, even if

they do win some concessions.

Integrative - Groups utilizing the integrative model see conflict as a chance to integratethe needs and concerns of both groups and make the best outcome possible. This model

has a heavier emphasis on compromise than the distributive model. Khun and Poole

found that the integrative model resulted in consistently better task related outcomes thanthose using the distributive model.

[edit] DeChurch and Markss Meta-Taxonomy

DeChurch and Marks (2001) examined the literature available on conflict management at thetime and established what they claimed was a "meta-taxonomy" that encompasses all other

models. They argued that all other styles have inherent in them into two dimensions - activeness

("the extent to which conflict behaviors make a responsive and direct rather than inert andindirect impression") and agreeableness ("the extent to which conflict behaviors make a pleasant

and relaxed rather than unpleasant and strainful impression"). High activeness is characterized by

openly discussing differences of opinion while fully going after their own interest. Highagreeableness is characterized by attempting to satisfy all parties involved

In the study they conducted to validate this division, activeness did not have a significant effect

on the effectiveness ofconflict resolution, but theagreeablenessof the conflict managementstyle, whatever it was, did in fact have a positive impact on how groups felt about the way the

conflict was managed, regardless of the outcome.

[edit] Current Conflict ManagementRahim (2002) noted that there is agreement among management scholars that there is no one bestapproach to how to make decisions, lead or manage conflict. In a similar vein, rather than

creating a very specific model of conflict management, Rahim created a meta-model (in much

the same way that DeChurch and Marks, 2001, created a meta-taxonomy) for conflict styles

based on two dimensions, concern for self and concern for others (as shown in Figure 2).
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Within this framework are five management approaches: integrating, obliging, dominating,

avoiding, and compromising. Integration involves openness, exchanging information, looking for

alternatives, and examining differences so solve the problem in a manner that is acceptable toboth parties. Obliging is associated with attempting to minimize the differences and highlight the

commonalities to satisfy the concern of the other party. When using the dominating style one

party goes all out to win his or her objective and, as a result, often ignores the needs andexpectations of the other party. When avoiding a party fails to satisfy his or her own concern aswell as the concern of the other party. Lastly, compromising involves give-and-take whereby

both parties give up something to make a mutually acceptable decision. (Rahim, 2002).

See the table on the right, as a quick reference for when a particular conflict management style isappropriate / inappropriate.

[edit] Methodology has Changed
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Supervisors spend more than 25% of their time on conflict management, and managers spend

more than 18% of their time on relational employee conflicts. These figures have doubled since

the mid 1980s. Companies have distinguished some key factors as the growing complexity of

organizations, use of teams and group decision making, and globalization. (Lang, 2009, p. 240)

The United Kingdoms Defense Department realized that the new concepts of threats are not the

concern any more. It is the capability to deal with them that matters. (Fisher, 2010, p.429)It is now becoming more evident that this is something that companies and managers need to

recognize, and deal with. Conflict significantly affects employee morale, turnover, and litigation,

which affects the prosperity of a company, either constructively or destructively. (Lang, 2009, p.

240) Turnover can cost a company 200% of the employees annual salary. (Maccoby & Scudder,p.48)

The Honeywell Studies state that managers tend to learn 50% of what they know, on the job.

Due to the speed at which conflict has changed, this knowledge may not have been acquired.

Based on the same studies, managers also learned their skills from higher education, but this wasonly at a 20% rate. (Zempke, p. 46-51) This is a concern because little has been done in the

undergraduate universities to study this subject. (Lang, 2009, p. 240) Study shows that a total of

14% of the universities actually had a required course for dealing with conflict management.(Lang, 2009, p.243)

[edit] How to manage conflictOverall conflict management should aim to minimizeaffectiveconflicts at all levels, attain and

maintain a moderate amount of substantive conflict, and use the appropriate conflict

management strategy--to effectively bring about the first two goals, and also to match the status

and concerns of the two parties in conflict (Rahim, 2002).

In order for conflict management strategies to be effective, they should satisfy certain criteria.The below criteria are particularly useful for not only conflict management, but alsodecision

makinginmanagement.

[edit] General Suggestions from Rahim's Criteria for Conflict Management

(2002)

Organization Learning and Effectiveness- In order to attain this objective, conflictmanagement strategies should be designed to enhance critical and innovative thinking tolearn the process of diagnosis and intervention in the right problems.

Needs of Stakeholders- Sometimes multiple parties are involved in a conflict in anorganization and the challenge of conflict management would be to involve these parties

in a problem solving process that will lead to collective learning and organizational

effectiveness. organizations should institutionalize the positions of employee advocate,customer and supplier advocate, as well as environmental and stockholder advocates.

Ethics - A wise leader must behave ethically, and to do so the leader should be open tonew information and be willing to change his or her mind. By the same token

subordinates and other stakeholders have an ethical duty to speak out against thedecisions of supervisors when consequences of these decisions are likely to be serious.

Without an understanding of ethics, conflict cannot be handled (Batcheldor, 2000).
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[edit] Other suggestions

Do not avoid the conflict, hoping it will go away. Ask the participants to describe specific

actions they would like the other party to take. It would also be beneficial to have a third party

(meaning a non-direct superior with access to the situation) involved. This could be an individualmember or a board dedicated to resolving and preventing issues. Lastly, do not meet separately

with people in conflict. If you allow each individual to tell their story to you, you risk polarizingtheir positions.

[edit] Interpersonal CommunicationManagers effect how employees feel about themselves and the organization. Employees expecttheir managers to be fair, they want to be respected, and they want appreciation. (Rupp &

Baldwin & Bashshur, 2006, p. 146) Conflict management may not be at the top of your "fun"

list, but when well-managed, it can produce relationship breakthroughs. (Wilson, 2004, p. 27)

Managers should take proactive approaches in creating a fair work place. Fairness is a perception

and is associated with justice. There are four variables that the employee uses to perceive justice:justification, truthfulness, respect, and propriety. The first two are informational, and the last two

are interpersonal. (Rupp & Baldin & Bashsur, p.154)

Justifications are explanations and apologies. Truthfulness is being honest and sincere.Employees want be told what is true, in a realistic way, which is accurate. Employees want

respect which is being courteous, not insulting, and not critical. Employees also expect their

proprietary, which is not asking them inappropriate questions or prejudiced. (Rupp & Baldin &

Bashsur, p.154)

Further evidence shows that the manager or company need the skills to identify personalities and

how they view a situation. Using team concepts it recognizes that based on skill differentiation,

it is reasonable that they will have unique views on the same process. (Ishak & Ballard,2012,p.26)

Interactionally fair managerial behavior should involve (a) providing explanations or apologiesafter an injustice has occurred, (b) being honest and forthright, (c) providing information that is

realistic and accurate, (d) being courteous, (e) refraining from insults and overly critical

treatment, (f) communicating in ways that avoid prejudicial overtones, and (g) avoidingquestions or remarks regarding others personal information. (Rupp et al., p.155)

Most clashes occur because of a difference in values between bureaucratic and interactive social

characters. These cause significant interpersonal and intergroup conflict at work. The

differences between bureaucratic types of organizations and the desire for new employees

wanting an open interpersonal work life. (Maccoby & Scudder, p. 48)

There is also a generational change going on right now. The social character is changing as a lot

of the older generation makes an exodus from the workforce. However , compared culturally,

this change is much slower at creating conflict. The faster the culture of the company changes,the more likely you will have conflict. (Maccoby & Scudder, p. 49)

In cultural situations, subgroups also react according to management, and if they feel that they

are left out, then they feel like they are treated unfairly. They no longer believe the company has
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their values in mind, and will not feel safe in opening up. (Huo & Molina & Sawahata & Deang,

2005, p. 240)

Melissa Taylors work in a 2010 article looks at the attitudes employees have about themselvesand managers have about their characteristics.

A person with internal locus of control feels like they have a great deal of controlconcerning their surroundings and outcomes. The people who feel they have control of

their destiny have these characteristics. They have an increased ability to persuade ininteractions, are accomplishment driven and perceive communication as a satisfactory

result due to their input. These types of individuals tend to communicate more and are

less anxious about what they are talking about.

A person with external locus control feels like others have more of an effect on theircircumstances. Employees and managers who feel this way try to avoid communication,

will associate with people but do not look for information, try hard to preserve their

honor, have less demands on themselves towards reaching goals and dont believe thatothers are honest with them. Managers with an external locus of control are more

coercive, sarcastic, less likely to find solutions, and are ineffective communicators.These two styles are traits that employers may want to look for when hiring a manager. (Taylor,

2010, p. 448)

[edit] Steps to ManageThe first step is reactionary by assessing and reacting to the conflict. The second step is proactive

by determining how the employee reacted to the decision. The manager tries to take (create) anew approach, and once again tries to discern how the employee reacts. Once the manager feels

that the best decision for the organization has been chosen, and the employee feels justified, then

the manager decides if this is a single case conflict, or one that should be written as policy. The

entire process starts as a reactive situation but then moves towards a proactive decision. It is

based on obtaining an outcome that best fits the organization, but emphasizes the perception ofjustice for the employee. The chart below shows the interaction of the procedures.

Maccoby and Studder identify five steps to managing conflict.

AnticipateTake time to obtain information that can lead to conflict. PreventDevelop strategies before the conflict occurs. IdentifyIf it is interpersonal or procedural, move to quickly manage it. ManageRemember that conflict is emotional ResolveReact, without blame, and you will learn through dialogue.

(Maccoby & Studder, p.50)Melissa Taylors research on Locus of Control is directly related to individual abilities ofcommunication, especially as it pertains to interpersonal conflict. She also states that conflicts

should be solution driven which are creative and integrative. They should be non-confrontational, and they should still maintain control, utilizing non-verbal messages to achieve

the outcome.(Taylor, p. 449)


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Rahim, Antonioni, and Psenickas 2001 article deals with two types of leaders. Those that have

concern for themselves, and those that have concern for others. (Rahim, Antonioni & Psenicka,2001, p.195)

They also have degrees of conflict management style.

Integrating involves opening up, creating dialogue, and exploring differences to choosean effective solution for both groups. This style is positively associated with individual

and organizational outcomes. (Rahim et al., p. 197)

Obliging tries to find the same interests of the parties, while trying to minimize the truefeeling of the conflict, to satisfy the other party.

Dominating is a coercive manager who forces their own way. Avoiding is ignoring the problem in hopes that it will go away. Compromising is a manger that is willing to make concessions and the employee makes

concessions for a mutual agreement. (Rahim et al., p.196)

The avoiding and dominating styles are considered ineffective in management. The following

chart shows the interaction between the styles. (Rahim et al., p. 196)

Power is defined as "the ability of one party to change or control the behavior, attitudes,

opinions, objectives, needs, and values of another party" (Rahim et al., p. 192)

There are five types of power.

Coercive power is based on subordinates' perception of punishment. Reward power is based on subordinates' perception of rewards. Legitimate power is based on a superior has the right to control behavior. Expert power is based on subordinates' belief that a superior is an expert.

Referent power is based on subordinates' interpersonal attraction to and identificationwith a superior because of their admiration or personal liking of the superior. (Rahim et

al., p. 194)

Referent power is the most desirable because these types of managers are able to obtain trust,

openness and respect from their employees. It is also associated with the ability of changing

behavior, where the other styles, by themselves, do not. (Rahim et al., p. 205)

Experts may know what they are doing, but if they cannot effectively communicate on aninterpersonal level, they cannot achieve optimum results. Rahim, Antonioni, and Psenicka have a

quote to be reflected upon; The linkage between expert and referent power bases probably

indicates that managers who are high on expert power have high cognitive abilities (IQ), but the

managers who are high on referent power have high non-cognitive skills, capabilities, and

competencies. Goleman (1998) provides some evidence that managers with the later skillspossess what he calls emotional intelligence (EQ). Without EQ "a person can have the best

training in the world, an incisive, analytical mind, and an endless supply of smart ideas, but he

still won't make a great leader. (Rahim et al., p. 205)

[edit] International Conflict Management


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Special consideration should be paid to conflict management between two parties from distinct

cultures. In addition to the everyday sources of conflict, "misunderstandings, and from thiscounterproductive, pseudo conflicts, arise when members of one culture are unable to understand

culturally determined differences in communication practices, traditions, and thought

processing" (Borisoff & Victor, 1989).

Indeed, this has already been observed in the business research literature. Renner (2007)recounted several episodes where managers from developed countries moved to less developed

countries to resolve conflicts within the company and met with little success due to their failure

to adapt to the conflict management styles of the local culture.

As an example, in Kozans study noted above, he noted that Asian cultures are far more likely touse a harmony model of conflict management. If a party operating from a harmony model comes

in conflict with a party using a more confrontational model, misunderstandings above and

beyond those generated by the conflict itself will arise.

International conflict management, and the cultural issues associated with it, is one of theprimary areas of research in the field at the time, as existing research is insufficient to deal with

the ever increasing contact occurring between international entities.

[edit] TrainingWith only 14% of researched universities reporting mandatory courses in this subject, and with

the up to 25% of the managers day being spent on dealing with conflict, education needs to

reconsider the importance of this subject. The subject warrants emphasis on enabling students todeal with conflict management. (Lang, p. 240)

Providing more conflict management training in undergraduate business programs could help

raise the emotional intelligence of future managers. The improvement of emotional intelligencefound that employees were more likely to use problem-solving skills, instead of trying to

bargain. (Lang, p. 241)

Students need to have a good set of social skills. Good communication skills allow the manager

to accomplish interpersonal situations and conflict. Instead of focusing on conflict as a behavior

issue, focus on the communication of it. (Myers & Larson, 2005, p.307)

With an understanding of the communications required, the student will gain the aptitude neededto differentiate between the nature and types of conflicts. These skills also teach that relational

and procedural conflict needs a high degree of immediacy to resolution. If these two conflicts are

not dealt with quickly, an employee will become dissatisfied or perform poorly. (Myers &Larson, p.313)

It is also the responsibility of companies to react. One option is to identify the skills needed inhouse, but if the skills for creating workplace fairness are already lacking, it may be best to have

an outside organization assist. These are called Developmental Assessment Centers.

According to Rupp, Baldwin, and Bashur, these organizations have become a popular means for

providing coaching, feedback, and experiential learning opportunities. (Rupp, Baldwin &

Bashshur, 2006, p. 145) Their main focus is fairness and how it impacts employees attitudes andperformance.

These organizations teach competencies and what they mean. (Rupp et al., p. 146) The studentsthen participate in simulations. Multiple observers assess and record what skills are being used


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and then return this feedback to the participant. After this assessment, participants are then given

another set of simulations to utilize the skills learned. Once again they receive additionalfeedback from observers, in hopes that the learning can be used in their workplace.

The feedback the participant receives is detailed, behaviorally specific, and high quality. This is

needed for the participant to learn how to change their behavior. (Rupp et al., p. 146) In this

regard, it is also important that the participant take time to self-reflect so that learning may occur.

Once an assessment program is utilized, action plans may be developed based on quantitativeand qualitative data. (Rupp et al., p. 159)

[edit] CounselingWhen personal conflict leads tofrustrationand loss ofefficiency,counselingmay prove to be a

helpful antidote. Although feworganizationscan afford the luxury of having professional

counselors on the staff, given some training, managers may be able to perform this function.

Nondirective counseling, or "listening with understanding," is little more than being a goodlistenersomething every manager should be.

[1]

Sometimes the simple process of being able to vent one's feelingsthat is, to express them to aconcerned and understanding listener, is enough to relieve frustration and make it possible for

the frustrated individual to advance to a problem-solving frame of mind, better able to cope witha personal difficulty that is affecting his work adversely. The nondirective approach is one

effective way formanagersto deal with frustrated subordinates and co-workers.[2]

There are other more direct and more diagnostic ways that might be used in appropriate

circumstances. The great strength of the nondirective approach (nondirective counseling is basedon the client-centered therapy of Carl Rogers), however, lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness,

and the fact that it deliberately avoids the manager-counselor's diagnosing and interpreting

emotional problems, which would call for special psychological training. No one has ever been

harmed by being listened to sympathetically and understandingly. On the contrary, this approach

has helped many people to cope with problems that were interfering with their effectiveness onthe job.

[2]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_management#Conflict

[edit] See also Conflict resolution Conflict atlas Conflict style inventory

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Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on

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