complex learning tasks
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Complex Learning Tasks. Chapter 12. Concept Learning. 2. Concept A symbol that represents a class of objects or events with common properties. For example, think of an airplane: Have fixed wings Are heavier than air Are driven by a screw propeller or high velocity rearward jet - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
COMPLEX LEARNING TASKSChapter 12
Concept Learning Concept
A symbol that represents a class of objects or events with common properties.
For example, think of an airplane: Have fixed wings Are heavier than air Are driven by a screw propeller or high velocity
rearward jet Are supported by the dynamic reactions of the
air against the wings These concepts allow us to easily identify
these objects as airplanes.
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Concept learning significantly enhances our ability to effectively interact with the environment.
Rather than separately labeling and categorizing each new event or object, we incorporate it into our existing concepts.
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Well Defined Concepts Attribute
Any feature of an object or event that varies from one instance to another.
Rule A rule defines the objects or events that are
examples of a particular concept. Types of Rules
Affirmative rule A rule that specifies that a particular attribute defines a
concept. Negative rule
A concept is defined by the rule that any object or event having a certain attribute is not a member of the concept.
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Studying Concept Learning in Humans Smoke (1933) conducted studies
examining concept learning in humans. He presented subjects with a large number
of figures that differed in shape, size, number, and location of their dots.
Subjects’ task was to learn the concept of DAX, which consisted of a circle with one dot inside and another dot outside.
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Conjunctive rule The simultaneous presence of two or more attributes that
define a concept. Disjunctive rule
When the concept is defined by the rule that the concept can possess either or both of the two common attributes.
Not all examples of a concept necessarily have all the attributes characteristic of that concept.
There are degrees to which particular items fit a concept.
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Fuzzy Concepts Family resemblance
The degree to which a member of a concept exemplifies the concept.
PrototypeObject with the greatest number of attributes
that are characteristic of the concept.Chair is the most typical prototype of
furniture.
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Who’s sexier?
A German Shepherd may fit the concept of dog more than a poodle.
The more an object or event differs from the prototype, the more difficult it is to identify it as an example of the concept.
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Multiple Concepts Two objects or events may share certain
attributes but not be examples of the same concept. Although a robin and a bat both have wings, a
robin is a bird and a bat is a mammal. We do not always know the boundaries that
define a concept.
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Study of Concept Learning in Animals
Concept learning involves identification of the properties that characterize a concept as well as those that do not.
Herrnstein et al. (1976) found that pigeons demonstrated concept learning. Trick is to use a large number of very different
examples D’Amato and Van Sant (1988) found that monkeys
could learn the concept of humans. Vonk and MacDonald found that a female gorilla
could learn to discriminate between primate and non primate animals.
Animals can also learn the concepts of same and different.
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Cook & Blaisdell (1996)13
Theories of Concept Learning Hull (1920) envisioned concept learning as
a form of discrimination learning. Said that concepts have both relevant and
irrelevant attributes. As a result of reinforcement, response
strength increases to the attributes characteristic of the concept.
Same/Different judgements require an abstract code or rule, so the theory fails here.
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Abstract Concepts Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1956)
suggested that a concept is learned by testing hypotheses about the correct solution. If the first hypothesis is correct, the individual
has learned the concept. If it is incorrect, another hypothesis will be
generated and tested, and this will be repeated until the correct solution is discovered.
Research by Levine (1966) suggests that individuals do engage in hypothesis testing of concepts.
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Two Ways of Knowing However, a concept can be learned via
associative learning or hypothesis testing, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive.A concept can be learned using either
method, but a concept is learned best when both methods are employed.
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TOM Concept or Discrimination?• Theory of Mind: Understanding that others
have mental processes that may differ from one’s own.
EmotionsKnowledgeVisual Perspective
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Knowledge Attribution
Povinelli (1991)
Knower – sees food being hidden Guesser – outside of room
Stage 1: As aboveStage 2: Knower wears hatStage 3: Guesser stays in room with a
bagged head
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Chimpanzees(Great Apes)
Rhesus Monkeys(New World)
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Alternative
Did chimps discriminate between the two situations based on subtle differences in how the “guesser” and “knower” acted?
Maybe they choose the one with eyes open during hiding?
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“Begging Experiment”
Povinelli (1999)
Beg from “seeing” vs. “nonseeing”
Front vs. Back – Yes Pail Beside vs. Over Head - No Averted Eyes vs. Over Shoulder Look –
No Blindfold Mouth vs. Blindfold Eyes - No
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“Chimps Fail Begging Experiment”23
“Elephants Pass Begging Experiment”
However, this doesn’t imply elephants can “mind-read”
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Mark Test
Gallup’s Mark Test (Great Apes)
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The Nature of the Problem Problem
A situation in which a person is motivated to reach a goal, but some obstacle(s) block the attainment of the goal.
Thorndike (1898) proposed that animals and people solve problems by trial and error.
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Insight or Trial and error? Kohler (1925) suggested a different view
of problem solvingSays that an animal internally or mentally
explores the problem before exhibiting a specific response.
The exploration involves considering and rejecting possible solutions and finally developing insight as to the correct solution.
But…..only Chimps with certain past experiences solved the banana problem
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Insight: What is it? Insight
A sudden realization of how to solve a problem.Kohler found that once the subjects solved the
problem, they were able to quickly solve other similar problems.
Initial stateThe starting point of a problem.
Goal stateThe desired endpoint of a problem.
Two additional processes:Identify the operations that solve the problem.Restrictions limit what you can do.
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Well or Ill? Well-defined problem
A problem with clear initial and goal states. Ill-defined problem
A problem with no clear starting or end point.
Creating a set of manageable subproblems provides the structure for converting an ill-defined problem into a well-defined one.
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A Strategy for Solving Problems After the problem has been defined, the
next step is to develop a plan of attack. There are two major strategies—
algorithms and heuristics—that can be used to solve problems.
Algorithm A precise set of rules to solve a particular
problem. Heuristic
A “best guess” solution to problem solving.
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Working backward heuristicA technique for finding the solution to a
problem by starting with the end point and working back to the start point.
Is often used in mathematical and other formal systems of analysis.
Means-end analysisBreaking a particular problem into a series
of solvable subproblems.
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MeansEnds Analysis?
Learning a) allows the bird to solve b)
Consequences of Past Experience Functional fixedness
Difficulty recognizing novel uses for an object.
Prior experience using an object to solve one problem makes it difficult to recognize that the same object can be used in a different manner to solve another problem.
Reflects rigidity that can impair problem solving; however there are ways to overcome functional fixedness.
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Mental SetsThe tendency to use an established method
for solving problems.Sets may blind people to fresh ways of
exploring problems, which is unproductive when other solutions are more efficient.
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