concepts and review of literature -...

Empowerment of Rural Women through SHG: A Study in Tiruchirappalli Dt

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CHAPTER - II

CONCEPTS AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

. .

Self-Help Groups play a pivotal role in reducing poverty levels, generating

employment and empowering women. Various studies have proved that different

models of credit linkage programmes are highly successful and the repayment rate

is more than 95% .Micro financing or group lending is being looked upon as an

instrument that can be considered as the golden stick for development and has

become a ladder for uplifting the poor women socially, mentally and attitudinally.

Some studies have highlighted the fact that the micro-enterprises of SHGs do not

have market development strategies and they face a lot of difficulties in positioning

their products in the market, relating to other competitors, products and markets.

SHG members who generally lack high level of literacy, technical competence,

market intelligence and entrepreneurial spirit face a lot of difficulties in carrying out

their business activities. The study attempts to find out the extent of success of

working of women self group members based on choice of business, marketing

strategies followed, financial sustainability, and the organization of the SHGs are

considered as important factors to determine the SHGs success in the long run.

This chapter consists of two parts. The first section deals with concepts and

definitions of terms which are much important for this study. The second section

presents the review of literature.

Chapter - II Concepts and Review of Literature


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2.1 CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Some of the terms used frequently in this study are defined for the purpose of

clarity.

2.1.1 Rural Women

It refers to the women living in the rural areas of Tiruchirappalli District in

particular.

2.1.2 Family

A family is a social unit wherein blood related persons live together and take

food from a common kitchen. For the present study a family within three members,

is taken as micro-family; a family with 4 or 5 members is considered as a small-

family; a family with 6 or 7 members is considered as a medium-family and

a family with more than 8 members is considered as a large-family.

2.1.3 Self-Help Group (SHG)

A Self-Help Group is a small homogeneous group of not less than twenty

rural women living below poverty line (BPL) coming together to save small

amounts of money regularly and to mutually contribute to a common fund.

2.1.4 SHG Member

It denotes a woman member of the Self-Help Group in Tiruchirappalli

District mostly drawn from the families below poverty line.

2.1.5 SHG Leader

Each group selects a leader among them and she will hold office for a period

of three years. This leader manages the group members.



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2.1.6 Women Entrepreneur

Women entrepreneur may be defined as “Woman or group of women who

initiate organize and run a business enterprise.” Government of India defined the

women entrepreneur as “an enterprise owned and controlled by woman having

minimum financial interest 51% of the capital and giving at least 51% of the

employment generated in the enterprise to women.”

2.1.7 Income Generating Activities

Income generating activities are those initiatives that shape the economic

aspects of people’s lives through the use of economic tools such as credit.

2.1.8 Weaker Sections

All those sections of the population, who are living below the poverty line

and drawing an income of ` 11000 per annum in rural areas and ` 11850 per annum

in semi-urban areas, are considered as weaker sections. Presently, the norms vary

between ` 13000 to 19650 among different states.

2.1.9 Micro-finance

Micro-finance is a financial service of providing small quantity of finance by

the financial institutions to the poor. These financial services may include savings,

credit, insurance, leasing, money transfer, equity transactions etc.

2.1.10 Micro-credit

Micro-credit is defined as provision of thrift, credit and other financial

services and products of small amounts to the poor in rural, semi-urban and urban

areas for enabling them to raise their income levels and improve living standards.



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2.1.11 Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas programme was

launched in 1982. Its aim was to empower rural women living below the poverty

line (BPL) by way of organizing them to create sustainable income generating

activities through self-employment.

2.1.12 Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana, a major anti-poverty programme is

being implemented since 1999, with the prime objective of bringing the assisted

poor families above the poverty line by ensuring reasonable and sustained level of

income over a period of time. This scheme adopts SHG approach and aims to

graduate them from micro-credit stage to micro-enterprises stage by providing skill

development training, bank credit, infrastructure facilities and much needed

marketing support to the products produced by them. Government of India and the

State Government are sharing the costs in the ratio of 75:25.

2.1.13 Revolving Fund (RF)

Revolving Fund is a financial assistance provided to SHGs to augment their

group corpus and create credit discipline by enhancing their financial management

skills. Proper utilization of revolving fund will help in making SHGs creditworthy

and access bank loans. This fund has been provided to those groups passed Grade-I.

2.1.14 Economic Assistance (EA)

This type of financial assistance is given to those Self-Help Groups after

a period of one year from the date of inception of the group which has passed

Grade-II. This purpose of the economic assistance is to make them start an



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economic activity. The total amount of loan that can be availed by each group is

` 500000 and the amount of subsidy on the loan is ` 125000. The Mahalir Thittam

pays this amount of subsidy to the bank for the amount of loan advanced to the

groups.

2.1.15 Savings

For the present study it means the savings of SHG members in respective

area. The savings per member is calculated by dividing total savings by the number

of members. It refers to the respective area for the time specified.

2.1.16 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

They are registered bodies that operate within Tiruchirappalli district which

act as self-help promoting institutions and their role lies in SHG formation,

monitoring and stabilization of rural women by providing financial linkage.

2.1.17 Facilitators

The facilitators are those who propagate the message, motivate the rural

women, organize SHGs, train them to thrift and credit management and nurture

them over a period of six months. For the present study the facilitators include the

project officers of the projects sponsored by the central and state governments,

NGOs, formal financial agencies like Commercial Banks, Regional Rural banks and

Cooperative banks in Tiruchirappalli district.

2.1.18 Mahalir Thittam

Mahalir Thittam is a scheme launched by the Government of Tamil Nadu

with its own fund to cover the entire State including Tiruchirappalli District in a

phased manner.



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2.1.19 Direct Tangible Results

In the present study, they refer to the select assets acquired and revealed by

the sample SHG members.

2.1.20 Indirect Tangible Results

In the present study these are the resulted changes in income rate and

changes in savings and expenditure as caused by the change in income.

2.1.21 Empowerment

Empowerment is a process and is not something that can be given to women.

The process of empowerment is both individual and collective. For the present

study it refers to the upliftment of rural women as reflected and assessed in selected

economic and social indicators.

2.1.22 Economic Empowerment

Economic empowerment in the present study means only the upliftment or

growth or development or advancement noticed among the SHG rural women in the

select indicators - Direct Tangible Results and Indirect Tangible Results.

2.1.23 Social Empowerment

It means only the awareness of members on additional knowledge or use of

skill obtained through SHG membership in the select social aspects like sanitary,

women welfare, decision-making and public interest. The awareness in each aspect

is conditioned by and revealed through select parameters and these are termed as

social indicators.



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2.1.24 Social Parameters

These are the parameters or elements appropriately selected by the

respondents which influence them as revealed by them.

2.1.25 Traditional Types of Occupations

These are occupations of the SHG members in the study area which are

associated with the knowledge and skill already possessed by the members or

members of the family before joining SHG.

2.1.26 Non-traditional Types of Occupations

These are occupations which are is not at all associated with the earlier skill

and knowledge already possessed by the SHG member or members of the family.

They will be because of the training and the motivation given by the facilitators.

2.1.27 External Source of Support

This is the support extended by external agencies like NGOs, governments

and industrial development programmes towards upliftment of rural women.

2.1.28 Internal Source of Support

This is the support extended by the friends and the family members who are

closely related to the members.

2.1.29 Literates

Those SHG members who had formal education at least at school level are

called as literates.



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2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Lalitha Shivakumar (1995) pointed out that the small savings by rural

women can generate the requisite resources which can wean the people away from

the exploitation of moneylenders savings depend on habits and voluntary savings

constitute the key for economic progress. It has also been proved that the poor

people can save substantially through group efforts. Promotion of Self-Help Groups

have the potential to bring women into the mainstream of economic development

paving the way for sustainable development.1

Karl (1995) studied the role of SHGs of women on decision-making and

concluded empowerment as a multifaceted process, involving the pooling of

resources to achieve collective strength and countervailing power and entailing and

the improvement of manual and technical skills, administrative, managerial and

planning capacities and analytical reflective abilities of local women.2

Dodkey (1999) explaining that Self-Help Groups are now gaining

acceptance, as an alternative system of credit delivery, for meeting the credit needs

especially to the people who are the poorest of poor generally comprising small

marginal farmers. Landless agricultural labourers, rural artisans, womenfolk and

other micro-entrepreneurs. The SHGs are regarded as a support system to the

exiting banking operations. The objectives of the SHG is to inculcate the habit of

thrift, savings, banking culture, i.e., availing loan and repaying the same over a

1 N. Lalitha Shivakumar, ‘Self-Help Groups’, Social Welfare, July 1995, Vol. 42, No. 4,

p. 9.

2 Karl Marilee, Women and Empowerment Participation and Decision-making, Zed

Books Ltd., London, 1995.



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given economic prosperity through credit. The principles underlying the SHG

model in India are almost identical to Bangladesh concept, i.e., financing the

poorest of the poor, ensuring excellent recovery level and empowering women not

just by meeting their needs for consumption and productive loans but also through

more holistic educative programmes on issues such as sanitation, family planning

and the evil effect of liquor consumption in the family.3

Sivasubramanian (1999) in his study had stressed the elimination of poverty

as one of the principle objectives of Indian development strategy. In 1993, the

below poverty line was 36 per cent. The BPL data which worked out of 320 million

people, 224 million live in rural areas. The incidence of poverty had declined from

54.9 per cent in 1973-74 to 36 per cent in 1993-94. The salient features of anti-

poverty programmes are framed under various schemes to bring growth. In 1999,

the reformed scheme of Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) would be

centered on the concept of SHGs and cluster approach for reaching out the poor as

an effective vehicle. Poverty can be attentively eradicated only when the poor start

contributing to the growth process through a process of social mobilization,

participatory approach and empowerment of the poor.4

Rajeswari and Sumangala (1999) explored the problems and prospects in

women entrepreneurship and stated that women entrepreneurship enables to pool

3 M. D. Dokey, ‘Sustaining rural women’, Social World, March 1999, Vol. 45, No. 12,

p. 19.

4 M. N. Sivasubramanian, ‘Credit-based poverty alleviation programme innovative

approach’, Kurushetra, November 1999, Vol. 48, No. 2, p. 37.



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the small capital resources and skills available with women. It paves the way for

fuller utilization of capital and also mobilizes the female human potential.5

Gurumoorthy (2000) pointed out that women’s participation play a

significant role in rural employment activities. The self-help would concentrate on

all round development of the beneficiaries and their village as a whole. The groups

would undertake the responsibility of delivering non-credit service such as literacy,

health and environmental issues. The concept of Self-Help Group would mould

women as responsible citizens of the country for achieving social and economic

status. It has also proved that it would bring on the mindset of the conservative and

tradition bound illiterate women in rural areas.6

Kamath (2000)7 observed that unemployment is a major malady faced by the

rural youth in our country. To motivate and facilitate unemployed youth to take up

self-employment, Bank has established nine self-employment training institutes in

the southern state, under the aegis of its trust. These institutes have been established

keeping in view the national priorities. The number of women who have been

benefited from the bank’s financial assistance so far is an impressive six lakh plus

with an outstanding of ` 1216 crores. The bank totally assisted 6754 groups of

5 M. Rajeswari and P. Sumangala, Women, Entrepreneurs - A Scan on their problems

and Prospects in Women Entrepreneurship: Issues and Strategies, Kanishka

Publishers, New Delhi, 1999.

6 T. R. Gurumoorthy, ‘Self-Help Groups Empower Rural Women’, Kurukshetra,

February 2000, Vol. 48, No. 5, p. 36.

7 R. J. Kamath, ‘Rural Development Activities’, Southern Economist, November, 2000,

Vol. 39, No. 14, p. 19.



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which 5304 are women group. These women group are backing a silent revolution

in the rural areas ushering in social and economic empowerment.

Suman Krishnan Kant (2001) opined that the process of women’s

empowerment is multi-dimensional. It enables women to realize their full potential

and empowers them in all spheres of life. In India, women form a significant part of

the labour force. However, their contribution remains invisible and unrecognized.

Women account for 90 per cent of labour force in the informal sector, which is

neither captured in the country’s population census nor accounted in the National

Accounts. The productive capacities of women, who constitute almost half of the

population, remain unaccounted, thus, reinforcing their subordinate roles. It is

estimated that nearly 1300 million persons in the world are poor and nearly two per

cent of them are women. Today as many as 30 to 35 per cent rural households are

women headed and their low incomes make them vulnerable to the extremes of

poverty and its consequences.8

According to Veluraj (2001), the Nobel Scholar and Indian Economist

Amartya Sen expressed in his words, “Unless women are empowerment, issues like

literacy, health and population explosion will remain unresolved problems of the

developing countries.” In India, the majority of the women still continue to perform

their traditional roles in the household and in agriculture. The women are the wives

of men - the present scenario forces them to depend on men. Representation of

women has never gone beyond eight per cent in parliament, 10 per cent in the State

8 Sunman Krishna Kant, ‘Women’s Empowerment and Mutual Cooperation in the

Family’, Social Welfare, April 2001, Vol. 48, No. 12, p. 3.



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Assemblies, 13 per cent in senior management and administrative posts of

government and hence there is no equal opportunity.9

Self-Help Groups are encouraged to come together as cooperative societies

at the village and mandal level by federating them under the mutually aided

Cooperative Society Act (1995). These societies will be accessing credit from

financial institutions, donor agencies, District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)

and voluntary organisations and help the women members of the Self-Help Groups

in availing bigger loans for economic activities as well as help in collective

bargaining in the marketing of products, purchasing of raw materials etc. Due to this

massive self-help movement, there is a perceptible improvement in the socio-

economic status of the rural women (Snch Lata Tandom, 2001).10

Patel (2001) welcomed that the announcement of National Agricultural

Policy recently by the Government of India and signing the agreement on

agriculture with the World Trade Organisation. He stressed that a focused attention

needs to be given to restructure the rural credit system along with integrating

agricultural research, extension and education system, building rural infrastructure

and making government officials responsive to the emerging needs of farm sector

development. It is against this background an attempt is made here to appreciate the

present status of the rural credit structure in respect of credit disbursal, recovery

9 R. Veluraj, ‘SHGs an alternative approach to empower rural women’, Tamil Nadu

Journal of Cooperation, June 2001, Vol. 1, No. 8, p. 18.

10 Snch Lata Tandom, ‘Self-Help New Mantra for Empowerment’, Social World, October

2001, Vol. 48, No. 23, p. 30.



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performance and building up on non-performing assets, declining trend in the flow

of credit and other issues of serious concern.11

Ghosh (2001) pointed out that combating poverty cannot be managed by the

government alone. There are many areas where government needs collaboration and

cooperation from NGOs particularly in creating opportunity facilitating

empowerment and providing security to the poor. The pressure of the donor

agencies on the recipient government to work through NGOs in development

programme is also a dominant factor in increasing the role of NGOs to fight against

poverty.12

Bina Agarwal (2001) said that the secure and effective land rights are of

critical importance for women’s welfare and empowerment. But achieving this will

need concerted efforts by gender-progressive NGOs, especially women’s groups, as

well as by those within the government who are concerned about women’s

empowerment, poverty and equitable development.13

Subramanian (2001) pointed out that the NGOs are useful in organizing Self-

Help Groups and in capacity building and in developing access to the institutions

and resources of the State. However, officials were suspicious of the role of NGOs

who were perceived as undermining their power. When NGOs were allowed to

implement government projects there was too much bureaucratic meddling. The

long list to do’s and don’ts of government procedure accord ill with NGO thinking

11

A. R. Patel, ‘Rural Credit System’, Kurukshetra, January 2001, Vol. 49, No. 4, p. 17.

12 D. K. Ghosh, ‘NGO intervention in poverty alleviation’, Kurukshetra, March 2001,

Vol. 49, No. 6, p. 2.

13 Bina Agarwal, ‘Land Rights and Gender Equity’, Yojana, August 2001, Vol. 45, p. 35.



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and approach. In the recently restructured self-employment programme in the form

of the Swarna Jayanthi Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), group schemes through

the formation of SHGs have been overwhelmingly preferred. However, in none of

the North Eastern States BPL lists are ready to organize households into SHGs to

implement the programme.14

According to Ojha (2001) Self-Help Group model of self-employment

generation seems to be a workable model. However, there will be need for utmost

care in promotion of Self-Help Groups. Self-help promotion consists of assisting

individuals to join together and set-up an organisation promoting their individual

and collective skills and opportunities to develop their own. Self-help promotion

aims at generating self-sustainable growth processes within the course of which the

target group makes its own decision.15

Dipendrta Banarjee (2001) gives the most acceptable definition of micro-

finance. It is the provision of thrift credits, other financial services and products of

very small amount to the poor in rural, semi-urban and urban areas to enable them

to raise their income levels and improve the standard of living. The micro-finance

service, unlike direct credit to weaker sections, and loan under SGSY banking

institution have a discretion to determine the interest on micro-credit. The

importance of micro-credit in financial markets is progressively gaining universal

acceptance as an effective tool to eradicate poverty and unemployment prevailing in

14

S. Subramanian, ‘Rural Development and Tribal Aspirations in Tripura’, Kurukshetra,

January 2001, Vol. 49, No. 4, p. 22.

15 R. K. Ojha, ‘Self-Help Groups and Rural Employment’, Yojana, May 2001, Vol. 45,

p. 20.



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developing countries. It helps to provide credit for dispossessed people to build

business and empowerment occurs when these people witness effort and outcome.

The Central Bank has left the application of interest rate to loan extended to micro-

credit organisation or by the micro-credit organisation to Self-Help Groups /

member of beneficiaries to the discretion of the bank with only stipulation.16

The Ministry of Human Resource Development (2001) pointed out that in

order to enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and production, the

establishment of new, and strengthening of existing micro-credit mechanisms and

micro-finance institution will be undertaken so that the outreach of credit is

enhanced. Other supportive measures would be taken to ensure adequate flow of

credit to financial institutions and banks, so that all women below poverty line have

easy access to credit.17

Vijay Kulkarni (2000)18

has described in his article “Empowerment of

Women through Self-Help Groups” the difference between women who have

become part of SHGs and those who are not members of the SHGs from the same

village. Empowerment has taken place across caste/class. It has also helped to some

extent to go beyond caste politics and to bring them together as women.

16

Dipendra Banarjee, ‘Micro-financing’, Southern Economist, February 2001, Vol. 39,

No. 20, p. 19.

17 Report of Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human

Resource Development, ‘Economic Empowerment of Women’, Yojana, August 2001,

Vol. 45, p. 69.

18 Vijay D Kulkarni, ‘Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups’, Ashwatha,

Oct 2000 - Jun 2001, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 32-36.



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Barik and Vannan (2001)19

in their work “Promoting Self Help Groups as a

Subsystem of Credit Cooperatives” have stated that SHGs can be developed as a

sub-system to primary agricultural co-operatives societies at village level. They

have seen that by and large SHGs have been linked with commercial banks in the

rural areas. However, the linkage with the co-operative credit system is proverbially

poor. As such the need of the hour is to make an earnest effort to bring about

effective linkage with the co-operatives.

Ojha (2001)20

in his article “Self Help Groups and Rural Employment” has

expressed that the self help group model of self-employment generation seems to

be a workable model. However, there will be need for utmost care in promotion of

self help groups. He has also mentioned that there are number of possible routes to

the promotion of self-employment and strengthening self-help groups is one of

them.

Mani Singh (2001)21

has explained in his article “Self-Help Groups: Some

Organizational Aspects” that the organizational functions are motivation, meeting,

adoption of a fixed area of operation, monthly meeting, fixation and collection of

monthly thrift, maintenance of books of accounts, formulation of rules and

regulations, increase in membership and framing of policies/programmes follow

co-operative norms. He has also revealed that the social functions are providing

19

B. B. Barik and P. P. Vannan, ‘Promoting Self Help Groups as Sub-System of Credit

Co-operatives’, The Cooperator, January 2001, Vol. 38, No.7. pp. 305-311.

20 R. Ojha, ‘Self Help Groups and Rural Employment’, Yojana, May 2001, Vol. 45,

pp. 20-23.

21 C. H. Mani Singh, ‘Self Help Groups – Some Organizational Aspects’, The

Cooperator, May 2001, Vol. 38, No. 11, pp. 497-99.



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education, knowledge and information, providing idea of consumer protection and

environment protection, preventing harmful diseases, eradication of poverty, and

linkage with other agencies for socially useful activities.

Joshi (2002) observed that micro-credit programmer extends small loans to

poor people for self-employment projects that generate income, allowing them to

care for themselves and their families. In most cases, micro-credit programmer

offers a combination of services and resources to their clients in addition to credit

for self-employment. These often include savings, training networking and peer

support. It is an irony that micro-enterprises and the contribution to the economy

often remains unorganized. Poor women usually run their own individual economic

activities very efficiently because of sheer survival pressure on them. But public

support for the economy is usually absent so it is very difficult for poor women to

improve their economic situation individually and alone. When interventions are

made to strengthen women’s economic activities, it is very important to credit the

positive policy linkages for access to raw materials, markets, skills, space, credit,

equipment etc. without this policy support, the most efficiently managed economic

activities find it difficult to generate more income for poor women.22

Archana Sinha (2002)23 observes that the SHGs are informal groups where

members come together toward collective action for a common cause. The common

need here is meeting their emergent economic needs without being dependent on

22

S. C. Joshi, ‘Micro-credit not charity’, Social Welfare, February 2002, Vol. 48, No. 32,

p. 12.

23 Archana Singh, ‘Types of SHGs and their work’, Social Welfare, February 2002,

Vol. 48, No. 11, p. 15.



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outside help. The main objectives of SHG is to inculcate the habit of thrift, savings,

banking culture, that is, availing the loan and repaying the same over a given period

of time and in the process, gain economic prosperity through credit. Hence, Self-

Help Groups and micro-credit should be seen as one of the components of a

solution to accelerate the socio-economic development particularly of the rural poor

women in India. A judicious mix of micro-credit along with other activities with

emphasis on development and empowerment strategies and processes would

certainly make micro-credit an effective instrument of social and economic

development particularly of the women in a holistic and integrated manner.

According to Suguna (2002), the empowerment of women covers both an

individual and collective transformation. It strengthens their innate ability through

acquiring knowledge, power and experience. Organizing and strengthening of

women’s Self-Help Group: Institutional collective action - collective action of

members, Ideology - Empowerment and Organisational structure - Project

managing unit - Project implementation - NGOs-SHGs. This develops their ability

to interact and communicate with each other. Thus bringing about integrated

development of women. To conclude, it may be said that through this collective

action with the ideology of empowerment, SHG are fast emerging as women

movement throughout the nation especially in Andhra Pradesh where 50 per cent of

such SHGs in the country are formed.24

According to Alakananda Mookerjee (2002), the first step towards complete

empowerment is the generation of a source of regular income and hence Self-Help

24

B. Suguna, ‘Self-Help Groups’, Vikasini, October 2002, Vol. 17, No. 4, p. 11.



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Groups were created. In January 1999, two SHGs for women belonging to the

general category namely Lakshmi Bachat Samuk and Ambika Bachat Samuh were

setup. Inspired by their phenomenal success, the Scheduled Tribe women

established one more SHG the following year Durga Bachat Samuh. Their

combined membership now stands at 59. Initially each member was required to

make a monthly savings of ` 100 and deposit it in a collective fund. Over the past

three years, the SHGs have managed to save well over ` 2 lakh. They were keen to

invest their savings in a profitable venture. The formation of SHG therefore,

converted a traditionally gender neutral activity into a source of livelihood for

village women. So, in the second step, attention was focused on building their

capacity for loan repayment and enhancing their decision-making ability.25

Rao (2002) pointed out that the genesis and development of SHGs in India

reveals that the existing formal financial institutions have failed to provide finances

to landless, marginalized and disadvantaged groups. The origin of SHGs could be

traced to mutual aid in Indian village community. Cooperatives are formal bodies

whereas SHGs are informal SHGs encourage savings and promote income-

generating activities through small loans. The experiences available in the country

and elsewhere suggest that SHGs are sustainable have reliability, stimulate savings

and in the process help borrowers to come out of vicious circle of poverty.26

25

Alakananda Mookerjee, ‘Rural women draw Shakti from setting up dairy

cooperatives’, Vikasini, January 2002, Vol. 17, No. 1, p. 37.

26 V. M. Rao, ‘Women Self-Help Groups Profiles from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka’,

Kurushetra, April 2002, Vol. 50, No. 6, p. 26.



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Preethi Chandrasekar (2002) examined that the Self-Help Groups of rural

women, promoted by the Mahalir Thittam are steadily reaping fruits of economic

independence through their savings. The Karuppayurani branch of the Indian Bank

was the latest to distribute household articles worth ` 5 lakh to 64 women under the

Gramin Mahalir Sowbhagya Scheme. Mahalir Thittam aims to achieve four key

aspects to empower rural women, especially those living below the poverty line-

economic, social, educational and political of these economic empowerment was

the crucial as it would bring about the other three aspects. The five-year

entrepreneurship development programme trains SHGs to be self-sufficient and

resourceful in running their business.27

Lalitha (2002) examined that the Self-Help Groups and Bank linkage project

being implemented under the guidance of NABARD which gives an institutional set

up for micro-entrepreneurs. This linkage programme is a part of micro-finance

operations emphasizing a savings based credit programme, flexibility in lending,

operations, de-linking credit from the bondage of collateral requirements, group

leading inter-group learning, group decision in fixing repayment schedule, skill

development through training and promotion of backward and forward linkage

facilities through NGOs. The net working among the banks, NGOs and women

borrowers can open new vistas in building a new micro-credit structure lending to

sustainable development. Women development cooperation and Government

departments also engage the services of NGOs for mobilizing women under their

schemes on the development of micro-enterprises. The effective partnership

27

Preethi Chandrasekar, Mahalir Thittam upgrades SHGs, Hindu Publication, November

18, 2002, p. 5.



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between reputed NGOs and banks for promotion of Self-Help Groups will provide a

strong institutional base for a credit-plus approach to micro-enterprises of women.28

According to Lalitha and Nagarajan (2002) empowerment literally means

‘becoming powerful’. Empowerment of rural poor demands that members of village

committees should have their own organisation, which will serve their own

economic needs and interest exclusively. Moreover sufficient knowledge about the

needs and problems of rural poor has not been supplied to the policy making

agencies. If SHGs are promoted, the group members can articulate the problems in a

better manner.29

Bharat Dogra (2002)30

has presented in his article “Women Self Help

Groups” that almost all these women are from poor families, mostly from dalits and

backward classes; while the increase in income is important, it is not the only aspect

of these SHGs which is emphasized. Several existing problems of villages and ways

of overcoming them are also discussed. It is important for the long-term success of

Self Help Groups that loans should be returned promptly.

Prem Singh Dahiya et al. (2002)31

have described in their article ‘Socio-

economic upliftment through Self Help Groups in Solan District of Himachal

28

N. Lalitha Sivakumar, ‘Self-Help Groups’, Social Welfare, July 2002, Vol. 42, No. 4,

p. 9.

29 N. Lalitha and B. S. Nagarajan. Self-Help Group in Rural Development, XII Edition,

Himalaya Publications, New Delhi, 2002, p.78.

30 Bharat Dogra, ‘Women Self Help Groups’, Kurukshetra, March 2002, Vol. 50, No.5,

pp. 40-42.

31 Prem Singh Dahiya, N. K. Pandey and Anshuman Karol, ‘Socio-Economic Upliftment

through Self-Help Groups in Solan District of Himachal Pradesh’, Journal of

Agricultural Development and Policy, Jan-Jun 2002, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 10-18.



36

Pradesh’ that the success or the efficiency of micro finance interventions can be

understood at three levels mainly (i) outreach and financial sustainability of the

programme, (ii) income or poverty impact on the users, and (iii) development of

financial market at the local level. The economic impact is measured in terms of

increase in annual incremental income. All SHGs recorded increase in income,

overall is 94.3%. They have also pointed out that various parameters are used to

measure the maturity of the households. These are (i) homogeneity, (ii) feeling of

relevance of group formation, (iii) awareness about objectives of groups,

(iv) participation and frequency of meetings, (v) regularity of savings,

(vi) repayment of loans and (vii) group participation in financial transactions.

Jaswant Singh (2003) says that Self-Help Group and bank linkage

programme being propagated by NABARD, for the last ten years has been

recognized as the largest and fastest growing micro-finance programme in the

world. Our expectations of providing bank credit to 1.25 lakh SHGs during the

current year have been surpassed once again, and by January 2003, bank credit of `

598 crore has already been provided to about 25 lakh poor families through 1.50

lakh new SHGs. The programme has also set in motion the process of women

empowerment. However, the spread of the programme across the country has been

uneven and has largely remained confined to a few States. He urges all states to

vigorously join in their endeavour to make the SHG bank linkage programme a

widespread success.32

32

Jawant Singh, ‘2003-04 Budget Speech on Union Minister of Finance and Company

Affairs’, Southern Economist, March 2003, Vol. 41, No. 22, p. 16.



37

Rajamohan (2003) points out that the SHGs is a medium for the development

of savings habit among the women fold. It mobilizes a large quantum of resources.

It is a window for better technology and skill upgradation. It helps to increase an

income of the family. In SHGs collective action and solitarity are important

empowering mechanisms.33

Rajeshwari (2003) explains that a bank branch finances directly to SHG by

opening the loan accounts in the name of SHG. Bank loan is disbursed in the ratio

of savings in the common fund of SHG. The maximum permissible ratio between

savings in the common fund and bank loan is from 1.1 to 1.4. The bank branch

finances SHG, which is formed at the instance of an NGO, but the responsibility of

repayment solely lies with SHG. The bank achieves better and wider coverage of

weaker sections in rural areas in a cost effective manner by mobilizing deposits

from the savings of SHG members.34

Sivaramakrishnan (2003) explains that the Swarajayanti Gram Swarozgar

Yojana aims at establishing a large number of micro-entreprises in the rural areas,

building upon the potential of the rural poor. The objective under SUSY is to bring

every assisted family above the poverty line in three years. Towards this end SUSY

is conceived as a holistic programme of micro-enterprises covering all aspects of

self-employment, viz. organisation of the rural poor into Self-Help Groups and their

33

S. Rajamohan, ‘Activities of Self-Help Groups in Virudhunagar District: A study’,

Tamil Nadu Journal of Cooperation, April 2003, Vol. 3, No. 6, p. 15.

34 V. Rajeshwari, ‘New Generation Cooperatives through Self-Help Groups’, Tamil Nadu

Journal of Corporation (TNJC), August, 2003, Vol. 10, No. 10, p. 14.



38

capacity building, planning of activity clusters, infrastructure build up, technology,

credit and marketing.35

Om Raj Singh (2003) has indicated in his article ‘Role of NGOs in fostering

Self Help Groups’ that most of the SHGs have come up due to the dynamic

leadership of certain individuals within a group or through the catalytic role played

by the NGOs in developing such groups. One such NGO is the MYREDA (Mysore

Resettlement and Development Agency) whose mission is building of people’s

institutions. The building of appropriate people’s institutions to manage and control

resources is an essential component for sustainability and for the confidence and

self-reliance which is necessary to cope with external threats. He has also pointed

out that the focus on institution building goes against the prevalent culture of

patronage where benefits flow to individuals with the right contracts. MYRADA

has over 1006 groups of women with the focus on women’s rights and access to and

control of resources which they require to ensure a sustainable livelihood.36

Prasant Sarangi (2003)37 has mentioned in his article ‘Self Help Groups” that

the SHGs in our country have become a source of inspiration for women welfare.

He has also highlighted that nowadays, formation of SHG is a viable alternative to

achieve the objectives of rural development and to get community participation in

all rural development programmes. SHG is also a viable organized set up to

35

K. Sivaramakrishnan, ‘Poverty All Eviction through Self-Help Groups’, TNJC, March

2003, Vol. 3, No. 5, p. 9.

36 Om Raj Singh, ‘Role of NGOs in fostering Self-Help Groups’, Kurukshetra, Feb 2003,

Vol. 51. No.4, pp. 33-35.

37 Prasant Srangi, ‘Self Help Groups’, Kurukshetra, Feb 2003, Vol. 51, No.4, pp. 30-32.



39

disburse micro credit to the rural women and to encourage them to enter into

entrepreneurial activities.

Jerinabi (2003)38

in her work “A study on micro credit management by

women’s self help group has analyzed the impact of micro credit on SHG members

in improving their economic status in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu.

Chiranjeevulu (2003)39

in his article “Empowerment of Women Through

Self Help Groups “has revealed that the multi-pronged strategy including local

marketing to export has been contemplated. The product will be thoroughly

popularized among all the SHGs in the district and channels for distribution of

product to all the strategic marketing locations will be developed. He has also

highlighted that network with other marketing enterprises of SHG women in

neighboring districts will be established. Consumption points under the control of

government like hostels and devasthanams would be approached for bulk orders.

Product will also be marketed through PDS and Gruhamithra supply channels.

Sivaramakrishnan (2003)40

has disclosed in his article ‘Poverty Alleviation

Through Self Help Groups’ that the poverty levels have reduced from 56.44% of

India’s population in 1973-74 to 37.27% in 1993-94. The IX Five Year Plan

document envisages reducing rural poverty in the country from a level of 30.55%

(208 million) during 1996 to 9.64% (73 million) by 2006 and further to 4.31%

38

V. Jerinabi, ‘A Study on Micro Credit Management by Women Self Help Groups’,

Ph. D. Thesis, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, 2003.

39 T. Chiranjeevulu, ‘Empowering Women through Self Help Groups’, Kurukshetra, Mar

2003, Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 16-19.

40 K. Sivaramakrishnan, ‘Poverty Alleviation Through Self Help Groups’, Cooperation,

March 2003, Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 8-14.



40

(35 million) by 2011. He has also mentioned that organization of the rural poor into

Self Help Groups is one of the ways to reduce the poverty.

Raghavendra (2003)41

in his article “Self Help Groups Linkage Banking –

Challenges of Training – Role played by National Centre” says that the training has

a vital role to play in the scaling up of the linkage programme. A major challenge

faced by NABARD,SIDBI and banks is meeting the training needs of various

players in the programme such as SHG members, functionaries of NGO,

government and banks who should be exposed to different types and levels of

training and awareness programmes.

Rajamohan (2003)42

in his article “Activities of Self Help Groups in

Virudhunagar District – A Study” has specified that according to a recent survey, 18

lakhs families out of 41 lakhs families are below the poverty line in the State of

Tamilnadu, and they have been covered by the SHGs. He has also indicated that the

programme was launched in 1998 and the total savings with 1.06 lakhs SHGs were

` 150 crore.

Villi (2003)43

has highlighted in his article “Self Help Groups – Micro

Enterprises (Some Issues, Challenges, Alternatives)” That rural micro enterprises

play a vital role in areas like promoting and generating avenues for rural

employment, utilization of local rural resources, skills development, promotion of

41

K. Raghavendra, ‘Self-Help Group Linkage Banking: Challenges of Training - Role

played by National Centre’, Land Bank Journal, March 2003, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp.71-76.

42 S. Raja Mohan, ‘Activities of Self-Help Groups in Virudhunagar District: A Study’,

Cooperation, April 2003, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 15-17.

43 C. Villi, ‘Self Help Groups: Micro Enterprises (Some Issues, Challenges,

Alternatives)’, Cooperation, July 2003, Vol. 3, No. 9, pp. 20-24.



41

rural entrepreneurship, mitigating regional imbalance, reducing rural urban

disparity, arresting migration of rural labour to urban centres and creating capital

assets in the rural areas itself.

Rajeshwari (2003)44

in her article ‘New Generation Co-operatives through

SHGs’ has described the models of financing SHG. In model I, the bank branch

finances directly the SHG by opening the loan account in the name of SHG. In

model II the bank branch finances SHG which is formed at the instance of NGO.

The maximum permissible ratio between savings in the common fund and bank

credit is 1:4 for concerned NGO which acts as facilitator, but the responsibility of

repayment solely lies with SHG. In model III the local bank branch does not have

adequate confidence in lending to SHG promoted by NGO or in SHG itself for

various reasons and is not willing to be linked directly with the SHG; the bank

finances such SHG through the agency that promotes the group. The NGO may act

as a financial intermediary and is responsible for loan repayment.

Sabyasachi Das (2003)45 has explained in his article “Self Help Groups and

Micro Credit Synergic Integration” that the inability of the credit institutions to deal

with the credit requirements of the poor effectively has led to the emergence of

micro-finance or micro-credit system as an alternative credit system for the poor.

He has also mentioned that in rural India, it can be seen that the poorer sections of

the society and destitute cannot avail the credit from banks and other formal

44

V. Rajeshwari, ‘New Generation Co-operatives through Self Help Groups’,

Cooperation, August 2003, Vol. 3, No. 10, pp. 14-18.

45 Sabyasachi Das, ‘Self Help Groups and Micro Credit-Synergic Integration’,

Kurukshetra, August 2003, Vol. 51, No. 10, pp. 25-30.



42

institutions due to their inability to deposit collateral security and mortgage

property. At this point of view, micro-financing or group lending is being looked

upon as the instrument that can be considered as the golden stick for poverty

alleviation vis-a-vis rural development.

Bhagyalakshmi (2004) in her study stresses the need for sharpening women’s

empowering strategies to make them effective and results oriented. She pointed out

that money earned by poor women is more likely to be spent on the basic needs of

life than that by men and that this realization would bring women as the focus of

development efforts. She also examines the advantages of organizing women

groups thereby creating a new sense of dignity and confidence to tackle their

problems with a sense of solidarity and to work together for the cause of economic

independence.46

Loganathan (2004)47

has disclosed in his article ‘SHGs and Bank Linkages’

the three basic groups of banks which are involved in SHGs linkage with banks.

They are the commercial banks, the regional rural banks and the co-operative banks.

48 commercial banks, 192 regional rural banks and 264 co-operative banks are

associated with SHG and Bank Linkage Programme. This programme is in

operation over 523 districts across the nation. Average loan disbursement per SHG

as micro finance by commercial banks was Rs. 31,836 and the same by RRBs was

Rs 26,220 and by cooperative banks was ` 21,703.

46

S. Bhagyalakshmi, ‘Women’s Empowerment: Miles to Go’, Yojana, August 2004, Vol.

48, pp. 38-41.

47 P. Loganathan, ‘SHGs and Bank Linkages’, Kisan World, April 2004, Vol. 31, No. 4,

pp. 24-26.



43

Sundar and Asokan (2004)48

have expressed in their article ‘Performance of

Co-operative Banks in Financing Women Self Help Groups’ that cooperative banks

are financing Women Development Programmes in terms of self-help groups.

Cooperative banks in Karnataka State occupy the first position with respect to

coverage of more number of women SHGs in their credit plan, followed by Tamil

Nadu, Andhra and Kerala.

Rimjhim Mousumi Das (2004)49

in his article “Micro finance through SHGs”

has explained that microfinance through SHGs has become a ladder for the poor to

bring them up not only economically but also socially, mentally and attitudinally.

He has also revealed that micro finance not only deals with the credit part but also

deals with savings and insurance part. The most successful region for micro finance

is the southern part of India.

Nirmala et al. (2004)50

in their study ‘SHGs for poverty alleviation in

Pondicherry’ have discussed the performance and impact of SHGs on the

empowerment of rural poor women in Pondicherry region. The following are the

objectives examined by the study: (i) to observe the socioeconomic background of

the sample respondents during the survey; (ii) to identify the main determinants of

monthly income of the respondents; and (iii) to examine the benefits and problems

48

I. Sundar and R. Asokan, ‘Performance of Co-operative Banks in Financing Women

Self Help Groups’, Cooperative Perspective, January 2004, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 5-26.

49 Rinjhim Mousuni Das, ‘Micro Finance through SHGs’, Kurukshetra, February 2004,

Vol. 52, No. 4, pp. 43-45.

50 V. Nirmala, K. Sham Bhat, and P. Bhuvaneshwari, ‘SHGs for Poverty Alleviation in

Pondicherry’, Journal of Rural Development, June 2004, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 203-215.



44

experienced by the SHG sample respondents. Such a study has contributed to an

understanding of the functioning of SHGs in the rural Pondicherry.

Tripatty (2004)51

has presented in his article ‘Self Help Groups’ that

necessary training could be provided to the SHG members to create awareness on

community health, traditional and modern agriculture practices, micro-credit,

veterinary practices and water resource management, Panchayat Raj and other

relevant issues applicable to the areas concerned. He has also provided that with

appropriate mechanisms, various Ministries/Departments/Organizations can look

towards the SHGs for targeting their programmes, which ultimately would help in

improving the quality of life in rural areas.

Rasheeda Bhagat (2004)52

in her work, ‘India Interior’ has expressed that

there has been a sea change in the attitude of men towards women’s groups and

micro finance. She also stated that in the last 10 years, the banker’s attitude has

changed substantially and there is a remarkable difference in the way they look at

these women’s groups. That is a major success of this programme.

Shanthi and Dhanalakshmi (2004)53

in their article, ‘Case Study of Women’s

Empowerment through SHGs in Gobichettipalayam Block, Erode District’ state that

empowerment is an active, multi-dimensional process which enables women to

realize their full potential and powers in all spheres of life. Women’s empowerment

51

K. K. Tripathy, ‘Self Help Groups’, Kurukshetra, June 2004, Vol. 52, No. 8, pp. 40-43.

52 Rasheeda Bhagat, ‘India Interior’, The Hindu, July 16, 2004, p. 4.

53 G. Shanthi and C. Dhanalakshmi, ‘Case Study of Women Empowerment through Self

Help Groups in Gobichettipalayam Block, Erode District’, Cooperation, August 2004,

Vol. 4, No. 10, pp. 23-25.



45

process starts with economic empowerment .They have also disclosed that

leadership qualities and active participation in group culture lead to improvement in

political acumen which would in turn strengthen and sustain the overall process of

empowerment.

Sanjoy Ray (2004) has mentioned in his article Linking Self Help groups

under SGSY scheme with Co-operatives –Prospects and Concerns” that the

distinguishing feature between SHGs and Co-operatives is that the latter often tend

to be large sometimes heterogeneous and formal and sometimes lose cohesiveness

and proximity with members in the process of their operations while the former is

informal based on interpersonal relations where decision making, implementation

and follow up become comparatively easy. He has also pointed that the Central

Government and State Government fund the SGSY in the ratio of 3:1.54

Kala (2004)55

has mentioned in her article ‘Economic Empowerment of

Women through SHGs’ that amongst all the states, Tamil Nadu has the fourth

highest percentage of female - headed households in the country. The Tamil Nadu

Women Development Project (TNWDP) taken up for implementation under the

name of ‘Mahalir Thittam’ covered about 10 lakhs poor women of the State in the

year 1997-98. Women SHGs share was 78% in March 1998. She has also stated that

men SHGs accounted for 40% or more in only six States, viz. Karnataka, Gujarat,

Rajasthan, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Meghalaya.

54

Sanjoy Ray, ‘Linking Self Help Groups under SGSY Scheme with Cooperatives

Prospects and Concerns’, The Cooperator, October 2004, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 128-131.

55 G. S. Kala, ‘Economic Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups’, Kisan

World, November 2004, pp. 264-266.



46

Anita Panda (2004)56

has explained in her article, ‘SHG - A Boon for Many’

that initially the women were assisting the males in the business, but subsequently

the women also came forward to start business independently. She has also revealed

that the members utilized the loan in their family business and repaid the due

amount in time.

Sheik Mohamed (2004)57

has mentioned in his article, ‘Self Help Groups for

the Success of Women Entrepreneurs’, that women are contributing significantly in

modern business and commercial world in their own way. Working women can be

classified into different categories like women entrepreneurs, highly qualified

professionals, employees in the organized private and public sectors and women

workers in unorganized sector. He has also explained that transforming the

prevailing social discrimination against women must become the top priority and

must happen concurrently with increased direct action to rapidly improve the social

and economic status of women.

Sorubarani and Thenmozhi (2004)58

in their article, ‘Self Help Groups:

Gateway to Women Empowerment’ have described that the RBI issued instructions

to commercial banks regarding establishment of linkages by them directly with

NGOs and SHGs. They have also disclosed that the basic principles on which SHGs

function are group approach, mutual trust, organization of poor, manageable small

56

Anita Panda, ‘SHG: A Boon for Many’, The Cooperator, December Vol. 42, No. 6, pp.

264-266.

57 M. Sheik Mohammed, ‘Self Help Group for the Success of Women Entrepreneurs’,

Kisan World, March 2004, Vol. 31, No, 3, pp. 30-31.

58 P. Sorubarani and G. Thenmozhi, ‘Self Help Groups: Gateway to Women

Empowerment’, Cooperation, December 2004, pp. 10-12.



47

groups, group cohesiveness, demand based lending, collateral free women friendly

loan, peer group pressure in repayment, skill training, capacity building and

empowerment.

Senthil Vadivoo and Sekar (2004)59 have focused in their article ”Self Help

Group – A Movement for Women Empowerment” that empowering women is not

just for meeting their economic needs but also for more holistic social development.

In SHGs, collective action and solidarity is an important empowering mechanism.

They are of the opinion that by empowerment, women would be able to develop

self-esteem, confidence, realize their potential and enhance their collective

bargaining power.

Venkatachalam and Jayaprakash (2004)60

have described in their article,

‘Self Help Group in Dindigul District’ that the concept of SHG has sown the seeds

for a silent revolution at the village level. It paves way for women to spell out their

views and to participate in the local administration. They have also pointed that

more than 80% of SHGs are established in rural areas and only 5% is located in

municipal areas.

Leelavathy (2004)61

has expressed in her paper, ‘SHG is a creamy layer for

Women’s social status’ that the SHGs remove the curse of money lenders. SHGs

59

K. Senthi Vadivoo and V. Sekar, ‘Self Help Groups: A Movement for Women

Empowerment’, Kisan World, July 2004, pp. 13-14.

60 A. Venkatachalam and A. Jeyaprakash, ‘Self Help Groups in Dindigul District’, Kisan

World, October 2004, Vol. 31, No. 10, pp. 29-30.

61 Leelavathy, ‘SHG is a Cream Layer for Women’s Social Status’, Proceedings of

National Level Symposium on Self Help Group: A Silent Revolution, Arulmigu

Palaniandavar Arts College for Women, Palani, March 2004.



48

are the ladder for upliftment of the down-trodden economically and socially. She

has also pointed out that the SHGs are taking up construction work for their hamlets

like laying of roads, closing down of liquor shops, contributing to the rehabilitation

works and management of their village affairs.

Rosappu and Kalyana Sundar (2004) have discussed in their article,

‘Economic Independence through Self Help Group’ that in the absence of extra time

and government jobs, the role of SHGs in generating funds, getting loan from the

banks and indulging in various business like making soaps, mats, chocolates,

pappads building toilets, coconut spoons, running tea shops, stone quarries,

installing gas plants and solar energy networks is highly commendable.62

According to Prema Parande (2005), empowerment is an active process of

enabling women to realize their identity, potentiality and power in all spheres of

their lives. There are several indicators such as participation in crucial decision-

making process, ability to prevent violence, self-confidence and self-esteem,

improved health and nutrition conditions and at the community level, existence of

women’s organisation, increased number of women in designing development tools

and application of appropriate technology etc. Improvement in economic status is a

more visible indicator of women empowerment. There are several factors that affect

empowerment of women, for instance education research document, campaigns and

networking training, conscious raising campaign, mind-full media, drawings, on

burning issues, etc. are all important means of empowerment yet, in particular,

62

K. Rosappu and K. Kalyana Sundari, ‘Economic Independence through Self Help

Groups’, Proceedings of National Level Symposium on Self Help Group: A Silent

Revolution, Arulmigu Palaniandavar Arts College for Women, Palani, March 2004.



49

education and training are very effective means but also sustain empowerment

process in the long run.63

Micro-finance is being provided through Self-Help Groups and non-

government organisations. The scheme is successful because it has almost solved

the problem of overdue. Besides credit is being put to the most productive use, the

SHG-Bank linkage has greatly helped the weaker sections. The voluntary agencies

should aim at real empowerment of women. As a result of reservation, there are a

large number of women sarpanches, but they do not function, but their husband’s

function on their behalf, and the voluntary agencies must be in touch with

educational institutions for mutual benefit. Rural development is a vast field and the

problems are complex. Hence, voluntary action is needed to understand the nature

and dimensions of rural problems and also to evolve appropriate strategies to solve

these problems (Satya Sundaram, 2005).64

According to Ramakrishnan (2005), when the SHG initiative was launched

to provide the poor with access to formal financial services, it was somehow

expected that cooperatives would step into provide these services. Already existing

small local level institutions with their readily available support structure as seen in

the case of the agricultural credit societies were ideally placed to serve as outlets for

financial services to SHG, given their numbers and reach. Despite these advantages,

agricultural credit societies and cooperative banks have thus played a limited role in

63

Prema Parande, ‘Economic Empowerment of Women’, Southern Economist, March

2005, Vol. 43, No. 21, p. 7.

64 Satya Sundaram, ‘Voluntary Action for Rural Development’, Southern Economist,

December 2005, Vol. 41, No.15, p. 36.



50

the programme of linking SHG across States, the relationship between commercial

success of cooperative banks, the extent of the linkage established and the impact of

such linkages on performance. Most banks offer nominal membership to SHG, and

only nine of the 199 banks allow full membership of any kind.65

As women receive better education and training, they earn more money and

as the economic status of women improves they gain greater social standing in the

household and the village and will have greater voice. As women’s economic power

grows it is easier to overcome the tradition of ‘son preference’ and also put an end

to the evil of dowry. According to the annual report of the Ministry of Rural

Development, 11.45 lakh of SHGs have been formed in India so far. 118413 SHG

exist in Tamil Nadu with 2326973 members in its fold (Fredrick, 2005).66

Vasanth Kannabiran (2005) says that the increasing participation of women

in micro-credit and formation of women’s Self-Help Groups have done little more

than assuring short-term relief to ease immediate needs, what is absent is a long-

term social, political and cultural vision that will end the subordination of women.

The declaration on SHGs, women’s empowerment and poverty reduction point out

that one alarming outcome of the emergence of SHGs has been the manner it has

altered the nature of discourse on development and social justice by placing the

onus of overcoming poverty on the poor. What SHGs provide women today is mere

membership while obstructing and obscuring their movement. Then movement

65

R. V. Ramakrishnan, ‘SHG-Bank linkage’, Economic and Politically Weekly, April

2005, Vol. 40, No. 17, p. 1720.

66 J. Fredrick, ‘SHGs Gateway to Success for Rural Women Entrepreneurs’, Kisan World,

September 2005, Vol. 32, No. 9, p. 60.



51

serves to advertise the accountability on the status of women in the international

arena, for the women themselves it is one step forward and two steps backward

guaranteed to maintain the status quo on the issue of subordination.67

Asokan and Sudha (2005) in their article, ‘Economic Status of Rural Women

SHGs in Nagapattinam District with a Special Reference to Elumagalur Village’,

empirically analyse economic status of rural women SHGs in Nagapattinam District

of Tamil Nadu. The results have shown that sample respondents assets structure has

increased after joining as members in SHGs, particularly financial assets increased

considerably from 6.6 to 15.5 per cent. About 40 per cent of income has been

generated through groups’ activities and 42 per cent of women have become

empowered in decision making. They have also revealed that the SHGs are

successful to some extent in the study area in respect of economic process and

social development.68

Chittaranjan Mishra (2005) in his article, ‘SHGs in the unorganized garment

sector: A case study of Madurai’ has explained that two types of Self Help

Promoting Institutions (SHPI), namely, Government and NGOs are active in the

household level garment sector. The DRDA promoted SHGs are more organized

and have better infrastructure to carry out the activities relating to the garment

sector. The NGO promoted SHGs, on the other hand, have taken part in other

developmental activities in the village in a bigger way than in the DRDA promoted

67

Vasanth Kannabiran, ‘Marketing Self-Help, Managing Poverty’, Economic and

Political Weekly, August 2005, Vol. 40, No. 34, p. 3716.

68 R. Asokan and T. Sudha, ‘Economic Status of Rural Women SHGs in Nagapattinam

District (with special reference to Elumagalur Village’, Cooperative Perspective,

January 2005, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 52-57.



52

ones. He has also indicated that capacity building and credit availability are

complementary inputs to the growth of SHG-based garment sector.69

Kamaraju (2005)70 has mentioned in his article, Self Help Groups -Emerging

Rural Enterprises” that in rural areas SHGs utilized the loan for purchasing milch

animals, goats and for meeting personal urgent needs. Some SHGs have purchased

power tillers for agriculture purpose on hire basis. Investment in power tiller will

increase their income both individually and collectively. Hiring out power tiller to

peasants is an important entrepreneurial activity of SHGs. He has also indicated that

the SHGs should function as a non-political and non-controversial one. Political and

religious neutrality paves the way for its healthy growth. He has also expressed that

SHG gains momentum nowadays because of its many-fold effect in the economic

empowerment of poor women.

Ramakrishnan (2005)71

has highlighted in his work, ‘Online payment facility

to give boost to SHGs’ that online payment facility for products manufactured by

rural SHGs in the State will soon become a reality. Both the State and district level

bodies are marketing products made by the SHGs. He has also expressed that the

facility will be available to those within the country. Online payment can be made

by accessing the website, http://www.tnruralbazaar.in. The SHGs transact business

to the tune of Rs 2 crore to Rs 3 crore. A novel marketing strategy adopted by them

69

Chittaranjan Mishra, ‘SHGs in the Unorganized Garment Sector: A Case Study of

Madurai’, Kurukshetra, July 2005, Vol. 53, No. 8, pp. 43-46.

70 S. Kamaraju, ‘Self Help Groups: Emerging Rural Enterprises’, Kisan World, Aug 2005,

Vol. 32, No. 8, pp. 25-26.

71 T. Ramakrishnan, ‘Online Payment facility to give a boost to SHGs’, The Hindu, dated

7 Oct 2005.



53

is ‘Intra sales’, where requirements of one set of groups are met by another. They

have set up 225 village shops and 28 district marketing complexes.

Subashini Muthukrishnan (2005)72

has explained in her paper “Effective

marketing Strategies for women self help groups” that the SHGs should be careful

in terms of positioning their product relative to other competitive products and

markets. They have to decide on the product and in price vis-a vis its cost of

production, returns and the price at which its competitors are selling the product,

credit time, marketing infrastructure available etc.She has also specified that SHGs

must focus on improving the quality of the product.

Velu Suresh Kumar (2005)73 has mentioned in his article, ‘Women

Empowerment Success through Self Help Groups’, that apart from financial

aspects, it also becomes a platform for exchanging ideas regarding prevention of

AIDS, dowry, nutrition, marital laws, literacy, sanitation, children rearing etc. He

has also pointed out that leadership qualities developed through SHG meetings have

seen 2500 women becoming presidents or members of panchayats and local bodies

in the State.

Banumathy (2005)74

has explained in her article “Self Help Groups and Bank

Linkage” that the initial role played by SHGs, prompted NABARD to venture

72

Subhasini Muthukrishnan, ‘Effective Marketing Strategies for Women Self Help

Groups’, Proceedings of the State Level Symposium on Socio-Economic Impact of SHG

on Women, P.S.G.R. Krishnammal College for Women, Coimbatore, February 2005.

73 Velu Suresh Kumar, ‘Women Empowerment: Success through Self Help Groups’,

Kisan World, November 2005, Vol. 32, No. 11, p. 31.

74 S. Banumathy, ‘Self Help Groups and Bank Linkages’, Kisan World, Nov 2005, Vol.

32, No. 11, p. 19.



54

linkage of SHGs with banks in February,1992.She has also stated that RBI has

advised banks to initiate action for adopting SHG village programmers as a part of

their corporate strategy.

Suguna (2006) has pointed out Mahatma Gandhi’s words, “Woman is the

companion of man, gifted with equal mental capacities, she has the right to

participate in the activities of man and she has the same right, freedom and liberty

as he, she is entitled to a supreme place in her own place in her own sphere of

activity as man is in bias.”75

Sakunthalai and Ramakrishnan (2006) the concept of SHG is catching up as

the most viable means to empower women, especially at the grass-root level.

Women have shown extraordinary dynamism in organizing themselves in group

activities for income generation; better bargaining power and improvement in the

quality of life. Some advantages through Self-Help Groups in the villages and in the

community are inculcation of the spirit of Self-Help, collective action for

development, women begin to form similar group seeing the success of the other

SHGs, family welfare through social awareness women, enhanced social status

from secondary to primary, economic independence, voicing and acting against

social injustices, problem solving ability and increased consciousness.76

Nagayya (2006) in his article, ‘Micro-finance for Self-Help Group’ has

stated that the bank and Self-Help Group linkages through financing agencies helps

75

B. Suguna, Empowerment of Rural Women through Self-Help Groups, Discovery

Publishing House, New Delhi, 2006, p. 73.

76 A. Sakkunthalai and Ramakrishnan, ‘Socio-economic Empowerment of Women’,

Kisan World, July 2006, Vol. 33, No. 7, p. 31.



55

to empower the poor and mobilizing collective strength to make them self-reliant.

He has also stated that government intervention will not be able to bring a change in

intrinsic attitude of the communities so as make efficient use of credit sanctioned.77

Harjeet Ahlulwalia (2006) opines that women in India are a mixed lot. Some

are well in control of their destinies; others depend to a large extent on their

husbands or fathers and are denied even the freedom of thought. Somewhere along

the line there are also women who actually run their households single handedly not

because they are separated or widowed but because their men would have it so. This

is a predominant feature of the below poverty-line families. The search for

employment takes them away from home, leaving their children prey to neglect,

hunger, disease and even exploitation. In extreme cases, women are even forced

into prostitution. The answer may not lie in giving jobs to women, but it certainly

eases their burdens if enough employment avenues were available closer to home,

rational training programmes conducted that can lead to assured incomes with

flexibility in working hours, child-care centre set-up etc. Well kept conveniently

located day-care homes, dedicated train or bus services to commercial centres, more

congenial work environment etc. are all major factors that can both encourage full

time working women and increase their productivity levels.78

Sandhya Rani (2006) says that the Indian economy needs to generate a large

number of jobs in the decentralized rural non-farm sector. The rural economy in

77

D. Nagayya, ‘Micro-finance for Self-Help Group’, Kurukshetra, 2006, Vol. 48, No. 11,

p. 10.

78 Harijeet Ahluwalia, ‘Empowerment of Women: An Economic Agenda’, Yojana,

August 2000, Vol. 44, No. 8, p. 33.



56

recent years has been showing clear positive signs for the micro-enterprise

opportunity especially for women. The prospects of micro-entrepreneurship are

many in a few sub-sectors such as trade, transport, construction and service.

Availability of micro-credit helps SHG women a lot and many women come

forward and establish micro-enterprises. At present a good number of NGOs and

financial institutions have been offering micro-finance especially to women micro-

entrepreneurs. The micro-finance assistance from banks, NABARD and financial

institutions like SFCs has been encouraging women to start micro-enterprises. As a

result micro entrepreneurship is gradually growing importance among the jobless

particularly among the educated and uneducated urban and rural women.79

Mohanam (2006) says that the micro-credit system has particular relevance

to women and their empowerment, considering the historical perspective of the

involvement of women in the thrift and credit activity. The role of NGOs is moral

significant and pronounced in the sphere of micro-credit. The rich experience of

NGOs and their problem is a potential factor that affirms their elevated role in the

sphere of micro-credit.80

Ghosh (2007) points out that there is no doubt that combating poverty cannot

be managed by the government alone. There are many areas where government

needs collaboration and cooperation from NGOs particularly in creating opportunity

facilitating empowerment and providing security to the poor. The pressure of the

79

G. Sandhya, ‘Promoting Micro-entrepreneurship for Women’s Development’, Southern

Economist, May 2006, Vol. 45, No. 1, p. 45.

80 S. Mohanam, ‘Micro-credit and Empowerment of Women: Role of NGOs’, Yojana,

February 2006, Vol. 68, No. 4, p. 29.



57

donor agencies on the recipient government to work through NGOs in development

programme is also a dominant factor in increasing the role of NGOs to fight against

poverty.81

According to Usha Rao (2007) women form an important segment of the

labour force and economic role played by them cannot be isolated from the total

framework of development as the role and degree of integration of women in

economic development is always an indicator of economic independence and social

status.82

According to Joshi (2007) micro-finance provides credit access to poor with

no collateral obligations. It encourages savings and promotes income-generating

activities. Loans are provided at the market driven rates of interest and peer pressure

is used in repayment. Micro-finance is carried out through Self-Help Groups, where

poor come together in the range of 10-20 by weekly, fortnightly and monthly

meetings through their savings and loaning. It is hoped that through such

interventions hitherto uncovered groups are covered with credit and in the process

get empowered.83

Laxmi (2007) reports that SHGs are to supplement credit strategies for

meeting the needs of the poor by combining the flexibility, sensitivity and

responsiveness of the informal credit system with the technical/ administrative

81

D. K. Ghosh, ‘NGO Intervention in Poverty Alleviation’ Kurukshetra, March 2007,

Vol. 49, No. 6, p. 21.

82 J. Usha Rao, Women in a Developing Society, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi,

2007.

83 S. C. Joshi, ‘Micro-credit not Charity’, Social Welfare, February 2007, Vol. 48, No. 32,

p. 12.



58

capabilities and financial resources of formal financial institutions to build mutual

trust and confidence between bankers and the tribal poor and to encourage banking

in a segment of population that formal financial institution usually find difficult to

reach this innovative form of financing is imperative.84

Bimlasen (2007) mentions that the empowerment is an active process of

enabling women to realize their identity, potentiality and power in all spheres of

their lives. There are several indicators of employment. At the industrial level,

participation in crucial decision-making process, ability to prevent violence, self-

confidence and self-esteem, improved health and nutrition conditions and at the

community level, existence of women’s organisation.85

Sivaramakrishnan (2007) opines that the Swaranajayanthi Gram Swarozgar

Yojana aims at establishing a large number of micro-enterprises in rural areas,

bundling upon the potential of the rural poor. The objective under SGSY is to bring

every assisted family above the poverty line in three years.86

While focusing on the definition of entrepreneurship, Indira Misra moves

onto incorporate some basic factors like openness to entrepreneurship, balancing

business attractions, willingness to invest, thinking beyond town borders etc. which

would be required by the rural community to look into and identify platforms and

opportunities either inherently available or which need to be developed to

84

R. K. Laxmi, ‘Self Help Groups Innovation in Financing the Poor’, Kurukshetra,

November 2007, Vol. 24, pp. 14-15.

85 G. Bimlasen, Women Power: The Changing Scenario, Better Books, Panchakula, 2007,

pp. 121-129.

86 Sivaramakrishnan, ‘SHGs and the political participation of women in Panchayat Raj

Institutions: A case study’, Southern Economist, 2007, Vol. 47, No. 18, p. 15.



59

encourage entrepreneurship. It touches upon the fact that to promote rural

development, entrepreneurship was seen as a strategic development intervention

that could accelerate the rural development process. It is pointed out that institutions

and individuals seem to agree on the urgent need to promote rural enterprises.87

Mukundan and Hilaria Soundari (2008) report that one of the most basic

causes for the women’s inferior status is the inadequacy of the legal system to keep

pace with the changing needs and times and to provide them with the framework

which would enable them to contribute their ability fully to society. Discrimination

between sexes may stem from attitudes, customs, traditions and cultural norms. The

victims of discrimination look upon law for equality and justice. Law includes not

only the provisions of the Constitution and legislation but also judgments and

governmental decisions and actions.88

Shobha (2008)89

has evaluated the problems of self-employed women. The

study took 400 self-employed women as sample from Coimbatore Municipal

Corporation limit and used scaling technique. The study has concluded that the

problems faced by the beneficiaries of Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana are less

severe than non-beneficiaries.

87

Indira Misra, ‘Towards Empowerment of women through Rural Entrepreneurship’,

Indian Journal of Public Administration, October 2008, Vol. 43, No. 54, p. 933.

88 N. Mukundan and M. Hilaria Soundari, Emerging Dimensions in Self-Help Groups,

Dominant Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2008, pp. 70-95.

89 Shobha, ‘Problems of self-Employment of Women: An Analaysis’, Southern

Economist, 2008, Vol. 47, No. 6, pp. 24-26.



60

Sakthivel Murugan and Begum (2008)90 have made an attempt to explain the

predominant barriers to women entrepreneurs. The study is based on the primary

data collected from the sample 100 entrepreneurs of Chennai City. The study

reveals that social and cultural barriers are prominent formidable block for the

development of women entrepreneurs. The study concluded that entrepreneurs with

ability to plan and run a business, deliver quality products.

Gudaganavar Nagaraj and Gudaganavar Rajashri (2008) have examined the

empowerment of rural women through SHG. They highlight the progress of SHGs

in India from 1992-93 to 2006-07. They have also highlighted the region-wise

progress of SHGs and employment of women through SHGs. They conclude that no

development is possible without empowerment of women.91

Shiralashetti and Hugar (2008) have reviewed the progress of SHGs and their

linkage to bank. The study is based on the secondary data collected from annual

reports of the NABARD. The main objectives of the study are to examine the

progress of SHGs and bank linkage in India with a reference to Karnataka State.

The study includes district-wise and bank-wise linkage of SHGs in Karnataka State.

They conclude that SHG movement is a powerful tool for alleviating the poverty of

the people.92

90

M. Sakthivel Murugan and Begum Ayesha, ‘Predominant Barriers of Women

Entrepreneurs’, Southern Economist, 2008, Vol. 47, No. 6, pp. 31-34.

91 V. Gudaganavar Nagaraj, and S. Gudaganavar Rajashri, ‘Empowerment of Rural

Women Through SHG’, Southern Economist, 2008, Vol. 47, No. 19, pp. 35-37.

92 A. S. Shiralashetti and S. S. Hugar, ‘Micro-finance: A study of SHG and Bank

Linkage’, Journal of Business Studies, 2008, Vol. 5, No. 9, pp. 31-37.



61

Ganapathi and Sannasi (2008)93

highlighted the factors influencing the

women entrepreneurs. The study highlighted the common features of women

entrepreneurs, challenges faced by them while undertaking the entrepreneurial

activities and the necessary strategies to overcome the challenges. The study

concluded that women must be motivated to establish business in the interest of the

family income in particular and national income in general.

Chandrashakar and Lokesh (2009) have pointed out that the NGOs are useful

in organizing Self-Help Groups, in capacity building and in developing access to the

institutions and resources of the State. However, officials are suspicious of the role

of NGOs who are perceived as undermining their power. When NGOs are allowed

to implement government projects there is too much bureaucratic meddling. The

long list of do’s and don’t’s of government procedure accords ill with NGO

thinking and approach. In the recently restructured self-employment programme in

the form of the Swarna Jayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), group schemes

through the formation of SHGs have been overwhelmingly preferred. However, in

none of the North-Eastern States below poverty line (BPL) lists are ready to

organize households into SHGs to implement the programme.94

Kumararaja (2009) in analyzing the impact of Mahalir Thittam of Tamil

Nadu State has observed that SHG women are currently involved in economic

activities such as production and marketing of agarbathis, candle and soap, ready-

93

R. Ganapathi, and S. Sannasi, ‘Women Entrepreneurship: The Road Ahead’, Southern


94 Chandrashakar and M. U. Lokesh, ‘Role of SHGs in Socio-economic change of

vulnerable poor’, International NGO Journal, April 2009, Vol. 4, pp. 127-131.



62

made garments, pickles, pappad, vathal, fur toys, bags, palm leaf products,

ornaments, eatables, coir mat and other coir products, mattresses, chaples, leather

goods etc. The SHG women monitor the normal and proper functioning of the

ration shops, maintain vigil on brewing of illicit liquor and help the aged, deserted

and widows to obtain loan. In addition to savings, the SHGs are engaged in village

cleanliness, repair to village approach, adult literacy campaign, family planning and

child health, pulse polio campaign, backyard garden, health check-up camps,

prohibition in the village, banning tobacco consumption and sales, AIDS awareness

etc. The project has achieved 100% repayment in case of lending to SHGs, by banks

and 95% in internal lending of Self-Help Groups. Repayment rates of direct

borrowers have increased from 30 to 70 per cent. Banks disburse the credit to SHGs

within seven days at their doorsteps. SHGs help in forming Village Development

Council (VDC). These VDC members are involved in social and infrastructural

development works.95

Kumararaja (2009)96

has made an attempt to evaluate the performance of

SHGs in Tamil Nadu. The study highlights the progress of SHGs in India and in

Tamil Nadu. It reveals that there has been a steady progress in the number of SHGs

and amount of loan sanctioned. The study concludes that a timely and regular check

of the micro-credit through SHGs will contribute to a healthy progress and to the

overall development of rural women.

95

Kumararaja, ‘Performance of SHG in Tamil Nadu’, Southern Economist, 2009,

Vol. 47, No. 19, pp. 14-16.

96 Ibid.



63

Sankaran (2009)97

has made a study on the trends and problems of rural

women entrepreneurs in India. The study highlights the conceptual aspects of trends

and problems of rural women entrepreneurs in India. It concludes that women have

creative ability, easy adaptability and ability to cope with setbacks.

The research done by Saurabh (2009) focuses on the experience of micro-

finance programmes in the context of liberalization. The author highlights the rural

Indian society and Indian rural financing system. The study suggests eliminating the

shortcomings of the existing rural financing system by establishing more

microfinance projects and RRBs98

.

Lalitha and Prasad (2009)99

have analyzed the empowerment of women

through Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)

programme in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The study reveals that the

income of individual after joining DWCRA programme has increased

comparatively. The study concludes that the potential of women is not fully tapped

and utilized for the community.

Sarswathy et al. (2009)100

have analyzed the role of micro-finance in

Krishnagiri district. They highlight the role of Government of India, NABARD,

NGO and banks. The questionnaire was prepared and presented to 75 members of

97

A. Sankaran, ‘Trends and Problems of Rural Women Entrepreneurs in India;, Southern


98 Saurabh Kumar, ‘New Dimension of Empowerment’, Professional Banker, 2009,

Vol. 9, No. 9, pp. 25-29.

99 K. Lalitha and G. Prasad, ‘Empowerment of Women: DWCRA Programme’, Southern

Economicst, 2009, Vol. 47, No. 23-24, pp. 13-16.

100 A. Saraswathy, S. Porkodi and M. Bhuvaneswari, ‘Micro-finance in Krishnagiri

District’, Indian Journal of Marketing, 2009, Vol. 39, No. 5, pp. 47-57.



64

16 SHGs and 9 NGOs. The study reveals that majority of members agree to the

point that their income has increased after joining SHG. It concludes that SHGs

have become the development ambassador of villages.

NCSW Report (2009) states that Self-Help Groups have taken the form of a

movement for women especially rural women’s social and economical

development. SHGs have arisen out of the perceived problems of women’s lack of

access to resources at both the household and the village level. In the past 20 year,

Self-Help Groups have become significant institutions for rural development in

India. This has been particularly true in the case of poor women.101

Nagaraj and Chandrakanth (2009)102

explained an SHG is a group of about

10 to 20 poor women or men from a similar class and region, forming a savings and

credit organisation by pooling financial resources in order to extend loans to the

members at low interest with far fewer procedural hassles. ‘Savings first’ is the

prime ethic of SHGs. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development

(NABARD), Reserve of Bank of India (RBI) leading NGOs and a multilateral

agencies included SHG as strategic component to mitigate poverty.

Tonmoyee Banerjee (2009)103

his case study made an effort to estimate the

impact of Self-Help Groups created under SGSY programme and has been observed

101

NCSW Report, National Perspective Plan for Women, Government of India, Ministry

of Human Resource Development, New Delhi, 2009, p. 119.

102 N. Nagararaj and M. G. Chandrakanth, ‘Economic Performance of Self-Help Groups

in Karnataka’, Indian Source of Agriculture Economics, October-December 2009,

Vol. 64, No. 4, p. 604.

103 Tonmoyee Banerjee, ‘Economic Impact of Self-Help Groups in Parganas District of

West Bengal’, Journal of Rural development, October-December 2009, Vol. 28, No. 4,

pp. 451-452.



65

that income generation through group activities has improved the average income of

group members, but the inequality of distribution of income is high among the

group members than that of the non-group members. Further there has been a

significant decline in the medical expenditure and school drop-out rate in the

families of group members than that of non-group members.

Nagayya and Koteswara Rao (2010)104

states that micro-finance refers to

credit provided to the poor for self-employment and other financial and business

services. They review the recent trends in the SHG-Bank linkage programme at

National and State level with special reference to Andhra Pradesh in detail and

certain aspects of the other three southern States, viz. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and

Kerala.

Satpal Sunil Phougat and Silender Hooda (2010)105

stated that there is lack of

diversities in the Self-Help Groups activities in the State. Highest amount of

resource have been spent on primary sector and mainly on milk cattle. There is less

attention has given in other areas such as handlooms, handicrafts and other activities

in the State. The problem of marketing of the goods by Self-Help Groups is a big

constraint in achieving the targets. So, there is need for proper attention to solve

such type of problems under SGSY.

104

D. Nagayya and D. Koteswara Rao, ‘Micro-finance and Support Organisations in the

Southern States of India’, Journal of Rural Development, 2010, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp.

285-300.

105 Satpal Sunil Phougat and Silender Hooda, ‘Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana

Programme implemented in Haryana’, Southern Economist, February 2010, Vol. 48,

No. 20, pp. 41-44.



66

Mahamood Khan and Dinesh (2010)106

analysed that the participation of

women are only within the PRI in name, but in reality, it is male family members

who hold the power. Views on improving women’s participation, education, and

training for women members, public and family encouragement, government

encouragement through provision of more powers of funds, and seats for women,

and make their attendance in the meetings compulsory.

_____

106

D. H. Mahamood Khan and G. M. Dinesh, ‘Role of Women in Panchayat Raj

Institutions’, Southern Economist, February 2010, Vol. 48, No. 20, pp. 5-8.

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