commu_v27_n1_a1.pdf

Communication with communities:a South African experienceRach l B rke

ABSTRACT

In spite of the conventional wisdom stated by various

authors that we are living in the information age a

communication era characterised by a global expansion in

the reach of mass media and electronic information

superhighways that span the globe it is clear that there

is growing realisation that it is still difficult to reach and

communicate with rural communities in South Africa. The

main aim of this article is therefore to examine the

application of development communication theories in

practice when communicating with communities in the

Third World. In this article I argue that the viability of and

prospects for effective communication with communities

depend on three interrelated aspects. Firstly, the viability

and prospects depend on current theoretical trends or

approaches in development communication, because at the

root of development communication regardless of how this

concept is defined lies the issues of a structured and

theoretical approach to community communication which

are determined by current trends. Secondly, and crucial to

the viability and prospects of community communication, is

the question of which development communication methods

or media to apply at the various stages of communication to

reach the different target audiences. Thirdly, the viability

and prospects for successful community communication will

be influenced by an integrated approach to the application

of development communication methods and media in

development communication programmes or strategies.

OPSOMMING

Ten spyte van die konvensionele wysheid wat deur verskeie

outeurs genoem is dat ons in n inligtingsera lewe n

kommunikasie era wat gekarakteriseer word deur globale

uitbreiding in die reikwydte van die massamedia en

elektroniese inligtingsuperhoofwee wat oor die wereld

strek is dit duidelik dat daar n toenemende bewustheid

is dat dit steeds moeilik is om die afgelee gemeenskappe in

Suid Afrika te bereik en met hulle te kommunikeer. Die

hoofdoel van hierdie artikel is daarom om die toepassing

van ontwikkelingskommunikasieteoriee in die praktyk

wanneer met gemeenskappe in die Derde Wereld gekom

munikeer word, te ondersoek. In hierdie artikel argumenteer

ek dat die lewensvatbaarheid en vooruitsigte vir effektiewe

kommunikasie met gemeenskappe van drie interwante

aspekte afhanklik is. Eerstens hang die lewensvatbaarheid

en vooruigsigte af van die huidige teoretiese neigings of

benaderings tot ontwikkelingskommunikasie, omdat die

wortel van ontwikkelingskommunikasie ongeag hoe

hierdie konsep gedefinieer word in die aspekte van n

gestruktureerde en teoretiese raamwerk tot gemeenskaps

kommunikasie le wat deur huidige neigings bepaal word.

Tweedens, en beslissend tot die lewensvatbaarheid en

vooruitsigte van gemeenskapskommunikasie, is die vraag

oor watter ontwikkelingskommunikasiemetodes en media

op die verskillende stadiums van kommunikasie toe te pas

om die verskillende teikengroepe te bereik. Derdens,

lewensvatbaarheid en vooruitsigte vir suksesvolle gemeens

kapskommunikasie sal benvloed word deur n gentegreerde

benadering tot die toepassing van ontwikkelingskommuni

kasiemetodes en media in ontwikkelingskommunikasiepro

gramme of strategiee.

Keywords: communicating with communities, development

communication, development communication models,

needs based approach, participative communication,

development communication methods and media.

1 INTRODUCTION

Since the post election phase after 1994, South Africa

has been experiencing dramatic changes in its com

munication environment, owing to the rapid thaw in,

and end to, the Apartheid era. South Africa now

confronts an entirely different communication environ

ment. The creation of a new window of opportunity,

the demonstration effect of other democratic transi

tions, and a broader target group conducive to

development for all, helped to prepare the way for a

new communication approach when communicating

with communities in South Africa.

Amidst the realm of rapid growth and the technolo

gical explosion of most first world countries, the fact

remains that South Africa is, and will remain for some

time to come, as much a third world country as a first

world country.

We are all in agreement that we live in a globalised

world. Terms such as global information highway,

information revolution and information economy are

used routinely to illustrate the profound role of

information in modern societies (McConnell 1996:1).

* Dr Rachel Barker is an Associate Professor in the Department of Communicatin, University of South Africa, Pretoria.

e mail: [email protected]

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Communicatio, 27(1) 2001 (3 14)

However, there are those people who share a unified

perspective on the transformation of our society,

defining differently our common universe that is

characterised by globalisation. In this regard, Profes

sor Manual Castells said in a paper prepared for the

United Nations Research Institute for Social Develop

ment in 1998, that there is a raging debate in the

world on the mixed record of the information

technology revolution and of globalisation when the

social dimension equation is included. He refers to the

techno elites versus the neo luddites. Techno elites

refer to the prophets of technology, the true believers

in the magic of the market, which is on the flight to

hyper modernity. Neo luddites are those people

around the world who are not ecstatic about surfing

the Internet, but are affected by layoffs, lack of basic

social services, crime, poverty and disruption of

personal lives who see technology as a tool for

renewed exploitation, destruction of jobs, environ

mental degradation and invasion of privacy.

While communication practitioners in first world

countries thrive on the communication challenges of

the technology super highway (to communicate with

the techno elites), communication practitioners in

South Africa also have to communicate effectively

with its masses (the neo luddites). Their challenge is

to use the development road to communicate effec

tively with the third world component that does

represent the masses in South Africa.

Mr Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa, set the

scene for the new approach to communication when

communicating with communities in South Africa

when he opened Parliament in June 1999 with the

following words (Mbeki, 2000):

Steadily, the dark clouds of despair are lifting,

giving way to our season of hope.

At the dawn of a new life, our practical actions

must ensure that none

can challenge us when we say:

we are a nation at work to build a better life.

The phrase we are a nation at work to build a better

life inevitably raises awareness of development and

encompasses the governments quest to building a

better future for all South Africans and to meet the

demands, expectations and dreams of everyone. In the

midst of these developments, communication is

perceived to be the golden thread linking the

continuing process of social and national emancipa

tion to a better life for all.

A new communication approach is therefore

needed to meet the future challenges of this develop

ment for all. This new approach, which should be

adopted by all companies, government departments

and institutions, will have to include new develop

ment communication methods and media to meet the

demands of these changes.

In this article, the question on which communica

tion media to use in the community context is

investigated. It is argued that if the communication

with communities is well planned and based on an

integrated theoretical approach to development

communication, and if it includes communication

methods and media for development communication,

successful communication could be established to

ensure the building of a better life for all! According to

Mersham et al (1995:52), it is essential that successful

communication with communities should be ap

proached within a purposeful and interactional frame

work.

The first section of this article therefore explores

communicating with communities in terms of the

development models of communication and the

application of these models in practice. The second

section deals with the concept of development

communication methods and operationalises these

methods for communicating with communities in

South Africa. In the third section of this article brief

attention is paid to the development of an integrated

strategy for communicating with communities.

2 DEVELOPMENTAL COMMUNICATION

MODELS

2.1 The development communication

challenge

According to Todaro (1989:620), development can

be defined as a process of:

. Improving the quality of all human lives by raisingpeoples living standards through economic

growth.

. Improving the self esteem of people by establishingthe relevant social, economical and political sys

tems and institutions that will promote human

dignity and respect.

. Increasing peoples freedom to choose and theirrange of choices.

During the last couple of years, South Africa

witnessed the gradual shift from a hierarchical, top

down view of communication to a two way process

that is interactive, participatory and aimed at the needs

of people involved in the communication process.

This change in perceptions about the communication

process, coupled with the dramatic change in the

masses in South Africa since the post election phase,

emphasises the importance of effective two way

communication, participatory decision making and

development concepts at community levels.

The focus on participatory development concepts

has provided strong impetus to the evolution of

participatory approaches to development communica

tion. In this sense, development communication is the

process by which people become leading actors in

their own development which allows people to go

from being recipients of external development inter

ventions to generators of their own development

(Bessette 1996:1).

The term development communication was first

used by Professor Nora Quebral (1985), to designate

the processes for transmitting and communicating

new knowledge related to rural environments. The

concept of development communication arose in the

framework of the contribution of communication and

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Communicatio, 27(1) 2001

the media to the development of Third World

countries. The focus of the concept developmentcommunication incorporates:

. the need for an exchange of information tocontribute to the resolution of a development

problem.

. improvement of the quality of life of a specific targetgroup.

. implementation needs analysis and evaluationmechanisms within the communication process.

2.2 Development communication

theory

Development communication is a rather broad area inwhich many approaches and various ideologies are

found (Bessette 1996, Melkote 1991, Mersham et al

1995). Although various models, theories or trendshave been identified over the last few decades, the

development communication models can broadly be

divided into the following categories:

2.2.1 Information dissemination models

These models use communication mainly to distributeinformation to make people understand the benefits

promised by developments. This approach relies on

the mass media to persuade and transmit information.The models are based on the hypothesis that wealth,

once acquired, will filter down to all levels of society,

including the propagation of communication practicesfrom top to bottom. This vision of development is also

referred to as the paradigm of modernisation.

2.2.2 Innovation dissemination models

Innovation dissemination models focus on the stimu

lation of the potential for change within a community.It involves the transmission of information to com

munities and includes three main elements: the target

group of the innovation, the innovation to betransmitted and the sources and communication

channel. Main criticisms against these models includethat they do not take the different types of target

populations into consideration and the impact of the

economic and political structures on the capacity toadopt innovations. Communication channels are

generally used within the framework of vertical, top

to bottom communication.

2.2.3 Grassroots awareness-raising models

These models emphasise the importance of grassrootsaccess to the communication process to promote

social justice and democracy. This access can vary

from access to small media at the local level (mostdisadvantaged in the communication process) to the

promotion of cultural expression and the search for

ways of taking control of the mass media (mostadvantaged).

2.2.4 Development support communication(DSC) models

These models focus on the promotion of dialogue and

the sharing of messages on an equal footing to

achieve recipients participation. According to this

approach, the communicator is that of a go between

for the change agent and the recipient. The main

thrust of these models is for the go between to

translate technical jargon from change agents into

messages that are more comprehensible, relevant and

understandable to the recipients. An example is the

use of pictures, posters and symbols to explain

concepts. The overall goal of DSC remains the

effective participation of recipients to obtain inter

disciplinary interaction. According to this approach,

the role of the DSC is predominantly supportive to aid

the change agent in the formulation of development

programmes and to create an effective communication

atmosphere (Melkote 1991).

2.2.5 Participatory models

Models based on the participatory communication

approach have their roots in the early years of the

1970s when many people in the development

community questioned the top down approach of

development of the previous two decades. These

models define development as a global process for

which societies are responsible and the key concept is

grassroots participation in the development process.

Other concepts of development include notions of

social equality, liberty, revenue distribution, interac

tivity, etc. In these models, the term participatory

development communication emphasises two way

communication (not one way communication pro

claimed by some of the other models) to disseminate

messages and to transmit information or persuade

people to change their behaviour. These models also

allow for horisontal communication among people

rather than the traditional vertical transmission from

an expert to his audience. Emphasis is not on the use

of the media, but the process and strategies for

participatory grassroots communication and an ex

change of information through two way media.

Today, development communication models not

characterised by participation and needs of the

communities, but on information transmission re

moved from community processes, are doomed to

failure (Mersham, 1995). A systematic approach

based on the communication process should consti

tute the main elements of a development model. The

implementation process should be interactive and

participatory at all levels to empower people with the

freedom to express themselves (Woods, 1993:xiii).

Beltran (1993:30) proposes that the best of the

development support communication activities be

combined with alternative means of communication,

that development communication be included in the

school curricula, basic communication training be

encouraged at all levels and to reinforce institutional

regional communication. In this process, the human

factor should be taken into account. From the above it

is clear that the new communication direction of

communicating with communities to be pursued,

should focus on the following:

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. Knowing the needs of the target group.

. Knowing development communication media andmethodologies.

. Stimulating the processes of community participation in implementation, evaluation, benefits and

decision making.

. Reinforcing the agents of change.

. Influencing the development of educational, institutional and national policies.

2.3 Communicating with communities:

South African development

models

According to Mersham et al (1995:78), most com

munication programmes are built upon First World

assumptions that are in most cases unsuitable for

implementation in the South African context. Based

on their recognition of the need for authentic dialogue

between members of different communities and the

unique being of individuals, emphasis has been

placed on the development of communication pro

grammes based on the needs of communities.

The theme or common thread used in South African

development communication models is based on the

thrusts of the participatory models and focusses on

the needs of the community and the importance of

community participation. In a communication con

text, participation in this sense refers to two way

communication between the sender and receiver,

which allows for feedback and input from people in

the community to ensure trust and mutually beneficial

relationships. Through this, communities are em

powered to recognise important issues and find

common grounds for action. To do this, partnerships

need to be established with new, and sometimes

unknown, structures such as local leaders, non

government organisations, community structures,

local government, etc. To achieve change, pro

grammes have to influence the way people think, act

and behave towards the intended communication.

In the next section, two South African development

communication models Marchants Triangulate

Model and Mershams Graphic Communication Mod

el for Development will be discussed briefly and

applied into practice.

2.3.1 Marchants Triangulate Model

Marchant (1988:58) argues that communication

practitioners conceptualise communication in a limi

ted way in that they see it as the transmission of

information from sender to receiver, that is, as a one

way flow. He argues that communication should be

seen as a two way process with emphasis on the

users needs. In terms of his view, an understanding of

the user group is more important than technical

expertise and hardware resources and that an analysis

of all the key participants in the communication

process is vital to understand how they communicate.

He sees communication as the relationship between

participants in the exchange of information.

Figure 1

Marchants triangulate model

Environment Relevance

Schemata Schemata

Personality P1 P2 Personality

Cultural Cultural

nuances nuances

Channel Noise

(Marchant 1988:59.)

The following is evident in this model:

. Communication is not a one way process, but atwo way process.

. The participants (P1 and P2) are seen as comanagers of communication rather than as senders

(communicators) and receivers (recipients). The

lines linking the apices of the participants triangles

have been left indefinite (or hatched) to indicate

the reciprocity involved in other oriented aware

ness of the interactional process.

. The internal environment or perceptual fields formthe base of the triangle.

. Meaning is derived from the personalities involved,as a result of interaction between common ele

ments and tradition to ensure that a shared culture

can emerge. Situational awareness give people the

opportunity to engage in a creative process and can

create triggers for action which may result in the

formulation of new ideas.

. The external perceptual fields are presented by thebases of the opposing two triangles and involve

both the nature and the transmission of the

message.

. In the upper triangle, the environment refersspecifically to the ecological dimensions of situa

tion, conditions and time. Above all, it is the

relevance of the message that determines attention.

. The lower triangle refers specifically to transmissionproblems, which are channel selection and noise

factors. An awareness and understanding of the

encoding and decoding devices used by partici

pants affect both channel credibility and the rate of

message interchange. Seeing that the model is

intended for informal oral communication, both

semantic and nonverbal factors would operate.

. The model configuration, in other words, the bladesof a propeller, emphasises the dynamic nature of

communication. The process is ongoing and in a

continual state of flux. The three components of the

triangulate model are the participants, the situation

and the problem (subject matter).

2.3.2 Mershams Graphic Communication

Model for Development

In his graphic model for development, Mersham

(1992) argues for:

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. Communication equality between communicatorand recipient.

. That the communicator has to first become therecipient of messages originating from members of

the various disadvantaged communities in South

Africa.

The main elements of the model can be summarised as

follows:

. Mershams model draws attention to the importance of the way in which the communicator

manifests his or her ideas, and that this is vital to

the success of the communication process. The

central position in the communication triptych is

the message. In order to transfer thoughts, informa

tion, feelings and attitudes, Mersham argues that

we need to consciously ensure that the form in

which these ideas are manifested is decodable by

the partners in the communication process.

. The model also suggests that we should consciously monitor the interpretations attached to

messages by our partners in the communication

process. Otherwise they remain inner thoughts that

we assume are shared with our communication

partners.

. The medium may be thought of as a messagereceptacle or that which provides the platform for

the signs, symbols and codes of meaning to be

conveyed. Mersham adds that each medium has its

own set of encoding possibilities and structures by

drawing on McLuhans observation that the me

dium is the message.

. The communicator must have skills in encodingmessages in the mother tongue of the communica

tion partners and skills in the technology and

techniques of the medium in question. All partners

must have the requisite skills in decoding the

mediated message.

. Mersham argues that signs and symbols are devoidof meaning in themselves. They can mean some

thing to somebody only if the source gives them a

specific meaning and if the recipient sees a specific

meaning in them.

. The recipients active participation in the communication process must be encouraged and recog

nised. This process of interpretation (internali

sation) can be vigorous enough to transform the

message into the recipients own message when it

is reexpressed (externalisation). In development

communication, it is important for the communi

cator to take active steps to encourage the recipient

to manifest his or her interpretation, through a

medium that all participants are comfortable with so

that the understanding or meaning attached to the

original message can be evaluated.

. The development communication scientist shouldtherefore first prompt the community to initiate the

messages about their development needs. Alterna

tively, the development communication scientist

can be thought of as a facilitator, a person who

carries out environmental scanning. He or she is

actively monitoring the messages from a given

community or stakeholder.

. The model points to the importance of taking intoaccount the broader societal circumstances in

which the communication interaction takes place.

These aspects are graphically illustrated by the

spheres which surround both communicator and

recipient, and the box around the triptych of the

communicator, message and the recipient to repre

sent the broad cultural, societal and international

context.

. The consideration of what constitutes SouthAfrican community is important for the commu

nication process. Appeals to national identity,

patriotism, reconciliation and reconstruction, key

terms in contemporary South African discourse,

have a great effect on the likely success of the

interchange of ideas through the communication

process.

. Individual circumstances must also be recognised.In spite of the commonalities that link us into the

social structure, no two lives are ever the same in

terms of individual experience. Thus, Mersham

points out autobiographical circumstances. These

personal circumstances should caution the com

municator to remain constantly aware of the

differences in life experiences of the various players

in the communication process.

Sociocultural

circumstances

Communicator

Autobiographical

circumstances

Socialcultural

circumstances

Recipient

Autobiographical

circumstances

Figure 2

Merschams graphic communication model for development

The broader cultural, societal and international context

Mediuma Encoding a a Decoding aMessage

b Decoding b b Encoding bSigns & symbols

(Mercham 1992b.)

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. Intentionality in communication theory is oftenlinked to the thesis that communication equals

successful communication, that is, the objective of

a conscious communication is achieved. The most

important function of communication is transferring

specific ideas in the mind of the communicator or

source to the mind of the recipient or interpreter.

Van Schoors (1982:1 4) view of communication

as a dialogue, stresses that it is the value and

significance attached to the message by the

recipient which determines whether true commu

nication actually takes place.

2.3.3 Application of the development models in

communication programmes or

strategies

According to Mersham et al (1995:52), the most

fundamental adjustment to communicators in South

Africa will have to occur in their approach to the

communication context and their understanding of

development. Skinner (1992:44) emphasises that in

development situations, the effectiveness of commu

nicators depend to a great extent on their concern and

on gaining respect and trust. In order to do this,

Mersham et al (1995:52) argues that it is important to

identify the needs of the community and to build

mutual and trusting relationships.

Commonalities between the two models are mainly

that they both rely on communication for success. In

the above discussion each of the elements of the two

models have been discussed in some detail. But how

do we apply it in practice? If we look at the different

elements of each model closely, the application ability

of each can be summarised as follows:

. Understanding of user needs: In practice, this willentail an informational needs assessment, contact

with all target groups, an analysis of the target

groups and constant monitoring of their needs.

. Analyse all key participants: This will entail adetailed target group analysis including message

development.

. Communication relationship between participants:The emphasis is on two way communication to

build and maintain mutually beneficial relationships

with all target groups. In this process, input and

feedback of target groups are essential.

. Prompt the community to initiate or facilitatemessages: In order to do this, the following are

essential: close contact, information requests, ask

ing of questions, probing to find out about

informational needs, scanning the environment for

clues, issues, messages, follow up actions, etc.

. Decodability of messages: Messages should beeasy to understand, simple not complicated, well

targeted. All partners should develop decoding

skills of the languages and communication styles

to understand each other. Mother tongue lan

guages (special attention should be paid to

dialects) should be used in all communication and

recipients should be given the opportunity to

respond in their mother tongue language.

Mother tongue speakers should be part of all direct

communication or negotiations and provision

should be made for feedback.

. Participants as co managers of communication: It isimportant not to be the source or communicator

only, but also to be the recipient of information

from the target groups. Again, the various commu

nities or target groups should be allowed to engage

in the process of communication by playing an

active role.

. Communicator skills in communication technologyand techniques: Communication practitioners

should be educated to have the necessary technical

skills in development communication and public

speaking. They should also be equipped with the

relevant technical aids such as videos, pamphlets,

information material, information kits, gimmicks,

etc.

. Internal environment: It is known that the internalenvironment has a direct influence on how the

output is communicated to the recipients. There

fore, the culture communicated to the target

groups is important (eg slow or efficient, pro

blem solving or proactive, etc). Communication

specialists should establish a healthy internal

culture and climate conducive to the dynamic flow

of information to ensure effective external commu

nication.

. Movement towards shared cultures: Interaction ongrassroots levels with target groups is essential to

find common ground and to identify their needs,

expectations and fears.

. Meaning that depends on personal interpretationand collective agreement: It is important to take into

consideration that individuals in the target groups

will differ in the attribution of meaning to a

message. Messages should therefore be planned

in accordance with space, time and culture.

. Internalisation (interpretation): To obtain the buyin and belief in the truth of the message, the target

groups should internalise messages and make it

their own. Messages should therefore focus on the

mind, hearts, values and beliefs of the target

groups.

. Externalisation (reexpression): Communicationmessages need to be planned and structured to

establish a flow of communication between mem

bers of the target groups (for example the use of

gossiping).

. Action and formulation of new ideas: Interactionand participation will lay the ground for new

directions and solutions, which demand innovative

forms of communication with the target groups.

The ideas and internal input of the target groups

should be taken into account and a target group

analysis can be used to guide the output.

. External perceptual fields: The nature and transmission of the messages need to be planned according

to the input received from the target groups during

the interactions.

. External environment: Messages should be plannedaccording to the area the target groups live in, their

living conditions, timing of communication actions,

accessibility to technology, etc.

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. Relevance of the message: Messages need to beaimed and streamlined according to the needs and

preferences of the target groups and the contentshould be evaluated and monitored.

. Transmission problems: Channels of communication of the message should be carefully chosenbased on the needs assessment of the targetgroups. Noise factors should be identified and

measures build in to reduce it.. Blades of the propeller: This is symbolic of theongoing and dynamic nature of communicationwhich emphasises the importance to not engage in

ad hoc communication efforts, but instead todevelop a well planned and strategically motivatedcommunication plan.

. Societal circumstances: The relevant programmesshould be situated within the broader societalframework at a national level. Attention should be

given to government directions, presidential emphasis, research results, opinion polls, etc.

. Individual circumstances: Provision should bemade for the subgroup in each target group.

. Objectives achieved: The success of any communication programme depends on whether theobjectives have been met and it is essential that

the target group attaches value to and view themessage as significant.

From the above application it is clear that the

formulation of a comprehensive strategy to communicate with communities taking due cognisance of therelevant elements of the development communication

models is extremely complex. Much will depend onthe communication approach taken, in particular themethods and media used, to harness opportunities to

benefit the people in the community. Considering thebroad spectrum of issues addressed in the development communication models in South Africa, it is

clear that the prevalent communication strategyshould be compatible with the needs of the community which necessitates a common developmentcommunication vision and participation to realise it.

This section examined the viability and prospects ofdevelopment communication in terms of the application of development communication theories in

practice when communicating with communities inthe Third World. The next section investigates theviability and prospects of the use of development

communication methods or media when communicating with the communities.

3 DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATIONMETHODS AND MEDIA

Rapid changes in the nature and scale of communication from mass media to interpersonal commu

nication provide a major opportunity for moreeffective communication with communities. (Initiativeto enhance impact ... [sa]). Based on a focused andneeds based approach, development communication

methods and media should be selected to reach eachspecified target group. In communicating with communities, this selection is vital to ensure that each

member of the target groups is reached and that

inaccessible or sophisticated methods are not selected

to communicate with the various levels of people.

The implication for communication programmes

when communicating with communities is an in

creasing emphasis on people dependent factors

learning, education, accurate information, behaviour

change, social norm changes, cultural adjustments,

participation, community involvement, negotiation

skills, personal skills, public dialogue and debate on

sensitive issues (Initiative to enhance impact ... [sa]).

To accelerate the scale and impact of these important

people dependent factors, emphasis should be placed

on the increasingly important role for communication

to improve and sustain development gains hence; a

new communication approach is needed when com

municating with communities.

Traditionally, or in First World countries, three basic

communication media are used, namely:

. Print communication media (such as bulletins,newsletters, news tabloids, magazines, annual

reports, speciality publications, outside publica

tions, newspapers, newspaper inserts, posters,

brochures, briefing sheets, educational media, etc).

. Audio visual communication media (radio, television, film, trade and public exhibitions, rural

television, animation initiatives, soap operas, radio

dramas, etc).

. High tech media (eg Internet, international television news services such as CNN, new cable

television services, outdoor hoardings, satellite,

cellular phones, telecommuting and training

events).

Unfortunately, these three methods do not neces

sarily apply to communication in the Third World

context where communicators should be led by the

needs of the community, not by the technology. In the

Third World context where the goal is to meet real

and accurately defined needs (as identified by the

community members), it is important to identify the

true communication media and channels based on

the values that everyone is an equal manager and

equally important in the communication process.

For the purpose of this article, development media

and methodologies are categorised broadly in terms

of:

. Interactive and/or participatory media.

. Community based print media.

. Community online media.

. Development communication methods.

3.1 Interactive and/or participatory media

3.1.1 Industrial theatre

Industrial theatre is not lifeless text, photography,

video or film. Instead, it encourages audience in

volvement through live performance. Theatre combine

the elements of drama and storytelling with the

organisational message. In South Africa with the high

illiteracy among employees in organisations and the

diversity of mother tongue languages, industrial

9


theatres can be used with significant benefits through

the employment of multilingual and interactive dialo

gue. The main advantages of industrial theatre is that

it has a captive audience, messages have been tailored

for the audience and are more receptive as a result,

they can include various multimedia techniques and

the message is communicated directly. Industrial

theatres can be used in the organisation to role play

or perform issues which might have limited effect if

communicated via memos to staff. Humour can also

be used with great success. Industrial theatres are

successful to address the following general themes

(Mersham et al 1995):

. Introduction of the top management or the Managing Director of the company: They perform for

example on the factory floor to introduce him,

policies, etc.

. Indicate or appeal for increased productivity orimproved customer service.

. Demonstrate and present solutions to problemssuch as changes in the organisation, affirmative

action, intercultural communication, improved

communication, etc.

. Generation of sales and to strengthen the organisations corporate image.

Another variation of the industrial theatre is street

theatre where actors present messages to target

groups in the street, at taxi ranks or bus depots in

the form of a play or drama, or through song and

dance.

3.1.2 Traditional folk media and oramedia

Traditional folk media are cultural resources that

accumulate indigenous knowledge; experiences and

expressions passed down from generation to genera

tion. Woven into proverbs and poems, songs and

dances, puppet plays and stories, rhythms and beats,

they are embedded with a strong sense of cultural

identity that can be used creatively to communicate

important messages. (Knowledge and information for

food security ... 1998:4.)

Oramedia has been used effectively in facilitating

the process of reflection in many communities.

Members of the community or local theatre group

prepare and present a play to the community about a

fictitious place where conditions are similar to those in

the village. The play usually has no ending and

members of the community are asked to act out or

suggest the end of the play. This method is successful

because it is entertaining, easy to participate in,

nonthreatening and the event is conducted in an

indigenous art form. Unlike the mass media that

reaches many people at a time but may have cognitive

influence (knowledge, awareness and interest) only,

oramedia can only reach a few people at a time but

can be an effective relay chain to the mass media.

Oramedia is seen as a natural audio visual language

and as an interpersonal medium that speaks to people

in their own language and idiom and communicates

the totality of experiences of a person or of a

community, rather than just ideas and thoughts.

Folk media can be used in the form of folk theatre,

puppet shows, oratory, folk dances, ballads and mime

(Jayaweera 1991:17). Oramedia that might be used in

communication programmes includes humour, music,

singing, dancing, ornaments, charms and insignia,

market places, traditional festivals, religious occa

sions, weddings and funerals.

3.1.3 Commuter channels

Commuter channels refer to communication actions at

taxi ranks, bus depots and train stations aimed at the

commuters from rural and urban areas who make use

of these ways of transport.

Communication actions at commuter channels

include:

. Live song and dance on a specific theme for theweek or day.

. An exhibition or display or the handing out ofinformation material.

. Playing of music tapes in busses, taxis or at thekiosks.

. Workers at the various taxi ranks, bus depots ortrain stations who converse with commuters in their

mother tongue language explaining the concept to

be communicated through personal interaction, etc.

These workers usually wear T shirts and caps

promoting the theme.

3.1.4 Film and video

New technologies, such as small format films and

videos, can also be used successfully. A film or video

can be produced as a mirror to reflect the issues and

aspirations of people living in isolated communities

and is a useful tool in animating workshops and

meetings in communities. The people take an active

part in planning and executing the production of the

videos themselves, as well as the editing process. It

promotes a reflection on work to date and presents a

better understanding of people as a group. Besides

helping the communities reflect, films and videos can

also be used as highly effective communication to

highlight issues to outside target groups (such as

politicians). Video makes it possible to overcome

barriers of illiteracy, visually demonstrate ideas, com

press items, constrict space differences and standard

ise information so that it is transmitted accurately.

(Yoon 1996:6, Knowledge and information for food

security ... 1998:5.)

With some basic training, people in the commu

nities can prepare video presentations about commu

nity development concerns in local languages.

Participatory videos can be used as a communication

tool for mediating between community needs and the

possible sources of information and expertise to

respond to those needs. Communities will thus be

empowered to actively participate in development

communication by articulating their ideas and taking

part in decisions, recognising the value of the skills

they already possess while gaining new knowledge

and by planning and carrying out local development

10


activities. (Yoon 1996:6, Knowledge and information

for food security ... 1998:5.)

3.1.5 Photo novella

This type of media refers to the provision of a still

camera to the people in the community with which

they are free to photograph anything they want to

make up a pictorial novel about themselves. The

pictures shot are displayed and arranged into an order

through the collaboration efforts of members of the

community. The picture stories can be used to help

communities in reflection, communication with out

siders and measuring the progress of cooperative

efforts. (Yoon, 1996:7.)

3.1.6 Community radio

Radio provides a good example of the technological

advances in the communication field. The deregula

tion of radio in South Africa resulted in the opening of

hundreds of community radio stations and many

newer stations will continue to follow suit.

Community radio stations are defined as nonprofit,

participatory radio that broadcasts to a defined

community (Mersham et al, 1995:17) hence the

emphasis on participation. Community radio is

distinctive from urban radio in that it is directed

specifically to rural people and their information needs

and that it is a more interactive communication media

(Knowledge and information for food security ...

1998:5). Community radio stations allow communi

cation practitioners to communicate with niche target

groups in all mother tongue languages in South

Africa and are more effective when produced with

audience participation, in local languages and taking

into account cultural traditions. A few examples

include live public shows, village debates and

participation in the actual management of the radio

station.

3.2 Community-based print media

3.2.1 Print communication community media

The print communication media, particularly commu

nity newspapers, can be seen as one of the main

channels of communication when communicating

with communities. As a developing country, more

and more people are becoming literate and have

increased disposable income to spend on the print

media. This fact, together with the reality that there is

a significant lack of access to computer mediated

communication among the majority in South Africa,

indicates that print communication community media

will remain one of the most accessible and cheaply

available media in the near future (Mersham et al,

1995:179). To communicate with the target groups

who cannot read or write, communication with

illiterate communities will have to give priority to

visual symbols and voice orientated media. According

to Mersham et al (1995:179), symbolism and asso

ciation based on both contemporary emerging South

African culture and more traditional forms, will be of

key importance in the message of the future.

3.2.2 Outdoor hoardings

Although outdoor hoardings are a surprisingly small

medium for a country with a large illiterate population,

they provide increasing opportunities for communi

cating with communities and are rapidly penetrating

developing urban areas. In contrast to the negative

attitudes of First World sectors on the use of outdoor

hoardings, developing sectors have a more positive

attitude towards it. During the 1994 election, political

advertising generated some R5 million in expenditure

on outdoor communication with great success (Mer

sham et al 1995). According to Mersham et al

(1995:169), outdoor hoardings will create new

opportunities given a more peaceful context, declining

vandalism and improved maintenance of sites, parti

cularly in black townships.

3.3 Community online media

3.3.1 Community networking (computing and

Internet)

Community networking (CN) can be defined as the

identification of organisations and people across the

globe with an interest and/or experience in commu

nication which form an interactive network (Initiative

to enhance impact ... [sa]). It includes organisations

from each of the geographic regions; those involved at

community level and from governments, NGOs,

researchers, funders, advocacy groups and private

sector communication companies such as advertising

agencies. (Initiative to enhance impact ... [sa].)

CN initiate projects which bring local people

together to discuss their communitys issues and

opportunities, learn about Internet technology and

decide upon and create services to address these

community needs and opportunities. These projects

usually provide training on the use of the Internet,

general computer skills and basic research skills. This

can be seen as the first step toward rapid develop

ments in computing and communication technologies

which offer possibilities for rural communities to move

into the information age. The main communication

benefit of the Internet to communities is that it enables

rural communities to receive information and assis

tance from outside development organisations. Be

cause the Internet allows each user to be a sender,

receiver, narrowcaster and broadcaster, it allows two

way and horisontal communication and for opening

up new, non traditional communication channels

when communicating with communities. It means

facilitating communities define their needs in terms of

communication, information, education and training.

(Initiative to enhance impact ... [sa].)

However, this type of communication media still

has to go a long way in South Africa before it will be

fully operational.

The strength of community networking lies mainly

in the fact that it is a grassroots effort, built upon the

Internet tradition of working together and sharing,

presents strong human and social values, community

training provides awareness and skills for the under

privileged and participation at different levels. Main

11


weaknesses include the difficulty to develop sustain

able organisational and business models, difficulty

working together as a movement, low levels of cross

promotion to print, radio and television audiences,

official sources and experts who are often favoured.

The real opportunity of community networking is the

tremendous advantage to capture the local contentmarkets who know their community, are closer to the

real politics and can position themselves to be a

conduit and facilitator of communication. (Associa

tion for Community Networking ... [sa])

The success of community networking usually

depends on a local champion who understands the

needs of the community.

3.3.2 Cellular phones

With the introduction of cellular phones in South

Africa in a way which will contribute toward solving

the countrys telephone shortages, more and morefamilies in rural and urban areas are acquiring them

according to Mersham et al (1995). This is mainly due

to two reasons:

. The commitment of network operators to providecoverage to areas currently poorly served by

existing networks.

. The installation of thousands of community telephones in townships and underprivileged areas

through the franchise of cellular telephone bureaux

(community cellular pay telephones).

3.4 Development communication

methods

Development communication methods include other

actions which could be included in a communication

strategy to ensure that the messages of the commu

nication programme reach the intended target audi

ences. These methods include the following:

. Existing structures in the community (eg libraries,community access centres, churches or religious

structures, health centres, telecentres, schools,

provincial government, spaza shops, shabeens).

. Information or help desks.

. Interpersonal communication (eg personal discussions, communication workshops or sessions,

capacity building programmes, meetings, personal

visits of top structures, road shows, etc).

. Events (eg media launches in communities, demonstrations, etc).

. Political engagement of key leaders in the countryon national, regional and district levels.

. Local authorities.

. Community surveillance programmes.

The implications of the use of the above develop

ment communication methods and media in commu

nication strategies are clear. First, because the main

target groups are not the techno elites (the prophets

of technology), but the neo luddites (people not

ecstatic about technology), the shift is towards

development communication methods and media that

have the potential to reach the masses effectively.

Second, the methods and media selected should

reveal the growing understanding of the importance

of participative communication. Third, and seen in this

light, it is imperative that the messages should be

needs based and that the interdependence of the co

managers or equal partners of the communication

process has been accepted.

This section highlighted the importance of which

development communication methods or media to

apply at the various stages of communication to reach

the different target audiences. The last section

indicates the importance of an integrated approach

towards the application of development communica

tion methods and media in development communica

tion programmes or strategies.

4 TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED STRATEGY

FOR COMMUNICATING WITH

COMMUNITIES

I have mentioned that in spite of the conventional

wisdom that we are living in the information age it is

clear that there is a growing realisation that it is still

difficult to reach and communicate with rural com

munities in South Africa. They lack the communica

tion infrastructure such as newspapers, telephones,

televisions and radio, not even to mention the

Internet. The challenge is not only to increase the

quantity and accessibility of communication technol

ogies, but also to use communication media effec

tively for sustainable development for all. In order to

do this, it is proposed that focusing on the vision of a

nation at work building a better life should form the

basis of the strategic and communication direction for

communicating with communities. In addition, this

strategy should be based on an integrated approach to

ensure that all the relevant target groups are reached

effectively. According to Servaes and Arnst

(1993:45), a combination of media can be very

effective if appropriately used in an integrated fashion

according to the needs and constraints of local

contexts.

Based on the theoretical underpinnings and the

concepts of development communication, at least

three possibilities exist which should find expression

in an integrated strategy for communicating with

communities. The first is the integrated use of

development communication methods and media.

The second is that the communication actions should

be based on the needs of the community. The third is

an extension of the latter in that provision should be

made for active participation in the communication

process.

In the development of an integrated strategy for

communicating with communities, it is clear that such

a strategy should be based on the main ideas of the

role and function of development communication

methods and media which can be summarised in

terms of three paradigms:

. The non-technological paradigm which emphasises the fact that the rural communities or

masses in South Africa do not have access to

technology and will not have for some time to

come. This paradigm present a Third World per

12


spective in which the use of First World communication methods and media will not be dominant

and have less influence on target groups thandevelopment communication methods and techniques.

. The needs-based communication paradigmwhich stresses the importance of researching theneeds of the community and to base communica

tion actions on these needs. Although there areseveral ways of viewing these needs, a more radicalperspective would be to allow the rise of thecommunity as actors in the communication process

and to examine their interests and needs and toexpand it to the rest of the communities based oncultural beliefs, values and norms.

. The participatory communication paradigmwhich allows for active participation of all the roleplayers or actors in the communication process.

Participation should be viewed against the background of two important issues: the process ofactive interaction between the different role playersand the feedback received. These issues should be

contextualised within the theoretical challenges ofthe development communications models in SouthAfrica which introduced the need for a revised

vision on communicating with communities whichrelate to and integrated use of development communication methods and media, needs of the

community and interactive participation as comanagers and equal partners in the communicationprocess.

5 CONCLUSION

In this article I have discussed a range of issues to beconcerned when communicating with communities in

South Africa. Decisions on the implementation ofcommunication programmes will have to be takenwithin what appears to be a changing practice of

communication. I outlined the main features of thischanging communication and indicated that a core

element within this emerging practice is to focus on

an integrated, well planned and practical implemen

table communication approach based on the theore

tical underpinnings of development communication.

To a certain extent the discussion in this article

generates more questions than answers to whether

communicating with communities work or not. It is

clear that development communication, especially as

far as communicating with communities is concerned,

will be greatly influenced by and even in some ways

dictated by the realisation of the importance of

participation of the community in the communica

tion process. This does not mean, however, that the

communication cannot take place without participa

tion. Much will depend on the theoretical approach

and the selection and application of development

communication methods and media in the develop

ment communication strategy or programme.

The challenge is, in the words of Gro Brundtland,

Prime Minister of Norway, and Chairperson of the

World Commission on Environment and Develop

ment, to realise that:

The only way we can work for a common cause, for

common interest, is really through communication.

Basically, it has to do with democracy, with

participation, with the spreading of knowledge

and insight and ability to take care of our future ...

Reference is often made to the fact that participative

communication demands time and money. This is

true. However, this should not be used as an excuse

not to include participative communication methods

and media in development communication pro

grammes. The proposed discussion indicated the

importance to use an integrated approach, which

necessitates a common communication vision to

ensure mutually beneficially relationships. This is the

challenge to communication practitioners in South

Africa.

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