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COMPREHENSIVE SCOPING STUDY OF CLIMATE SMART
AGRICULTURE POLICIES IN SWAZILAND
BY
A.M. MANYATSI
&
N. MHAZO
DRAFT REPORT
Submitted to Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Network
(FANRPAN)
January 2014
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Geographic setting ................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Climate of Swaziland ............................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Population and socio-economic conditions .......................................................................... 5
1.4 Socio-economic conditions ................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Vulnerability of sectors to climate change............................................................................ 6
1.6 Agro-ecologies and agriculture in Swaziland ....................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE AND BEST PRACTICES ................ 10
2.1 The concept of Climate Smart Agriculture ......................................................................... 10
2.2 Policies and institutional setup for successful climate smart agriculture ........................... 11
2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland .......................................................... 11
2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland .......................................................... 13
CHAPTER 3: INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES FOR CSA ................................................. 23
3.1 Institutional setup for addressing climate change and climate smart agriculture issues..... 23
3.2 National Policy and legislative framework for climate change and CSA .......................... 32
CHAPTER 4: CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENT CSA AND OPPORTUNITIES ............................. 43
4.1 Key challenges to implementing CSA in Swaziland .......................................................... 43
4.2 Opportunities....................................................................................................................... 43
4.3 Proposed actions for climate smart agriculture ................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 5: REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 49
APPENDICES: Summary of relevant legislation and policies ..................................................... 52
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List of Tables
1: Profile of hydro meteorological hazards experienced in Swaziland ........................................... 7
2: Climate Smart Agriculture techniques ...................................................................................... 10
3: Crops that had been introduced and those that were no longer produced in different RDAs .. 17
4: National development programmes with implications to climate smart agriculture ................ 22
5: Key institutions for climate smart agriculture .......................................................................... 24
List of Boxes
1: Some success stories of climate smart agriculture from around the world .............................. 12
2: Reasons why farmers were no longer producing some crops ................................................... 18
3: Advantages of using organic manure........................................................................................ 19
4: Types of agroforestry ................................................................................................................ 20
5: Land use and land management activities undertaken by NGOs in Swaziland. ....................... 30
6: Key challenges in implementing climate smart agriculture ...................................................... 43
7: Opportunities for climate smart agriculture .............................................................................. 45
8: Proposed adaptation strategic actions for the agriculture sector ............................................... 47
9: Proposed mitigation strategies for agriculture sector ............................................................... 48
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Geographic setting
The Kingdom of Swaziland is a monarchy and land-locked country located in the south eastern
part of Africa covering an area of 17,363 km2. It is bounded by the Republic of South Africa on
the north, west and south and by the Republic of Mozambique to the east. It is classified into six
physiographic zones: Highveld, Upper Middleveld, Lower Middleveld, Western Lowveld,
Eastern Lowveld and Lubombo Range (Sweet and Khumalo, 1994). The altitude ranges from
250 m above sea level in the Lowveld, to 1400 m above sea level in the Highveld. The Lowveld
is predominantly gentle undulating plain as opposed to the Highveld that has steep slopes on
steeply dissected escapement. The natural vegetation ranges from short sour grasslands with
forest patches in the cooler and moist Highveld to Acacia savanna in the hotter and dry Eastern
Lowveld.
1.2 Climate of Swaziland
The general climatic characterization of Swaziland is subtropical with wet hot summers (October
- March) and cold dry winters (April-September). The physiographic zones show clearly
different climatic conditions, ranging from sub-humid and temperate in the Highveld to semi-
arid and warm in the Lowveld. Swaziland lies at the transition of major climatic zones, being
influenced by air masses from different origin: equatorial convergence zone (summer rains),
subtropical eastern continental moist maritime (onshore flow with occasional cyclones), dry
continental tropical and marine west Mediterranean (winter rains, with rare snow). Mean annual
rainfall ranges from about 1,500 mm in the northern Highveld to 500 mm in the southern
Lowveld. About 75% of the annual rainfall is received in the summer period. Precipitation varies
considerably from year to year, which either may lead to periods of flash flooding or drought.
Mean annual temperature varies from 17°C in the Highveld to 22°C in the Lowveld. The country
is prone to a number of hydrological disasters, with drought being the most common. The most
severe ones occurred in 1983, 1992, 2001, 2007 and 2008. It was reported that over 500 people
lost their lives due to drought of 1983, and in 2007, close to 50% of the population needed food
aid, as they did not have sufficient food due to failure of their crops (Manyatsi et al., 2010). The
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other hydrological disasters in recent years include incessant lightning during rainy seasons,
cyclone Domonia in 1984, and torrential rains and floods in 2000 (IRIN, 2007).
1.3 Population and socio-economic conditions
The population of Swaziland was 1,018,449 in 2007, with annual growth rate of 0.9%
Government of Swaziland, 2007).). The distribution between male and female is 47.3% versus
52.7%. Over half of the population was below 20 years old, implying that the population had a
potential to grow at a much higher rate, and the demand for resources was likely to outstrip the
supply. Majority of the people (75%) live in communal land and they strongly depend on
subsistence agriculture and natural resources for livelihoods. Swaziland is classified as a lower
middle-income country with a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of US$ 5,300 in 2012
yet about 63% of the population fell below the national poverty line in 2010 (World Bank, 2012).
The urban population is 21%, with annual rate of urbanisation being 1.5% (IndexMundi, 2012).
1.4 Socio-economic conditions
The GDP growth was 1.2% in 2011, lower than the 1.9% in 2010. This was attributed to
government cash flow problems and rising fuel prices which impacted transport negatively
(African Economic Outlook, 2012). The low GDP growth compromised the capacity for the
country to provide employment and to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs. The
country’s economy is predominantly agricultural-based and agriculture provides livelihoods and
income for the majority of the population. It is highly dependent on South Africa, which
accounts for 90% of Swaziland's imports, 60% of exports and supplies 50% of electricity
(Central Bank of Swaziland, 2012). Climatic conditions are the driving forces for agriculture,
and climate change will have a major effect on the sector. The high rate of poverty makes the
majority of the population prone to climate change and compromises their adaptation capacity. In
an effort to reduce the poverty and to assist the elderly to meet their basic needs, and Elderly
Social Grant (ESG) was introduced in 2005 to people who have reached the age of 60 years. The
ESG is paid every three months at a rate of E200 per month (Government of Swaziland, 2012).
Prevalence estimates for HIV stood at 26% of adults (31% in adult women and 20% in adult
men; (UNDP, 2011). HIV/AIDS has the potential to impact on the household by reducing the
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sources of income and by increasing household expenditure. It also leads to loss of labour for
economic activities (including agriculture and other livelihood activities), and loss of
productivities due to absenteeism. The resilience to climate change is weakened. The National
Emergency Response Council on HIV and AIDS (NERCHA) was created under the Prime
Ministers Office in 2001 to coordinate and facilitate the response and oversee the
implementation of the national strategic plans and frameworks (NERCHA, 2012).
1.5 Vulnerability of sectors to climate change
Today, climate change is considered one of the major threats to the sustainability of the world’s
environment, society and the global economy. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC 2007), the effects of climate change have already been observed, and a
majority of Scientists believe that precautionary and prompt action is necessary to reduce the
build up of green house gases such as carbon dioxide, caused by human activities. Downscaled
global climate change models (GCMs) predict a temperature increase of 1-1.5oC across
Swaziland for the average daily maximum between 2000 and 2050, and a decrease of up to
200mm in annual precipitation over much of the country (Manyatsi et al., 2013). Climate change
impacts are already being witnessed in Swaziland in the form erratic rainfall and changing
temperatures which have a direct influence to availability of water, agriculture production,
energy sources and supplies, waste management, environmental management and sustainability.
This undermines Swaziland’s effort to eradicate poverty and meet the Millennium Development
Goals. Like other countries in the region, Swaziland is vulnerable to climate change, with the
sectors of particular concern being agriculture, water resources, forest, ecosystem and
biodiversity, energy, health, tourism and human settlement. The hydro meteorological hazards
experienced in Swaziland over the past 15 years include drought, strong winds and windstorms,
hailstorms, thunder and lightning with large populations being affected (Table 1).
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Table 1: Profile of hydro meteorological hazards experienced in Swaziland
Hazard Year Population affected
Drought 2001 347 000
2007 410 000
2008 287 634
2009 256 283
2010 170 000
2011 88 511
Strong winds/Windstorms 1984 632 500
2005 1 150
2006 6 535
2010 1 000
2011 + 200 families
Hailstorms, thunder and lightning 2000 No data
2011 + 200 families
Floods 2008 272 000
Source: National Multi-Hazard Contingency Plan 2012-2013, (Government of Swaziland,
2012).
1.6 Agro-ecologies and agriculture in Swaziland
Swaziland is divided into four agro-ecological zones based on elevation, landforms, geology,
soils and vegetation. These are the Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld and Lubombo Plateau. The
Highveld and the Middleveld are further subdivided into Upper and Lower Highveld, and wet
and dry Middleveld, respectively. The agro-ecological zones run almost parallel from north to
south. Altitude and rainfall decrease from west to east, while temperatures are higher in the east
than the west.
Agriculture in Swaziland is dualistic divided into commercial estates on Title Deed Land (TDL)
and subsistence farms on Swazi Nation Land (SNL). The commercial sector which occupies
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about 40 % of the cultivated land produces mostly export crops such as irrigated sugarcane,
citrus and pine apples. Commercial estates are characterised by high levels of mechanisation and
irrigation infrastructure. This sector generates >81% of agricultural commodity value (8.6% of
GDP). The smallholder farming sector predominantly produces food crops such as maize (staple
cereal), sorghum, grain legume crops and vegetables and raise livestock, mostly cattle, goats and
chickens. This sector takes about 60 % of the arable land. Agricultural activities on SNL are
predominantly characterised by low-input practices that are largely dependent on natural rainfall
and local resources. As a result smallholder farming only contributes 11 % of the agricultural
commodity value (1.2 % of GDP). Limited access to irrigation facilities is undoubtedly the major
constraint to land productivity on SNL. Despite the network of rivers available in the country,
smallholder farmers remain unable to finance irrigation development.
Land productivity on SNL is continuously threatened by a myriad challenges emanating from
climate change (FAO/WFP, 2007). The country faces, and is likely to continue experiencing
agricultural production obstacles because of the high reliance on natural rainfall (Mabuza et al.,
2009). Abnormal changes in rainfall patterns are experienced across the country. The frequency
and intensity of droughts is increasing (particularly in the eastern region) and this threatens
viability of agro-ecosystems (FAO, 2005) thus frustrating government efforts to attain national
food self-sufficiency. Since the prolonged drought of the early 1990s that ravaged most of the
southern African regions, there has been more frequent droughts, low, erratic and unevenly
distributed rainfall (FANRPAN, 2007), fluctuating rainfall patterns, delayed rains, intra-
seasonal dry spells, floods, increased ambient temperatures and shifting of growing seasons
(FANRPAN, 2003). The rainy seasons are often characterised by intense storms at the start and
prolonged intra-seasonal dry spells that can last up to four weeks (FANRPAN, 2003). The
heavy storms lead to excessive runoff losses due to reduced infiltration. These adverse weather
conditions are exacerbated by inherent low soil fertility, soil structural degradation, crop pests
and diseases, high costs of inputs, lack of draught power, delayed planting, inadequate local
research and extension information, and loss of labour due to HIV and AIDS. According to the
2004/05 crop and food supply assessment mission, jointly conducted by the Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations World Food
Programme (UNWFP), production of the country’s staple food crop, maize, had dropped by
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about 70% over a period of five years. In 2005/2006, about 30% of the population faced food
shortages and relied on food handouts.
Until recently, agriculture was regarded as a victim of climate change yet agricultural activities
are a major source of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions. In the realization that
agriculture was a major contributor to climate change it became apparent that farming systems
had to adapt accordingly to the unfavourable changes in climatic factors such as reduced
precipitation, floods, hailstorms and increased temperature. It is common knowledge that food
production has to keep pace with the growing population. At global scale, it is projected that
agricultural productivity must increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the food and fibre demands of
the ever increasing population. There is, therefore, a need to invest in farming techniques that are
responsive to changes in climatic factors thus enhancing climate change resilience. To that
effect, the new paradigm in agriculture advocates adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA)
practices.
The Food Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Network (FANRPAN) is implementing a
CSA policy programme that aims to increase agricultural productivity and strengthen the
resilience of vulnerable smallholder farmers to the impact of climate change. The programme
seeks to:
a. Conduct comprehensive reviews of the existing CSA policy context in the country;
b. Analyze gaps in the existing policy frameworks;
c. Identify relevant policy recommendations; and
d. Develop and share policy recommendations (briefs) at national and regional level.
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CHAPTER 2: CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE AND BEST PRACTICES
2.1 The concept of Climate Smart Agriculture
Climate Smart Agriculture seeks to increase sustainable productivity, strengthen farmers’
resilience, reduce agriculture greenhouse gas emissions and increase carbon sequestration
(Grieg-Gran, 2010). It strengthens food security and delivers environmental benefits. Climate
Smart Agriculture promotes agricultural best practices, particularly integrated crop management,
conservation agriculture, intercropping, improved seeds and fertilizer management, improved
livestock management, improved grazing land management, agroforestry, as well as supporting
increased investment in agricultural research. While adaptation is key, CSA is broader and calls
for more innovation and pro-activeness in changing the way farming is done in order to adapt
and mitigate while sustainably increasing productivity. Climate Smart Agriculture practices
propose the transformation of agricultural policies and agricultural systems to increase food
productivity and enhance food and nutrition security while preserving the environment and
ensuring resilience to a changing climate. Table 2 shows some CSA practices
Table 2: Climate Smart Agriculture techniques
Strategy Example methods
Restore cultivated organic
soils
Increased vegetation cover, reduced tillage, use of crop residues or
manure or compost
Improve cropland
management
Agronomy, nutrient management, reduced tillage, water
management (including irrigation and drainage), crop rotation,
agroforestry
Improve grazing land
management
Increased cover of high-productivity grasses and overall grazing
intensity, nutrient management, fire management and species
introduction
Improve livestock
management
Better feeding practices, dietary additives, breeding and other
structural changes, improved manure management
Restore degraded lands Erosion control and organic and nutrient changes
Agroforestry Tree crops, integrating trees into fallow cycles, forest fragments and
trees integrated onto agricultural systems (e.g. silvopastoral
systems)
Improved water
management
Improved irrigation and water conservation techniques
Innovative practices Weather forecasting, more resilient food crops and risk insurance
Source: Grieg-Gran, N (2010). Beyond forestry: Why agriculture is key to success of REDD+
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2.2 Policies and institutional setup for successful climate smart agriculture
Time and again promising technical interventions in agriculture have failed to deliver the
benefits they promise. Often this seems to be exacerbated by the policy environment which does
not encourage farmers to take up these proven interventions. Institutions such as land tenure
discourage farmers from investing in infrastructural developments for fear of failure to reap the
gains. Inappropriate policies and weak institutions may result in farmers adopting practices that
are unsustainable (CTA, 2013). Several counties are piloting policies and creating institutions to
manage current as well as future climate risks in the agriculture sector. There are important
lessons to be learned from each other’s experiences as shown in Box 1.
2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland
The current agricultural production challenges such as climate variability and climate change and
land degradation need technological solutions. In addition, the changes in consumer eating
habits, food choices and preferences and industrial demand on agricultural commodities require
responsive farming systems. Various technologies have been developed and promoted by various
institutions to support crop and livestock production in Swaziland dating back into the 1920s.
These ranged from application of hardware (tools and equipment for farming, agrochemicals,
and crop varieties) to software technologies (crop production methods and practices, information
and communication technologies). Improved agricultural technologies have always been the
nucleus for advancement in agricultural and natural resources management and productivity,
food security and improved livelihoods. Some of the technologies like animal-drawn ploughs
have stood the test of time and are still applicable up to now, some have been overcome by
changes in farming systems and have been dropped along the way and others remain unused for
perceived irrelevance. However, as climate change effects become more evident in Swaziland
and the whole sub region, most farmers see the wisdom of trying out new climate-smart
agricultural innovations to maximize land productivity, minimize environmental degradation
thus sustainably increasing crop yields.
Climate-smart technologies that are being promoted in the country and have potential of
adoption include; conservation agriculture (CA), irrigation, rainwater harvesting, agroforestry,
new crop varieties.
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Box 1: Some success stories of climate smart agriculture from around the world
Reducing Danish agriculture’s contribution to climate change: Denmark’s Green growth
Policy has helped reduce the agriculture sector’s carbon footprint while ensuring the sector
remains vibrant. This included improved use of manure and 40% reduction in the use of
inorganic fertilisers. It has contributed to a 28% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions between
1990 and 2009.
Carbon farming initiative for climate change mitigation in Australia: This is an initiative
that was launched by the Australian Government in December 2011 to generate carbon credits
for trading or to satisfy mandatory or voluntary carbon commitments. The Carbon Farming
Initiative (CFI) allows farmers to earn “carbon credits” by implementing practices that sequester
carbon or reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The credits may be sold by the farmers to
individuals and businesses that want or need to offset the greenhouse gas emissions of their
business operations. Eligible activities for reducing emissions include altered livestock
management, increasing fertilizer use efficiency and reforestation.
Kenyan farmers selling carbon credits to BioCarbon Fund: In November 2010, the Kenya
Agricultural Carbon Project signed an Agricultural Reduction Purchase Agreement (ERPA) with
the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund. The project is implemented by Vi Agroforestry, a Swedish
non-governmental organization, and it helps farmers adopt sustainable agricultural land
management (SALM) practices such as reduced tillage, use of cover crops, green manure,
mulching and agroforestry. Some 15000 farmers in 800 farmer groups have adopted SALM
practices, which have been applied to around 12000 ha of degraded land. The project will bring
direct benefits of US$350000 to the local communities.
Bottom up development planning in Niger: Local communities in Niger have been playing
leading role in the country’s development with support of a Community Action Plan (CAP)
financed by the World bank, the Global Environmental Facility (GEP) and the International Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The project has implemented initiatives that have
contributed to mitigating climate change and enhancing the resilience of the country’s agriculture
to the effects of climate change.
Forest management in Tanzania: Uncontrolled exploitation of Tanzania’s forest in the 1990s
and the early 2000s led to over 400000 ha of forest being lost each year. The Forest Policy of
1998 and the Forest Act of 2002 provided a legal basis for the communities to own and manage
forest resources on village lands and jointly manage forest resources in government forest
reserves. By end of 2011, more than 2 million ha of forest were under community-based
management and more that 1.6 million ha were under joint management, involving over 1800
villages,
Source: CTA, 2013
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2.3 Climate smart agriculture innovations in Swaziland
The current agricultural production challenges such as climate variability and climate change and
land degradation need technological solutions. In addition, the changes in consumer eating
habits, food choices and preferences and industrial demand on agricultural commodities require
responsive farming systems. Various technologies have been developed and promoted by various
institutions to support crop and livestock production in Swaziland dating back into the 1920s.
These ranged from application of hardware (tools and equipment for farming, agrochemicals,
and crop varieties) to software technologies (crop production methods and practices, information
and communication technologies). Improved agricultural technologies have always been the
nucleus for advancement in agricultural and natural resources management and productivity,
food security and improved livelihoods. Some of the technologies like animal-drawn ploughs
have stood the test of time and are still applicable up to now, some have been overcome by
changes in farming systems and have been dropped along the way and others remain unused for
perceived irrelevance. However, as climate change effects become more evident in Swaziland
and the whole sub region, most farmers see the wisdom of trying out new climate-smart
agricultural innovations to maximize land productivity, minimize environmental degradation
thus sustainably increasing crop yields.
Climate-smart technologies that are being promoted in the country and have potential of
adoption include; conservation agriculture (CA), irrigation, rainwater harvesting, agroforestry,
new crop varieties.
2.2.1 Conservation agriculture
Although the CSA concept is not directly visible in major agriculture policies in Swaziland,
some components of CSA such as conservation agriculture have been promoted both at national
and practical levels. Conservation agriculture is an agricultural crop production concept that
strives to achieve profitable and sustainable yield levels while concurrently conserving the
environment that influences production (Dumanski et. al., 2006; FAO, 2010). The sustainability
of CA is enshrined in its three main principles which are; (1) minimum mechanical soil
disturbance, (2) maintaining a permanent soil cover through retention of crop residues and
growing cover crops, and (3) promoting a healthy soil through practicing crop rotations, cover
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crops and application of integrated pest management strategies (Dumanski et. al., 2006; FAO,
2010).
Various tillage, planting and soil moisture conservation innovations form components of the
rubric of conservation agriculture. The philosophy behind CA is to promote those cultural
practices, more often a combination of different innovations, which conserve fragile soils, retain
organic matter and extend the period of water availability to crops. Crops are planted in previous
crop residues of at least 30% surface cover, which are deliberately left on the soil surface after
harvesting. Conventional land preparation practices that incorporate crop residues into the soil,
such as ploughing are reduced to minimum and external inputs such as inorganic fertilisers and
pesticides are judiciously applied to minimize their interference with biological processes. The
goal of CA is to strike a balance between agricultural sustainability and efficient use of natural
resources.
Conservation agriculture allows nature to regenerate and retain soil structure thus improving
water and nutrients availability to plants and reducing soil erosion. Additional benefits include
reduced costs of machinery use, reduced need for agro-chemicals, reduced soil compaction, and
improved timing of planting and improved farm labour productivity (World Bank, 2012; FAO,
2013). It also increases water use efficiency, reduces land and water pollution and leads to
reduced emission of greenhouse gases (Dumanski et. al., 2006), builds up soil organic matter,
improves soil fertility and stimulates soil microbial activity (FAO, 2001).
Advocacy for the CA concept is aimed at improving food security and livelihoods of farmers
through minimizing soil disturbance, maintaining permanent soil cover and practicing crop
rotations (FAO, 2001; FAO, 2010). Over the last few decades, CA technologies have evolved to
suite a wide range of farm sizes, soil and crop species, farming systems, climatic conditions and
farmer resources. Conservation agriculture is gaining popularity among farmers throughout the
world. Dumanski et. al., 2006, reported that CA is practiced successfully on approximately 95
million hectares worldwide of which 47% is practiced in South America, 39% in North America,
9% in Australia and 3.9% in Europe, Asia and Africa. The main reasons that could have led to
higher adoption of this tillage evolution by farmers in the Americas may be increased
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profitability due to reduced crop production costs as well as increased and stabilized crop yields.
In stallholder farms, CA eliminates draught power-intensive soil tillage and reduces labour
required for crop production by 50% (FAO, 2013). This is important for countries ravaged with
HIV and AIDS, such as Swaziland, where children and/or the elderly provide labour for farming
(FAO, 2005). Many families living with HIV and AIDS can no longer manage to till enough land
to meet their own food needs (FAO, 2005). A study conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives (Government of Swaziland, 2003), indicated that loss of labour due to HIV and
AIDS related illnesses and deaths forced 38.5 % of households to reduce the area under
cultivation and changing cropping systems leading to 47% decline in crop production.
Conservation agriculture may contribute towards breaking the HIV and AIDS –food security
vicious cycle as it reduces the amount of labour traditionally required in land preparation and
weeding. Conservation agriculture also alleviates the food and nutritional security crisis in rural
communities by offering means to grow a diversified diet on the same land. Though not a
panacea, CA seems to offer sustainable options for improving food security in the country
compared to conventional agricultural practices.
Conservation agriculture was first formerly introduced in Swaziland in 2002 by the Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA) through support from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United
Nations (FAO) and the Cooperation of the Development of Emerging Countries (COSPE). Two
sites were selected for the initial introduction of the concept; Shewula community in the north-
east of the country and Kambhoke community in the south. A roll out programme, to cover the
whole country, was implemented in 2006 in which participating farmers were supplied with the
necessary CA equipment and related inputs.
Conservation agriculture is being adopted by more farmers as they realise its benefits. The
advocates for conservation agriculture in the country include the Swaziland Agricultural
Development Programme (SADP), International Relief & Development (IRD) and World Vision
International (WVI). SADP has trained 2118 farmers in sustainable agriculture, with 1141 (54%)
of those trained being females. Fifty youth groups were trained in vegetable and poultry
production. A total of 1600 farmers were trained and 1200 prepared 288 ha using conservation
16
agriculture techniques through the assistance of IRD. The farmers produced maize, sorghum and
cowpeas under CA.
2.3.2 Drought-tolerant varieties
Maize is the staple food for more than 300 million people in Africa. By 2030s’ drought and
rising temperatures could render 40% of the continents’ current maize-growing area unsuitable
for maize varieties available today (CTA, 2012). New drought and heat tolerant varieties have to
be developed and grown in farmers’ fields in the next few years to avoid widespread famine in
Africa, including Swaziland. The Harmonised Seed Security Project (HASSP) which is being led
by FANRPAN aims to increase the production and uptake of drought and heat tolerant seeds in
the country, for use by those at risk. Four open pollinated maize varieties have been released in
Swaziland. They are ZM 309 (extra early duration), ZM 521/523 and ZM 611 (medium duration)
and ZM 721 (long duration). It is estimated that about 50% of the farmers in Swaziland use
recycled seeds (which are in most cases open pollinated varieties). The open-pollinated maize
varieties have an advantage in that the seed can be recycled. They are also cheaper that the
hybrids and better post-harvest handling qualities. The two main companies that produce and
distribute hybrid seeds in the country are Seed Company Limited and Pannar Seed. Some of their
seed varieties are reported to be drought and heat tolerant.
2.3.3 Irrigation for small-holder farmers
Out of the 52000 ha under irrigation in Swaziland, only about 1300 ha is under small-scale
farming (excluding those under commercial irrigation schemes). Results from a survey
conducted by FAO in 2007 indicate that more male [55.0] small-scale farmers were irrigating
their crops than female [44.3%] farmers in SNL. The main factor preventing farmers from
irrigating their crops was the lack of access to water [36.9%]. This was followed by high cost of
irrigation [20.7%] and the least factor was labour cost [0.6%]. Lack of access to water was
reported more as a constraint by female [42.1%] than by male [31.6%] farmers. The lack of
water and high cost of irrigation facilities were the main bottlenecks to irrigation of crops by
farmers. Irrigation of vegetables was ranked highest by both male [44.3%] and female [38.1%]
farmers. Green maize ranked a very distant second by male farmers [11.8%], compared to dry
maize that came second for female farmers [6.5%]. While green maize ranked second for male
17
farmers, it ranked third for female farmers. This is important from the food security point of
view. While male farmers are more interested in growing green maize under irrigation, possibly
as a cash crop, female farmers preferred to grow dry maize under irrigation to meet the
household food needs. The main sources of water for irrigation were rivers/streams [22.8%]
followed by dams [7.4%] and lastly, wetlands [0.8%]. Slightly more male farmers [24.0%] used
river/stream water for irrigation than female farmers [21.5%]
2.3.4 Introducing new crop varieties
Over the years several crops have been introduced in the different Rural Development Areas
(RDAs) of the country in order to increase diversity and improve production. However at the
same time farmers have stopped growing some crops in other RDAs (Table 3). The reasons for
farmers stopping producing some crops can be grouped into climate and weather, farm inputs,
soil fertility, markets, pests and diseases, and technology (Box 2).
Table 3: Crops that had been introduced and those that were no longer produced in different
RDAs
Rural
development
area
Crops that have been introduced in
the last five years
Crops no longer being produced
Central Baby vegetables, indigenous maize,
cassava, mung beans, cotton,
mushroom production
Ematabane [Zulu potato], sesame, water
melon, emaselwa
Hluti Cassava, rice beans Sesame, cowpeas, jugo beans, white bean
variety, cassava
Langa Cowpeas, jugo beans, mung beans,
cassava, mushroom production,
sesame
Cassava, sweet potato, nyawotsi/mgcobane,
Mayiwane Cassava, Irish potato, baby vegetables,
banana, cotton, sunflower
Sesame, tintjoli
Motjane Baby vegetables, baby corn, hybrid
maize, jatropha, coffee, mushroom
production
Mung beans, sesame, umhlata [root crop],
ematabane [Zulu potato], taro, cassava
Ngwempisi Determinate cowpeas, cassava, Irish
potato, sorghum
Ematabane [Zulu potato], cassava, jugo
beans, sesame, land races of maize
Siphofaneni Green beans, cassava, sugarcane,
cotton
Sesame, nyawotsi
Sithobela Cassava, climbing white cowpeas,
baby vegetables, Lablab, mushrooms
Nyawotsi, white cowpeas, lablab,
umgcobane, ematabane
Southern Cassava, taro, fruit trees, mango,
sorghum, mung beans, pawpaw,
Sesame, cotton, rice beans
Source: FAO, 2005
18
Box 2: Reasons why farmers were no longer producing some crops
1. Climate and weather: Unreliable rain, delayed rainfall, persistent drought,
climate change
2. Farm inputs: Shortage of farm inputs, shortage/ lack of seeds, unreliability
of seeds from agro-dealers, high input costs, lack of tractors for ploughing
3. Soil fertility: Poor soil fertility
4. Markets: Lack of market for product, fluctuating market prices, long
distance markets, competition between different crops
5. Pests and diseases: Problem with pests and diseases, problem with wild
pigs eating crop, birds feeding on crop, uncontrolled livestock eating crop
6. Technology: Availability of new technologies, introduction of new and
better performing crops, lack of indigenous knowledge to grow crops.
Source: FAO, 2005
2.2.5 Use of kraal manure
Nationally, 72.6% of the farmers use animal manure, while 27.4% do not use animal manure.
More male (70.4%) than female farmers (20.6) used animal manure and the reason for male
farmers applying more kraal manure than female farmers could be attributed to the fact that men
generally own the cattle. This might be a case of those who own the cattle also own the manure
(FAO, 2005). The fact that there are some 600,000 cattle in Swaziland with a human population
of about one million, indicating that there is about one animal per every Swazi. Other farmers
use goat manure on high value crops such as vegetables. The advantages of using organic
manure include addition of nutrients to the soil and the sequestration of carbon dioxide thus
reducing its adverse effects on global warming (Box 3)
19
Box 3: Advantages of using organic manure
Addition of nutrients to the soil
Addition of organic matter that feed the soil [improve its health] so that the
soil can feed humankind
Improvement in soil structure, tilth, and aeration
Improvement of soil moisture
Relatively less expensive
Residual effects that reduce cost of farm operations
Stimulation of activities of micro-organisms that release nutrients
Slow nutrient release, especially nitrogen for synchrony with nutrient
demand by plants
Sequestration of carbon dioxide thus reducing its adverse effects on global
warming
Control of nematodes by green manure crops such as sunhemp [Crotalaria
juncea]
Reduction in soil temperature fluctuation
Reduction is runoff of fertilisers that lead to eutrophication of water bodies
Source: FAO/WFP, 2007
2.2.6 Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a land-use practice that involves the growing of woody perennials with arable
crops, woody perennials with livestock or a combination of woody perennials with arable crops
and livestock. Like conservation agriculture, it is an old land-use system that farmers have
practised traditionally, as a necessity, for increasing soil fertility by relying of standing
vegetation, mostly trees through the slash-and-burn shifting cultivation method in most African
countries. The forestry Department of the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affaires
through the SADP has established 300 on farm demonstration sites to showcase agroforestry
practices. The agroforestry practices intend to address issue of soil fertility, soil erosion and
diversification of farm produce. The most common types of agroforestry are agrosylvicultural
(trees with crops) and sylvopastoral (trees with pasture and livestock) (Box 4). In 1953 the King
of Swaziland issued an order commanding the Swazi Nation to leave grass filter strips between
20
ploughed lands at such intervals as advised by agricultural extension officers and not to plough
up and down the slope of a hill, but to plough across the slope. The King’s Order has been
observed for 6 decades and most cultivated land has grass filter strips. The grass filter strips are
usually 2 metres wide at intervals of between 5 m and 20 m depending on the slope of the land.
Trees and shrubs are often left to grow within the grass filter strips (Manyatsi, 1999).
Box 4: Types of agroforestry
Agrosylvicultural [trees with crops]: Improved tree fallow, trees on crop
land [trees may and may not be in rows], combination of trees in a plantation
with crops, trees along farm boundaries, trees along grass strips, trees in
alley farming practice, trees on erosion control structures.
Sylvopastoral [trees with pasture and livestock]: Trees in rangeland, tree
plantation with pasture, live fence, fodder banks
Source: World Agroforestry Centre, 2013.
2.3.7 The LUSIP GEF project
LUSIP GEF project intends to reduce land degradation, biodiversity loss and mitigate climate
change through the application of sustainable land management practices which will contribute
to mitigation and adaptation of climate change. It is being implemented in the Lower Usuthu
Basin (GEF, 2012). The area is generally used for cattle ranching, cultivation of crops and fallow
rotations and human settlements. The project will ensure that sustainable land management
practices are promoted, and it will restore resilient, integrated agro-ecosystems in currently
degraded areas (IFAD, 2009). To address the lack of comprehensive and integrated national land
policy, the project intends to set up a steering committee to help develop enabling policies and
prepare a coordinated action plan to promote sustainable land management. The promotion of
agroforestry, conservation agriculture and rangelands management approaches will lead to
restoration and protection of vital ecosystem functions in rangelands, croplands and woodlands.
21
The project is being executed by the Swaziland Ministry of Agriculture and the Swaziland Water
and Agricultural Development Enterprise.
2.2.8 Other national development programmes
The major goal of the agricultural sector of the government is to increase crop production to
achieve national self-sufficiency in maize, expanding fruit and vegetable production as means of
increasing rural income and improving nutrition, and encouraging cash crop production among
small-scale farmers (Government of Swaziland, 2013). In order to meet the goal, the Ministry of
Agriculture has embarked on several projects some of which have aspects of CSA. They include
earth dam rehabilitation and construction and irrigation development programmes (Table 4).
22
Table 4: National development programmes with implications to climate smart agriculture
Project Description
Maguga dam The Magugu dam is the largest within the Incomati (Komati) basin) which is
shared by South Africa, Swaziland and Mozambique. It has a capacity of 332
Mm3, and the construction started in 1996. It supplies was for the Komati
Downstream Development Project within Swaziland, and also irrigation water
in South Africa downstream of the river. The dam also houses a hydro-electric
generating plant that produces about 20 MW of power, which is about 8% of
the national power requirement. The dam boasted the bulk water supply to
Piggs Peak town which regularly experienced water shortage. It also supplied
water for rural communities along the route of the pipe from the dam to the
town
Komati
Downstream
Development
Project
The implementation of the started in 2004, with the aim of developing 7,400
ha of irrigation. It affected 19,500 people, with 14,500 people participating
directly. It was implemented and managed by the Swaziland Water and
Agricultural Development Enterprise (SWADE).
Lower Usuthu
Smallholder
Irrigation Project
The project supports the development of water resources of the lower Usuthu
and provides irrigation infrastructure and credit funds to enable smallholder
farmers to intensify and diversity their agricultural production. The first phase
of the project that is being implemented will develop 6,500 ha for irrigation,
and the second phase intends to develop about 5,000 ha. The project will
increase the percentage of homesteads with access to domestic and potable
water at less than 200m from 3.2% to 74% by 2015.
Swaziland
Agricultural
Development
Project
Its objectives are to develop improved smallholder production and marketing
systems, leading to sustainable food security and an improved quality of life
for rural households. It was also expected to strengthen the capacity of
agricultural research. It was conceived in 2007. It implementation has
advanced very slowly and its impact has not been realised. It is a project
within the Ministry of Agriculture, with fund made available through the
Facility for Fluctuations in Export Earnings of the EU.
Smallholder
Agricultural
Development
Project
The project was implemented from 1994 to 2002, and intended to benefit
16,000 households. It was funded by IFAD and Government of Swaziland. It
had an irrigation development component that was to benefit 2,215 farmers.
The irrigation component was to rehabilitate and develop about 400 ha of
small-scale irrigation schemes. However its results were not satisfactory due
to a number of reasons, which included inadequate manpower to implement it
and difficulties with procurement of construction material.
The Earth Dam
Rehabilitation
and Construction
Programme
The programme was funded by the European Union and the Government of
Swaziland. It constructed and rehabilitated a total of 18 earth dams in the low
rainfall areas of the country (Lowveld)
The Lavumisa
Irrigation project
This project developed a total of 300 ha of land, and it uses water from Jozini
Dam in South Africa. The water is pumped by the South African Government
as a compensation for flooded land in Swaziland, adjacent to the dam. A total
of 75 smallholder farmers are participating in the scheme.
23
CHAPTER 3: INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES FOR CSA
3.1 Institutional setup for addressing climate change and climate smart agriculture issues
The institutions that are fundamental for addressing climate change and climate smart agriculture
are presented in Table5. They include government ministries and departments, parastatals, Civil
Society Organisations and private sector. The Ministry of Agriculture has the responsibility for
ensuring food security in the country, and the activities of the other institutions should
complement that of the ministry.
3.1.1 The Ministry of Agriculture
The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for ensuring food security and increased agricultural
productivity in the country. It is also responsible for development and promotions of appropriate
technologies such as CSA. In fulfilling its mandate the ministry functions through a number of
departments and sections. The departments and sections within the ministry that are relevant to
climate smart agriculture are the Agricultural Research and Specialists department, the
Agricultural & Extension Services, Veterinary and Livestock production Services and the Land
Use Planning & Development Section. The department of Agricultural Research and Specialists
is responsible for identification of adaptable crop varieties that can be grown in the different
parts of the country, as well as developing appropriate water management practices. The
department would play a major role in undertaking research on agricultural techniques for CSA
that include restoration of cultivated organic soils and improvement of cropland management.
The department of Veterinary and Livestock Production Services would play a major role in
improving livestock management and improving grazing land management. The Agriculture and
Extension Promotion Services is responsible for promoting crop production and providing
agricultural extension services in farming systems and technologies that will assure increased
production. The number of government extension officers has been reduced from about 300 a
decade ago, to about 100 in 2013. There are 82 assistant extension officers. The subsequent
increase in farmer/extension officer ratio has led to a decline in extension services, affecting
agricultural productivity in the country. There are some Non Governmental Organisations with
extension officers who provide services to some farmers, complementing the government
extension service.
24
Table 5: Key institutions for climate smart agriculture
INSTITUTION/DEPARTMENT ROLE PLAYED IN CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE
Ministry of Agriculture The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for ensuring food security and increased
sustainable agricultural productivity in the country. The ministry is also responsible
for development and promotion of appropriate technologies such as CSA.
Swaziland Water Development
Enterprise (SWADE)
SWADE is a government company established by the Government of Swaziland in
1999 to facilitate the planning and implementation of large water and agricultural
development project that Government may assign.
NAMBOARD NAMBoard is a parastatal whose purpose is to stimulate local production by providing
technical service and marketing of the agricultural produce in the country, and
particularly to support small farmers.
National Maize Marketing Corporation The National Maize Corporation (NMC) is a state-owned enterprise that was
incorporated in 1985 and it is involved in the business of commodity trading in white
maize.
Swaziland Dairy Board The Swaziland Dairy Board is a public enterprise wholly owned by government. It
was established in 1971 in order to regulate the dairy industry in the country
Department of Meteorology of the
Ministry of Tourism and
Environmental Affairs
This department is Designated National Authority for climate change issues and
operates through the National Focal Point to the UNFCCC. Its primary role is to
oversee meteorological issues
Department of Forestry of the Ministry
of Tourism and Environmental Affairs
The department is responsible for all programmes that deal with forestry in the
country including afforestation and the control of wild fires.
National Disaster Management Agency
under the Deputy Prime Minister’s
Office
The mandate of this Agency is to promote disaster reduction programmes and
awareness campaigns to drastically reduce disaster risk and strengthen resilience to
disaster victims, especially for drought victims. Drought and famine is one common
disaster in Swaziland
Swaziland Standards Authority
(SWASA)
The Swaziland Standards Authority through the Standards and Quality Act 2003 is
mandated to put in place standards on product quality, industrial/agricultural
processes, imports and exports to ensure safety and quality of goods and services in
the country
Swaziland promotions Investment
Authority (SIPA)
SIPA is mandated to attract, facilitate and promote local and foreign investment;
initiate, coordinate and implement government policies and strategies on investment
University of Swaziland The University of Swaziland (UNISWA) is the highest institute of learning in the
country. The Faculty of Agriculture offers four year degree programmes in the area of
agriculture and consumer science. It also offers postgraduate programmes
Department of Water Affairs (DWA)
of the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Energy
The DWA that was established by the Water Act of 2003 is responsible for water
resource management, including ensuring that safe drinking water is available in the
country
The Swaziland National Trust
Commission.
This parastatal was established in terms of the SNTC Act, 1972 with the mandate to
ensure the conservation of nature and cultural heritage for the country. Other
programmes for the Commission include the conservation of wetlands.
Swaziland Environmental Authority
(SEA)
This is a parastatal was established by the Environment Management Act, 2002
(EMA) to provide for and promote the protection, conservation and enhancement of
the environment and the sustain-able management of natural resources
Policy and Programme Coordination
Unit under the Prime Minister’s Office
This Unit play a coordination role in policy formulation and it is further tasked with
reviewing, analysing and giving advice on government policies and other documents
across all sectors.
Civil Society Organisations The Civil Society Organisations are composed of Non Government Organisations,
Community Based Organisations and Church Based Organisations. Several NGOs are
affiliated to the Coordinating Assemble of Non Government Organisations (CANGO).
The private sector The private sector that play a major role in agriculture include the sugar estates, small
and large scale farmers and retailers
Swaziland National Agricultural Union The Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU) is an umbrella body for all
farmer organisations in the country
25
3.1.2 Policy and Programme Coordination Unit
It is a requirement that all various policies and strategies that are developed by each government
agencies be approved for implementation. This Unit does not only play a coordination role in
policy formulation but is further tasked with reviewing, analysing and giving advice on
government policies and other documents across all sectors. A system has been put in place to
monitor and report on policy and programme implementation by every agency implementing any
policy. This Unit is important in also giving support to all policies that addresses climate change
and climate smart issues, and would also assist any policy and strategy on climate change. The
unit is housed under the Prime Minister’s Office
3.1.3 National Disaster Management Agency (NDMA)
The mandate of this Agency is to: (a) promote Disaster Reduction programmes and awareness
campaigns to drastically reduce disaster risk and strengthen disaster victims resilience especially
for drought victims; (b) develop and strengthen Legal and Institutional Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction (DRR); (c) enhance and improve Coordination and relief assistance for disaster
victims; and (d) enhance and improve timely provision of food and material assistance to disaster
victims. The NDMA is housed under the Deputy Prime Minister’s Office and it is headed by a
director.
3.1.4 Department of Meteorology
This Department is Meteorology under the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs is
Designated National Authority for climate change issues and operates through the National Focal
Point to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Its primary
role is to oversee meteorological issues. At international level, the Department has been
responsible for leading negotiations on behalf of the country. Nationally, the department has
produced two National Communications reports to the UNFCCC and is coordinating various
stakeholders to form a National Climate Change Committee (NCCC). The responsibility of the
NCCC was to develop and coordinate programmes and projects aimed at addressing climate
change in line with the country’s development priorities. The Department does not have a
comprehensive legislation that provides for its role on air monitoring and climate change in
general.
26
3.1.5 Forestry Department
This department is under the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs. It is responsible
for all programmes that deal with forestry in the country including afforestation and the control
of wild fires. The tree planting programme is one that the department is effectively implementing
despite budgetary constraints. The Department is not only understaffed to deal effectively with
its programmes such as wild fires and various forms of deforestation, but also lack a
comprehensive legislation that empowers it to undertake its duties effectively. It has drafted the
Forest Policy a decade ago, but has had challenges in concluding the enactment of the Forest Bill
which provides regulatory and institutional measures in these areas, including in the management
of alien invasive species. The Forestry department would play a pivotal role in implementation
of agroforestry activities in the country.
3.1.6 Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA)
This is a parastatal established by the Environment Management Act, 2002 (EMA) to provide for
and promote the protection, conservation and enhancement of the environment and the sustain-
able management of natural resources. The functions of SEA can be summarised as follows; a) to
promote the development of policies, legislation codes and standards necessary for sound
environmental management, including their enforcement; b) coordinate activities of
bodies (both local and international) that are involved in matters pertaining to the environment;
c) monitor trends in the state of the environment; and d) to promote research in
environmental matters and increase public awareness and participation.
In coordinating the various government agencies in environmental management, the SEA is
implementing a number of legislation and programmes that seek to prevent and control the
impacts of climate change. Since establishment the SEA has put in place various policies and
strategies including the National Environment Action Plan (SEAP), the Environment Impact
Assessment Guidelines, National Solid Waste Management Strategy (NBSAP), Environmental
Education Strategy, Biotechnology Policy, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan,
National Implementation Plan (NIP) for the management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
and Draft Biodiversity Management Policy as well as the Draft State of the Environment Report
(SOER).
27
3.1.7 Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC)
This parastatal is established in terms of the SNTC Act, 1972 with the mandate to ensure the
conservation of nature and cultural heritage for the country. It has the power to declare nature
reserves and game parks and oversee their status. This power extends to Swazi Nation Land and
privately owned land. The SNTC is also responsible for environmental education and awareness
programmes as well as community outreach on issues of nature conservation. The parastatal has
been engaged in management, including the control of the spread of alien invasive plant species
within nature reserves as well as monitoring the status of biodiversity in general. To this end it
has been involved in mapping of species. Other programmes for the Commission include the
conservation of wetlands which includes the compilation of a National Wetlands and Protection
Worthy Areas Surveys. Further programmes aimed at the conservation and reclamation of
wetlands is being undertaken in coordination with the SEA.
3.1.8 The Swaziland Standards Authority
The Swaziland Standards Authority through the Standards and Quality Act 2003 is mandated to
put in place standards on product quality, industrial/agricultural processes, imports and exports to
ensure safety and quality of goods and services in the country. It is also expected to Co-operate
with the Government or the representatives of any industry or with any local authority or other
public body or any other person, in order to secure the adoption and practical application of
standards and technical regulations and determine compliance with such technical regulations.
This fairly new parastatal is currently putting in place the said standards and is largely involving
all public bodies in this exercise.
3.1.9 The Swaziland Investment Promotions Authority
Established by the Swaziland Investment Promotion Act, 1998 SIPA is one pivotal agency that
can contribute to regulation of climate change issues by its strategic placement in government. It
is mandated to attract, facilitate and promote local and foreign investment; initiate, coordinate
and implement government policies and strategies on investment; and provide one-stop
information and support facility for local and foreign investors.
28
3.1.10 Department of Water Affairs
The Department of Water Affairs of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy that was
established by the Water Act of 2003 is responsible for water resource management, including
ensuring that safe drinking water is available in the country. Water quantity is controlled through
issuing of water permits for all water users should be a mechanism for monitoring and managing
the use of water, particularly for industrial and irrigation purposes. However, water resources are
steadily diminishing due to persistent drought across the region. Water pollution is still a major
challenge for the department despite constant monitoring.
3.1.11 Swaziland Water and Agricultural Development Enterprise (SWADE)
SWADE is a government company established by the Government of Swaziland in 1999 to
facilitate the planning and implementation of the Komati Downstream development Project
(KDDP) and Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project (LUSIP) and any other large water
and agricultural development project that Government may assign. KDDP used water from
Maguga Dam in the Komati river to irrigate about 3892 ha if sugarcane, 205 ha of vegetables and
442 ha of other crops. The project area totals 27,000 ha, with about 22,000 inhabitants on Swazi
Nation (communal) land. The LUSIP on the other hand is located along the west bank of the
lower Usuthu River in the Lowveld. The first phase will develop 6500 ha into irrigated farm, and
the second phase will irrigate a total of 5000 ha.
3.1.12 NAMBOARD
The National Agricultural Marketing Board (NamBoard) is a parastatal organisation established
under the NAMBOARD Act of 1985. It facilitates the agricultural production, processing,
storage, transportation, distribution and sale of both baby and conventional vegetables. The
purpose of NAMBoard is to stimulate local production by providing technical service and
marketing of the agricultural produce in the country, and particularly to support small farmers.
3.1.13 National Maize Corporation
The National Maize Corporation (NMC) is a state-owned enterprise that was incorporated in
1985 and it is involved in the business of commodity trading in white maize. The mission of
NMC is to enhance food security and create wealth through effective grain procurement, storage
29
and distribution practices with the involvement of all stakeholders. The objectives of NMC is o
reduce marketing barriers and costs to Swazi farmers by improving maize marketing and
logistics services, and to guarantee all year round supplies of maize at reasonable costs to the
nation.
3.1.14 University of Swaziland
The University of Swaziland (UNISWA) is the highest institute of learning in the country. The
Faculty of Agriculture of UNISWA evolved from the Swaziland Agricultural College and
University Centre (SACUC). It began by offering certificates and diplomas in Agriculture,
Agricultural Education and Home Economics to produce, mainly officers for the Ministry of
Agriculture and the Ministry of Education. Currently the faculty offers 11 degree programmes
with duration of four years. The degree programmes that are relevant to CSA include Bachelor of
Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Economics an Agribusiness Management, Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education,
Bachelor of Science in Agronomy, Bachelor of Science in Animal Science, and Bachelor of
Science in Horticulture. The diploma programmes were phased out by the University of
Swaziland. The faculty also offers postgraduate programmes in the areas of Agronomy,
Horticulture, Agricultural Extension, Agricultural Education, Animal Science and Environmental
Resources Management. The students in the new degree programmes specialise in their areas, as
opposed to the previous degree in agriculture programme where students were taking courses in
all the subjects, including crop production, horticulture, animal health, animal production,
agricultural engineering, agricultural economics & management, and agricultural extension.
There is also an opportunity to review the programmes and mainstream climate smart
agriculture.
3.1.15 Swaziland Dairy Board
The Swaziland Dairy Board is a regulator of the dairy industry in the country. It provides
support, training and advisory services to milk producers. The services to farmers include
resource assessment for staring dairy farming, siting and construction of dairy structures, forage
production and conservation. It also gives advice on pasture establishment and management,
30
procurement of dairy cattle and artificial insemination. The regulatory function is through
charging of levy for imported dairy products.
3.1.16 Civil Society Organisations
The Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) include Non Government Organisations (NGOs),
Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and church based organisations. The Coordinating
Assemble of Non Governmental Organisations (CANGO) is responsible for coordinating the
activities of the NGOs in the country. The CSOs play a major role in the welfare and livelihood
of communities in the country. CANGO has a membership of about 80 organisations. Some of
the activities undertaken by the NGOS are highlighted in Box 5. A number of them are actively
involved in agriculture and food security programmes. They go to the extent of providing
farming inputs and extension services to communities. Examples of NGOs that are involved in
farming and agriculture are World Vision International, Africa Cooperative Action Trust
(ACAT) and International Relief and Development (IRD). The CBOs work with communities at
grass root level, and they can be used as entry points for CSA projects in the country.
Box 5: Land use and land management activities undertaken by NGOs in Swaziland.
To increase food security by effecting improvements in agriculture
productivity based on promotion of environmentally appropriate agricultural
practices.
To increase availability of clean water supply by introducing methods of
water harvesting and rehabilitation.
To reduce environmental degradation in target areas
To promote equal access to development and social services
To promote income generating activities within rural homesteads and
communities
Source: CANGO, 2003
31
3.1.17 Private Sector
The private sector include small, medium and large scale business entities. Private sectors
relevant to CSA include producers of agriculture products, retailers and distributors of farming
inputs. They also include financial institutions. The Federation of Swaziland Business
Community (FESBC) is the umbrella body of the private sector in the country.
3.1.18 Swaziland National Agricultural Union
The Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU) is an umbrella body for all farmer
organisations in the country. It is under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture. Its aim is to
promote and safeguard the interest of the farmers by linking them with other stakeholders and
key players in the agriculture sector, and to facilitate a favourable environment for production,
and access to resources, research and technology. The role of SNAU is therefore fundamental in
the successful adoption and implementation of CSA in the country.
3.1.19 Development partners
The development partners include international organisations, regional organisations and
bilateral partners. International Organisations that have played role in agriculture include the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Food and On the other
hand regional organisations include COMESA and FANRPAN. UNDP and COMESA are
currently funding the development of a National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, as
well as a Climate Change Policy. The Strategy is near its finalisation, and the draft strategy has
some components of CSA in its proposed adaptation and mitigation actions. FAO was
instrumental in developing a comprehensive agriculture sector policy. FAO is also funding the
implementation of the Swaziland Agricultural Development Programme that intends to improve
the production and productivity of smallholder farmers.
32
3.2 National Policy and legislative framework for climate change and CSA
The country has several legislation and policies that have some relevance to climate smart
agriculture. It is worth noting though that the majority of the legislation was enacted before
climate change was an issue. The policies and legislation can be grouped into different sectors
that include Agriculture, Environment, and Forest. Natural Resources, Water Resources, Disaster
preparedness, and Administration (Appendix A). The national policies that have direct
implications to climate smart agriculture and food security are the National Food Security Policy
of 2005, the Comprehensive Agriculture Policy of 2005, the Swaziland National Irrigation Policy
of 2005and the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP). The
Forest Policy of 2000 is also fundamental for sustainable land resources management. Farmers
also developed National Action Plan following an agriculture summit that was held in 2007. All
the critical policies do not have legislation to make them work. Some legislation is very old and
out-dated. They include the Forest Preservation Act of 1910, the Grass Fires Act of 1955 and the
Natural Resources Act of 1951. The policies and legislation is further discussed in the
subsections below.
3.2.1 The Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP)
The Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme has been endorsed by the
African Heads of State and Government as a framework for restoration of agriculture growth,
food security, and rural development in Africa. The CAAPD framework commits African
Governments to allocate at leaset10% of national budgetary resources to agriculture and rural
development. One of the pillars of CAADP is extending the area under sustainable land
management and reliable water control systems, and CSA falls under this pillar. The specific
goal of CAADP is to attain an average annual sectoral growth rate of 6% in agriculture.
Swaziland signed the CAADP framework in March 2010. To this end the implementation of the
CAADP framework in the country has been slow due to a number of reasons, one of them being
the poor economic standing of the country in the past three years.
33
3.2.2 The National Agriculture Summit Action Plan
The National Agriculture Summit was a direct government response to the plight of Swazi
farmers who are increasingly operating in an environment that is challenging and militating
against normal agricultural production. These challenges include global warming and associated
climate change, globalisation and market access barriers to lucrative markets in the northern
hemisphere, dwindling water resources and diminishing river flows and alien invasive species. A
number of issues were raised in action plan. They include lack of knowledge on land suitability
issues at community level, problems of land degradation and water resource storage and
allocation and well as difficulties in accessing farm inputs. The recommendations included the
production of nationwide land suitability maps to assist in developing a long term strategy of
promoting integrated agriculture, building of water storage facilities, use of agroforestry to
rehabilitate degraded land ad provision of subsidies for agricultural inputs.
3.2.3 National Food Security Policy for Swaziland of 2005
This policy, which is an integral part of the Comprehensive Agriculture Sector Policy and
National Development Strategy, is aimed at addressing the threats and opportunities relating to
food security in Swaziland. The policy introduces the status and framework of food security in
line with the internationally accepted definition of food security “Food security is achieved when
all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food
to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. The policy
provides key strategies to be developed and implemented that will address food insecurity and
poverty reduction. Further, this policy forms the basis of priority setting and strategy
development around food security which will be integrated into an overall Integrated Agriculture
and Food Security Strategy and Action Plan. The policy recognises the effects of drought that
bring about seasonal and inter-annual instability of food supplies. It advocates for an early
warning system that include agro-meteorological modelling and integrated multidisciplinary crop
forecasting techniques. It also brings about the need for climate change adaptation strategies for
food security.
3.2.4 Comprehensive Agricultural Sector Policy of 2005
The objectives of the Comprehensive Sector Policy of 2005 include the increase of agricultural
outputs and productivity and to ensure sustainable use and management of land and water
34
resources. The broad objective is to provide clear guidance on policy options and measures
necessary to enhance sustainable agriculture sector development. It considers all the sub-sectors
of agriculture: rainfed crop, irrigated crop, livestock, research, extension, marketing and credit.
The policy also recognises the need for rapid climate change adaptation strategies to safeguard
crop and livestock production
3.2.5 Swaziland National Irrigation Policy of 2005
The National Irrigation Policy of the Kingdom of Swaziland intends to provide policy direction
in the irrigation sub-sector. It provides guidance regarding the measures that must be adopted in
order to increase the national irrigated area and to improve agricultural water management and
existing irrigated agriculture thereby adding increased value to the productivity of labour and
natural resources in Swaziland. This will lead to the promotion and development of specific
irrigation practices that are contingent upon the realities of internal and external markets and
development of value added food processing. The policy and its implementation strategy ensure
that development is guided and facilitated within a structured and balanced framework that
respects physical limits, equity concerns and institutional capacities.
3.2.6 The Poverty Reduction Strategy and Action Programme, 2006
This Strategy calls for the SEA and the Ministry to implement environmental management plans
in Swazi Nation Land. Farmers and Communities should be educated on sustainable methods of
living. The Strategy emphasizes the need for public awareness initiatives to ensure effective
waste management. It recommends the use of various public bodies NGOs and media in ensuring
wider access of information on practical waste management methods in communities. It further
calls for the Customs Department to ensure that there is no importation of all toxic wastes into
the country. The Climate Change Strategy needs to recognise the role of farmers and
communities in environmental management and in particular waste management practices and
provide for further strategies on how this approach can be operationalize.
35
3.2.7 The National Environmental Policy, 1999
The objective of this policy is to ‘promote the enhancement, protection and conservation of the
environment and the attainment of sustainable development in Swaziland. It lays down the
principles to be used in the undertaking of environmental conservations in the country.
It has four core principles which are environmental responsibility, sustainable use, environmental
rights and sustainable development. The policy also provides other 7 supporting principles. The
National Environment Policy (NEP) is an important and key component for integrating and
coordinating the other sectoral policy frameworks including the National Development Strategy
(NDS).
3.2.8 Environmental Audit Assessment and Review Regulations, 2000
These regulations are made under the Environmental Management Act. They provide for
sustainable development by ensuring that every developmental project is carried out with
minimal negative impacts on the environment. The regulations provide for environmental impact
assessment and environmental audit as compulsory tools for any project implementation. The
regulations are being implemented and have gained immense publicity and acceptance by both
small project implementers and investors in general.
3.2.9 The Forest Policy, 2000
The Policy is founded on various principles which include that the forest and woodland reserves
should be conserved and their biodiversity components sustained by maintaining ecosystem and
habitat diversity and stability. The objectives of the Policy include the following: To improve the
access to land for the utilisation and development of forest resources, and secure the tenure of
forest and trees; To promote the rational and sustainable use of land, and achieve a sustainable
balance between forestry and other uses of the land and water resources; To improve the forest
productivity, and ensure sustainable supply of multiple forest products and services by
maintaining the forest areas; To improve income and living conditions, and alleviate poverty; To
conserve the biodiversity of the forest resources, encourage its sustainable use and ensure that
benefits accrued are shared equitably; To promote the integration of forestry into urban
development; and To enhance the national capacity to manage and develop the forestry sector in
collaboration with other stakeholders. To date there is still no effective implementation of this
36
policy document due to the absence of a Forest Act. The role of forests on climate change issues
cannot be overemphasized. There is need to finalise the draft Forestry Bill which was developed
in 2010 in order for the country to attend to climate change issues in a harmonised approach with
the region.
3.2.10 Forest Preservation Act of 1907
There are other various policies and legislation contributing to government’s obligations on
climate change. These are sectoral instruments which are being implemented by the different
institutions either alone in their own institutions or in cooperation with the Designated National
Authority. These include the following:
3.2.11 Environment Management Act, 2002
The Act establishes the Swaziland Environment Authority as a body corporate. Its purpose is to
provide for and promote the enhancement, protection and conservation of the environment and
the sustainable management of natural resources. It is the country’s framework environmental
legislation which promotes the integrated management of natural resources on a sustainable
basis. The Act further provides for some key environmental principles which all other
institutions are expected to rely on in their respective obligations. These principles include:
ensuring that adverse effects are prevented and minimised through long term integrated planning
and the co-ordination, integration and co-operation of efforts, which consider the entire
environment as a whole entity; precautionary principle as well as the polluter pays principle. The
climate change strategy may also use these principles to elaborate on strategic issues that can
help avert climate change effect or even prevent the implementation of activities in a manner that
contribute to climate change. The functions of the Authority include, inter alia, the development
and publishing of standards that seek to enhance the conservation and protection of the
environment and the sustainable management of natural resources; issuing and administering of
various licences for activities that have an impact on the environment; oversee waste
management initiatives, including publishing a waste management strategy; administering
integrated environmental management, such as publishing the State of environment report and
environmental management plans; in cooperation with other government bodies, enforce the
provisions of the Act, including the issuing of Orders and prosecuting offenders. The major
37
issues are monitoring and enforcement of this law and its regulations. This can help SEA to
increase use of these administrative judicial powers to enforce compliance.
3.2.12 Swaziland National Trust Commission Act, 1972
This Act establishes the National Trust Commission and mandates it to declare any land as a
national park or nature reserve for purposes of biodiversity conservation. Once declared, various
activities which could compromise the ecological status of a reserve or park are legally
prohibited. These include hunting, felling or picking of various vegetation type and setting fires
in such designated areas.
3.2.13 Natural Resources Act 71/1951
The object of this Act is to provide for the conservation and improvement of natural resources in
the country. The Act establishes the Natural Resources Board, whose responsibilities are include
recommending to the Minister the promulgation of a proper legislation deemed necessary for the
proper conservation and improvement of natural resources in the country.
In terms of the Act the Board can issue Orders relating to natural resource. Such issues may
include soil conservation, water management including storm water, protection of vegetation,
burning of grass etc. Further it provides for the declaration of intensive conservation areas to be
supervised by community members through a Committee known as the Conservation
Committee. Appropriate enforcement of this Act can help mitigate the impacts of climate
change. The Board has power to issue any Orders that may help deal with issues of climate
change.
3.2.14 The King’s Order in Council of 1953
In 1953 the King of Swaziland issued an order commanding the Swazi nation to observe some
soil conservation measures on arable land. The nation was ordered to leave grass filter strips
between ploughed lands at such intervals as advised by agricultural extension officers. They
were ordered not to cultivate land with slopes of more than 14%, and not to plough up and down
the slope of a hill, but to always plough across the slop. The King’s Order has been observed
over 6 decades by the nation and at present all ploughing is done across the slope and most
cultivated land has grass filter strips. The chiefs are responsible for making sure that the order is
38
observed and any offender is charged before the traditional community court. As a result soil
erosion related to cultivation has been reduced to tolerable levels in Swaziland, which is unusual
for any hill country.
3.2.15 The Swaziland Investment Promotion Act No.1/1998
This is an Act to provide for the promotion of investment in Swaziland and the establishment of
an Investment Promotion Authority and for matters incidental thereto. The Act provides that
investment in all enterprises shall be made in conformity with applicable laws. It specifically
prohibits investment by foreign or local investors in the manufacture of hazardous wastes,
radioactive material and explosives. The SIPA is currently providing all investors with the key
legislation that investors need to take cognisance of. At inception stages, all sectors, including
the environmental sector is given a forum to present applicable laws and means of cooperation in
ensuring compliance. The promulgation of any form of climate change related policy can help
the Department of Meteorology to also have a firm approach in presenting on climate change
issues on investors.
3.2.16 The Swaziland Settlement Act No.1/1946
This Act provides for the establishment control and development of land settlement scheme for
the Swazi Nation. It prohibits the touring of fire in a manner that destroys grass, trees or any
vegetation in commonage. It further empowers the Principal Secretary Indvuna of a settlement
area to order able- bodied man to assist in the eradication of noxious weeds on commonage. A
person who has been so ordered and fail to obey such order without a reasonable excuse can be
guilty of an offence.
3.2.17 The Swazi Administration Order 6/1998
This Order-in-Counsel is being administered by the Ministry of Home Affairs. It provides for the
incorporation and appointment of Chiefs and Tindvuna in environmental management issues.
The aforesaid traditional leaders are endowed with powers to do the following: prohibiting,
restricting or regulating the cutting or destruction of trees; prohibiting or restricting the sale,
supply, use, possession or cultivation of poisonous or noxious plants and the manufacture of
noxious drugs or poisons; prohibiting, restricting or regulating the burning of grass or bush, and
39
the use of fire or lights in any manner likely to ignite any grass or bush, and the extinguishing of
grass or bush fires; and prohibiting, restricting or regulating wasteful methods of agriculture and
eradicating noxious and harmful weeds. For a long time Chiefs have been able to invoke some of
the above powers. But recently there has been a compromise in the exercise of these powers
leading to various unsustainable uses of resources and decline in the state of the environment.
3.2.18 The Flora Protection Act 10/ 2001
The Act provides for the protection of indigenous flora. This is done through the establishment
of flora reserves, botanical gardens and protection of special habitats. It further prohibits the
picking of protected indigenous flora for commercial use including export without a permit. A
listing through a schedule is provided and categorised as specially protected, vulnerable and rare
flora. Enforcement of the Act is posing as a challenge due to increasing poverty levels in areas
where there is indigenous flora, however much effort is put to control the overharvesting of
indigenous flora. Another challenge comes with the modest penal code of this important Act.
Otherwise if it could be amended to incorporate proportional sentences, it could add more value
in the protection of natural forests.
3.2.19 Forest Preservation Act 14/1910
This Act deals with protection of indigenous trees and forests growing on Government and
Swazi Nation Land from negligent and intentional destruction by human activity. The Act vests
on the Minister of Agriculture and/ or the District Commissioner with authority to sanction the
cutting, damage removal or sale of the indigenous trees and forests. It recognizes the right of
communities to harvest protected forests only for personal use.
3.2.20 The Private Forest Act 3/1951
This is an Act to provide for the better regulation and protection of private forests in Swaziland.
It gives private forests owners’ exclusive rights over their forests and their produce. It
specifically excludes forests from Swazi Nation Land as it deals in particular with the rights of
the owners of such forests. Even though this Act does not refer to climate change
directly, there is need to continue its enforcement due to the importance of forests.
40
3.2.21 The Plant Control Act 8/1981
The object of this Act is to provide control, movement and growing of plants and matters
incidental thereto. It creates a Nursery Registration Board who shall be responsible for the
registration of new nurseries. The Act prohibits the importation of plants into Swaziland without
a permit. Further it requires one to obtain a phytosanitary certificate in order to export any plant
or plant material. Further it mandates the Principal Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture to
ensure that land id prohibited from noxious weeds. The Act further protects natural vegetation
from infestation of locusts (red and brown locusts).
3.2.22 The Forest Policy, 2000
The Policy is founded on various principles which include that the forest and woodland reserves
should be conserved and their biodiversity components sustained by maintaining ecosystem and
habitat diversity and stability. The objectives of the Policy include the following: To improve the
access to land for the utilisation and development of forest resources, and secure the tenure of
forest and trees; To promote the rational and sustainable use of land, and achieve a sustainable
balance between forestry and other uses of the land and water resources; To improve the forest
productivity, and ensure sustainable supply of multiple forest products and services by
maintaining the forest areas; To improve income and living conditions, and alleviate poverty; To
conserve the biodiversity of the forest resources, encourage its sustainable use and ensure that
benefits accrued are shared equitably; To promote the integration of forestry into urban
development; and To enhance the national capacity to manage and develop the forestry sector in
collaboration with other stakeholders. To date there is still no effective implementation of this
policy document due to the absence of a Forest Act. The role of forests on climate change issues
cannot be overemphasized. There is need to finalise the draft Forestry Bill which was developed
in 2010 in order for the country to attend to climate change issues in a harmonised approach with
the region.
3.2.23 The Water Act, 2003
The Act declares water as a natural resource. It provides for the institutional structures for
effective management of water resources in the country. It provides for the establishment of the
National Water Authority, whose functions includes the preparation of a Water Resources
41
Master Plan which shall be implemented by River Basin Authorities and appointment of
members of the Joint Water Commission. The Act advocates for mainstreaming of stakeholders
in water resources management. Water usage beyond domestic use (such as irrigation purposes)
is managed through a permit system. Further, to ensure water is maintained at acceptable
standards, there is also provision for effluent control permit for water that has been used for
industrial purposes. The Department of Water Affairs implements the Act through monitoring
water quality and keeping track of water quantity for purposes of appropriate allocation. The
Water Resources Master Plan is still being prepared.
3.2.24 The Grass Fires Act 44/1955
The Act is being administered by the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs (Forestry
Department) . It prohibits the burning of grass and other vegetation without permission or
notification. It restricts owners and any person from setting fires wilfully or negligently and
obligates persons to extinguish wild fires to prevent their spread. Occupiers and owners of land
are required to establish firebreaks around their area before setting fires. The implementation of
this Act is seen to be a challenge as there are a number of wildfires which produce smoke
periodically. Latest data shows an increase in uncontrolled fires, particularly from the eastern
part of the country which leading to dark smokes. The Act is entirely out-dated and this leads to
its ineffectiveness. Perhaps the final enactment of the Forestry Bill will provide better regulation
in this aspect. However it is also imperative for the Climate Change Strategy to provide for the
burning of fires, including wild fires as they contribute to smokes in the country.
3.2.25 Disaster Management Act, 2006
The Act is being administered by the Deputy Prime Minister’s Office. It establishes the National
Disaster Management Agency (NDMA). The Act serves as the legal framework for disaster
management and makes provision for policy, plans and structures for disaster management. It
further provides for the establishment of a national disaster management team, council and
agency at the national level and a regional disaster management committee at the regional level.
42
The Agency has not only contributed to the systematic, holistic and sector-wide disaster
preparedness approach, but is further developing a Policy that seeks to streamline the various
types of disasters with the current government institutional arrangement for effective
implementation. There is still need to intensify the activities of the NDMA, particularly
regarding preparedness and early warning systems. There is still need to intensify the
implementation of this Act by the various relevant sectors that are responsible for different
disasters. Currently only the Ministry of Health is having a defined implementation structure for
the Act. A National Climate Change Strategy would give defined strategies on how other sectors
can approach their respective roles regarding disaster management including early warning
systems and preparedness.
3.2.26 Disaster Management Policy, 2010
The objective of this policy is to ensure an adequate and coherent policy framework for effective
disaster management in the country. It aims at creating a functional legal and institutional
framework for disaster risk management. The policy encourages the country to cooperate with
the region in the assessment and monitoring of emerging risks. The policy emphasizes the need
for various sectors, especially those responsible for environmental and natural resource
management to take leading roles in disaster risk management. This is a comprehensive policy
which can benefit the country in climate change issues if effectively implemented. The proposed
Climate Change Strategy can also build on it regarding issues of disaster management.
43
CHAPTER 4: CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENT CSA AND
OPPORTUNITIES
4.1 Key challenges to implementing CSA in Swaziland
The key challenges to implementing climate smart agriculture include lack of comprehensive
legislation on climate change, outdated legislation, challenges associated with hosting of climate
change, decline in agricultural extension service, lack of tools for climate smart agriculture and
lack of national land policy to coordinate actions plans to promote sustainable land management
(Box 6). A draft Land Policy was prepared in 1999, but up to now it has not been approved by
the traditional structures.
4.2 Opportunities
Several opportunities exist in the country for implementation of climate smart agriculture. The
country is in the process of developing a national climate change strategy together with
legislation to implement it. An opportunity should be taken to make sure that the strategy and
legislation has have components of climate-smart agriculture. Extension services are provided by
government and civil societies. The extension officers should be trained and empowered in
climate smart agriculture. The government has also invested in water storage dams and the water
storage facilities could be used for climate smart projects (Box 7).
44
Box 6: Key challenges in implementing climate smart agriculture
1. Lack of comprehensive climate change policy and legislation: Currently the country does not
have a national climate change policy and a specific legislation on climate change. However there
are sectoral policies and legislation that have a bearing on climate change. The country is
however undertaking an exercise to formulate and adopt a comprehensive national climate change
policy and to develop and enact comprehensive national climate change legislation.
2. Policies for food security were developed when climate change was not an issue: This include
the Forest Policy of 2000, the national Development Strategy and the Poverty Reduction Strategy
and Action Plan of 2007. Furthermore some programmes such as the LUSIP did not adequately
take into consideration the issues of climate change. This calls for a review of sectoral policies
and legislation with a view to integrating climate change and climate smart issues.
3. Key policies related to agriculture and food security lack legislation to make them
operational: Such policies include the National Food Security Policy, the Comprehensive
Agricultural Sector Policy and the Forest Policy. Legislation is needed in order to implement the
policies.
4. Outdated legislation: Legislation that has some implications on climate smart agriculture is
outdated and not enforceable. The outdated legislation is difficult to enforce and penalties are
sometimes not proportional to the offence at the present time.
5. Hosting of climate change: Climate change is hosted at the Meteorological Department under
the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Affairs. With increased awareness of climate change
issues and its impacts on various sectors, it is becoming apparent that climate change needs to be
coordinated in a manner that recognizes its cross-sectoral nature. The hosting of the National
Disaster Management Agency can be taken as a lesson, as it is hosted under the Deputy Prime
Minister’s Office.
6. Decline in agriculture extension service: The number of government extension officers has
been reduced over the years, affecting agricultural productivity. The extension officers also do
not have adequate training in climate change and climate smart agriculture
7. Lack of tools for climate-smart agriculture: The technology for climate-smart agriculture is not
readily available and expensive in some case. The majority of tools have to be imported into the
country.
8. Lack of national land policy: The lack of a comprehensive and integrated national land policy
hinders coordinated action plan to promote sustainable land management. It also contributes to
unplanned and unserviced settlements making them more vulnerable to adverse effects of climate
change. A draft Land Policy was prepared in 1999, and it aimed to improve access to land and
secure tenure and to improve productivity and living conditions for the nation. The policy
advocated for a 99-year leasehold tenure in selected SNL to enhance land rights and protect
investments such that those in agricultural production.
9. Weak farmer’s representation: The Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU), an
umbrella body for all farmer orgnisations in the country was formed following the National
Agriculture Summit of 2007. The organization is still in developing stage and it still need to be
empowered to lobby strongly for the farmers.
10. Lack of advocacy: There is lack of advocacy for climate smart agriculture at national level. This
is compounded by the fact that the fact that climate change is a concept that is recently gaining
popularity and interest. There is lack of climate smart success stories in the country, lack of
advocacy for it.
45
Box 7: Opportunities for climate smart agriculture
1. The country is in the process of developing a national climate change strategy and action
plan together with legislation to implement it. The draft climate change strategy calls for
review of all sectoral strategies to integrate climate change issues. It also identifies
adaptation and mitigation strategic actions in the agriculture and forest sector. A number
of the proposed actions are climate smart. The opportunity should be taken to inform the
finalization of the strategy and the crafting of the legislation on climate smart agriculture.
2. The draft climate change policy and action plan calls for development of adaptation and
mitigation projects. Also several development partners have called for national climate
smart projects. They include COMESA and the REDD+ initiative. The country should
take the initiative to write and submit proposals on climate smart agriculture.
3. The civil society organisations have been providing agricultural extension services to
complement that provided by the Ministry of Agriculture. The activities of the NGOs
should be up-scaled and the government extension officers should learn from the
activities and operations of the NGOs.
4. The government has shown willingness and commitment in poverty reduction and food
security by initiating projects that increase food production. They include irrigation
developments. Such projects should be utilized to spread the concepts of climate smart
agriculture
5. Indigenous knowledge can play a big role in selecting and growing of appropriate
indigenous crops. However such knowledge is lacking in some areas, forcing farmers to
stop growing some crops. It is vital to document indigenous knowledge
6. The existing traditional institutions should be used t advocate and promote climate smart
agriculture. A lesson could be learned from the King’s Oder of 1953 that called for
implementation of soil conservation measures. The order of the King was taken and
enforced using traditional structures.
7. An investor roadmap for CAADP is in the process of being developed. Climate smart
agriculture should be one of the components of the investor roadmap.
8. Policies that aim to promote food production and enhance sustainable land management
do exist. Legislation should be enacted for implementation of policies that were
developed, than include the National Food Security Policy of 2005, the Resettlement
Policy of 2003 and the Forest Policy of 2000.
46
4.3 Proposed actions for climate smart agriculture
Climate change is projected to have a wide range of impacts on various aspects of the agriculture
sector. Overall, it is suggested that climate change will significantly undermine crop production
in the region, posing a serious threat to food security, even after adaptation and productivity
improvements have been accounted for. Effective adaptation in this sector will be of crucial
importance. Agriculture is one of the major contributors to climate change. In Swaziland, sources
of emissions from agriculture are cultivation of agricultural soils, livestock and manure
management, rice production and the burning of agricultural residues and clearing of savanna.
Emissions from agriculture are expected to rise in the future because of increased food demand
for the growing and more prosperous Swazi nation that is able to afford more varied diets with
higher shares of meat and dairy products. Such a shift will also lead to increased pressure on
forests for agricultural expansion leading to deforestation.
A draft National Climate change Strategy and Action Plan was developed to provide a systematic
approach to deal with climate change through adaptation and mitigation in a manner that
contributes to achievement of sustainable development. The strategic actions recommended
under adaptation include review of agricultural policy, strategy and programmes with a view to
integrating climate change issues, promotion of sustainable land management practices,
enhancing agricultural research and technology development, strengthening agricultural
extension services and promoting risk management and insurance (Box 8). On the other hand
strategic actions recommended under mitigation include enhanced efficient fertiliser application,
promotion of manure management practices, promoting harnessing of biogas from agricultural
residues, enhancing investment in agroforestry, and promotion of afforestation and agroforestry
(Box 9). In order for the proposed strategic actions to be implemented successfully, there is need
for enacting laws to facilitate the implementation. Climate Smart Agriculture projects should be
initiated as advocated in the draft National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan
(NCCSAP).
47
Box 8: Proposed adaptation strategic actions for the agriculture sector
1. Review agricultural policies: Review the agricultural policy, strategy, programmes and
initiatives with a view to integrating climate change issues.
2. Promote adoption of sustainable land management practices: Promote adoption of
sustainable land management practices such as changes in agricultural practices,
participatory adaptive management practices, soil management, seed management,
fertilizer use, crop rotation, agroforestry, integrated pest management system (IPMS),
changing planting and harvesting times and post-harvesting management
3. Promote rainwater harvesting: Promote rainwater harvesting for crop and livestock
production to increase the buffer and adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to deal
with climate change.
4. Improve irrigation techniques: Improve irrigation techniques and agricultural water
management for more efficient water use.
5. Promote agricultural diversification: Promote agricultural diversification to enhance
climate resilience
6. Promote indigenous knowledge: Promote appropriate indigenous knowledge
agricultural practices and local coping strategies
7. Promote use of drought tolerant: Promote use of or develop drought-and/or heat
tolerant crops, water conserving crop varieties and livestock breeds
8. Invest on post harvest technologies: Invest in post harvest and value addition
processing and storage technologies
9. Improve agricultural advisory services: Improve agricultural advisory services and
information systems
10. Strengthen weather forecast: Strengthen weather forecast information sharing for
farmers
11. Enhance climate risk management: Enhance application of climate risk management
tools, such as crop and livestock weather-based insurance
Source: Draft National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2013): Government of
Swaziland (2013)
48
Box 9: Proposed mitigation strategies for agriculture sector
1. Promote adoption of sustainable agricultural practices and technologies that enhance efficiency and productivity while reducing GHG emissions.
2. Promote manure management practices 3. Enhance efficient fertilizer application.
4. Promote harnessing of biogas from agricultural residues. 5. Enhance investments in agroforestry 6. Promote afforestation and reforestation
Source: Draft National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2013): Government of
Swaziland (2013)
49
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09/01/2013.
52
APPENDICES: Summary of relevant legislation and policies
Policy Sector Name of Policy Year
Approved
or in
Force
Responsible
Ministry
Contact person Updated or
update planned
Available
on line
Agriculture National Food Security Policy
for Swaziland
2005 Ministry of
Agriculture
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24042731
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated Yes (1)
Agriculture Comprehensive Agricultural
Sector Policy
2005 Ministry of
Agriculture
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24042731
e-mail: [email protected]
Not Updated Yes (2)
Agriculture Swaziland National Irrigation
Policy
2005 Ministry of
Agriculture
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24042731
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated Yes (3)
Agriculture NAMBOARD Act 1985 Ministry of
Agriculture
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24042731
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated
Agriculture National Agriculture Summit
Action Plan
2007 Ministry of
Agriculture
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24042731
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated no
Agriculture The Comprehensive Africa
Agriculture Development
Programme (CAADP)
2010 Ministry of
Agriculture
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24042731
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Multi-sectoral Swaziland Poverty Reduction
Strategy and Action Plan
2007 Ministry of
Economic Planning
and Development
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 24043765
Not updated Yes (5)
Environment The National Environmental
Policy, 1999
1999 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 2402 6162
e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz
Not updated No
Environment Environmental Audit
Assessment and Review
Regulations, 2000
2000 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 2402 6162
e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz
Not updated No
Environment Environment Management
Act,
2002 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 2402 6162
e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz
Not updated No
Environment Swaziland National Trust 1972 Ministry of Tourism Principal Secretary Not updated No
53
Commission Act, 1972 and Environmental
Affairs
Phone: +268 2402 6162
e-mail: ps_tourism.gov.sz
Forest The Forest Policy, 2000 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Senior Forestry Officer
Phone: +268 2402 9240
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Forest Forest Preservation Act of
1907
1907 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Senior Forestry Officer
Phone: +268 2402 9240
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Forest The Flora Protection Act 10/
2001
2001 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Senior Forestry Officer
Phone: +268 2402 9240
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Forest Forest Preservation Act
14/1910
1910 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Senior Forestry Officer
Phone: +268 2402 9240
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Forest The Private Forest Act 3/1951 1951 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Senior Forestry Officer
Phone: +268 2402 9240
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Forest The Grass Fires Act 44/1955 1955 Ministry of Tourism
and Environmental
Affairs
Senior Forestry Officer
Phone: +268 2402 9240
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Natural
Resources
Natural Resources Act
71/1951
1951 Ministry of Natural
Resources and
Energy
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 2402 2644
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Water
Resources
The Water Act, 2003 2003 Ministry of Natural
Resources and
Energy
Director: Department of Water
Affairs
Phone: +268 2402 3585
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Disaster
preparedness
Disaster Management Act,
2006
2006 Deputy Prime
Minister’s Office
Director of National Disaster
Management Agency
Phone: +268 2402 2723
Not updated No
Disaster
preparedness
Disaster Management Policy,
2010
2010 Deputy Prime
Minister’s Office
Director of National Disaster
Management Agency
Phone: +268 2402 2723
Not updated No
Investment The Swaziland Investment
Promotion Act No.1/1998
1998 Ministry of
Commerce, Industry
and Trade
Principal Secretary
Phone: +268 2402 3201
e-mail: [email protected]
Not updated No
Settlement The Swaziland Settlement Act
No.1/1946
1946 King’s Office The King’s Private Secretary Not updated No