communication foundations

Establishing a Framework for Business Communication

Exploring Business Communication Concepts

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P A R T

1Communication Foundations

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C H A P T E R

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Define communication anddescribe the main purpose forcommunication in business.

Explain the communicationprocess model and the ultimate objective of thecommunication process.

Identify the five levels ofcommunication.

Discuss how informationflows in an organization

(formally and informally,and downward, upward, andhorizontally).

Explain how legal and ethical constraints act as astrategic force to influencethe process of business communication.

Explain how diversity challenges act as a strategic force to influencethe process of business communication.

Explain how changing technology acts as a strategic force to influencethe process of business communication.

Explain how team environment acts as a strategic force to influencethe process of business communication.

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O B J E C T I V E S

When you have completed Chapter 1, you will be able to:

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n considering new management

ideas in practice, the computer indus-

try has been characterized by flat orga-

nizations, speed, flexibility, and teams.

Companies such as Hewlett-Packard

and Microsoft provide an alternative

organizational model to the traditional,

hierarchical bureaucratic model.

Hewlett-Packard’s revolutionary ideas

extend far beyond its organizational

structure and into its practices. The HP

Way, the embodiment of company phi-

losophy, as described by company co-

founder David Packard, is built around

the concept of trust.

t the inception of Hewlett-Packard

in 1938, William Hewlett and David

Packard initiated a set of business

practices, some of which had never

been tried before. Central to the “HP

Way” is the establishment of an open

communication environment that

allows workers to stroll into bosses’

offices and offer ideas. Company

power is not concentrated in its exec-

utives; employees make decisions in

cases where they know best. Effective

external communication is also a

major hallmark of the HP Way. Cus-

tomer feedback is credited for the

success of HP printers.

s Hewlett-Packard climbed in its

Fortune 500 ranking, the company

has continued to adhere to its basic

principles. The advent of new tech-

nologies has presented a continuing

challenge for Hewlett-Packard: defin-

ing the company in the Internet Age

while honoring the 60-year-old princi-

ples of the HP Way. The answer was

“e-services,” a program designed to

make Hewlett-Packard’s products and

services conveniently available to cus-

tomers over the Internet. In keeping

with the company philosophy, the site

allows customers to use the Internet

to improve their businesses. The phi-

losophy of the HP Way—treating cus-

tomers, employees, and suppliers

with respect and integrity—has

defined the company throughout its

history. It is a core that doesn’t go

away.

hile electronic capabilities offered

new communication opportunities for

Hewlett-Packard, the basic principles

for success remained unchanged. Just

as Hewlett-Packard uses the HP Way

as a basis for its continuing success,

you will need to rely on the basic princi-

ples of business communication to suc-

ceed professionally. Even in this age of

instantaneous communication, the

basic principles of communication are

just as important—if not more impor-

tant—than ever before. To be effective

in any business setting, you will need to

understand the process of communica-

tion and the dynamic environment in

which it occurs, especially in relation to

organizational communication and the

forces at work in the communication

environment.

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Establishing a Framework forBusiness Communication

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http://www.hp.com

The HP Way: A Winning Philosophy for Hewlett-Packard

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P U R P O S E S O F C O M M U N I C A T I O N

W|e communicate to satisfy needs in both our work and nonwork lives.Each of us wants to be heard, appreciated, and wanted. We also want

to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. Obviously, then, a major purpose of com-munication is to help people feel good about themselves and about their friends,groups, and organizations. Generally people communicate for three basic pur-poses: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.

What is communication? For our purposes, communication is the processof exchanging information and meaning between or among individuals througha common system of symbols, signs, and behavior. Other words often used todescribe the communication process are expressing feelings, conversing, speak-ing, corresponding, writing, listening, and exchanging. Studies indicate thatmanagers typically spend 60 to 80 percent of their time involved in communi-cation. In your career activities, you may communicate in a wide variety ofways, including

• attending meetings and writing reports related to strategic plans and com-pany policy.

• presenting information to large and small groups. • explaining and clarifying management procedures and work assignments.• coordinating the work of various employees, departments, and other work

groups.• evaluating and counseling employees.• promoting the company’s products/services and image.

T H E C O M M U N I C A T I O N P R O C E S S

E|ffective business communication is essential to success in today’s workenvironments. A recent survey of executives documents that abilities in

writing and speaking will be major determinants of career success in manyfields.1 Although essential to personal and professional success, effective busi-ness communication does not occur automatically. Your own experiences havelikely taught you that a message is not interpreted correctly just because youtransmitted it. To communicate effectively, the effective manager must anticipatepossible breakdowns in the communication process—the unlimited ways themessage can be misunderstood. This mind-set provides the concentration todesign the initial message effectively and to be prepared to intervene at theappropriate time to ensure that the message received is on target—that is, asclose as possible to what is intended.

Consider the communication process model presented in Figure 1-1. Theseseemingly simple steps actually represent a very complex process.

T h e S e n d e r E n c o d e s t h e M e s s a g e

The sender carefully designs a message by selecting (1) words that clearly con-vey the message and (2) nonverbal signals (gestures, stance, tone of voice, and

4 Part 1 | Communication Foundations

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1Define communicationand describe the mainpurpose for communi-cation in business.

2Explain the communi-cation process modeland the ultimateobjective of the com-munication process.

In what ways will communica-tion be important in the careerfield you have chosen?

so on) that reinforce the verbal message. The process of selecting and orga-nizing the message is referred to as encoding. The sender’s primary objectiveis to encode the message in such a way that the message received is as closeas possible to the message sent. Knowledge of the receiver’s educationallevel, experience, viewpoints, and other information aids the sender in encod-ing the message. If information about the receiver is unavailable, the sendercan put himself or herself in the receiver’s position to gain fairly accurateinsight for encoding the message. As you study Chapters 3 and 4, you willlearn to use words effectively; Chapter 2 will assist you in refining your non-verbal communication.

Various behaviors can cause breakdowns in the communication process atthe encoding stage, such as when the sender uses

• words not present in the receiver’s vocabulary.• ambiguous, nonspecific ideas that distort the message.• nonverbal signals that contradict the verbal message.• expressions such as “uh” or grammatical errors, mannerisms (excessive hand

movements, jingling keys), or dress that distracts the receiver.

T h e S e n d e r S e l e c t s a n A p p r o p r i a t e C h a n n e l a n d T r a n s m i t s t h e M e s s a g e

To increase the likelihood that the receiver will understand the message, thesender carefully selects an appropriate channel for transmitting the message.Three typical communication channels are illustrated in Figure 1-2.

Chapter 1 | Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 5

SENDER

RECE IVERI

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ORIGINAL MESSAGE FEEDBACK

SELECTS CHANNELAND TRANSMITS

MESSAGEENCODES MESSAGE

DECODES MESSAGE

ENCODES MESSAGE

DECODES MESSAGE

SELECTS CHANNELAND TRANSMITS

MESSAGE

F I G U R E 1 - 1

The communication process

model.

List three breakdowns in theencoding process that you haveexperienced.

Diversity

Challenges

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• Two-way, face-to-face. Informal conversations, interviews, oral reports,speeches, and videoconferences.

• Two-way, not face-to-face. Telephone conversations and on-line chat.• One-way, not face-to-face. Written documents such as letters, memos, reports,

and press releases prepared traditionally or sent electronically (electronicmail, facsimile, voice-mail, and web pages).

Selecting an inappropriate channel can cause the message to be misunder-stood and can adversely affect human relations with the receiver. For example,for a complex subject, a sender might begin with a written document and fol-low up with a face-to-face discussion after the receiver has had an opportunityto study the document. Written documents are required when legal matters areinvolved and written records must be retained.

A face-to-face meeting is a more appropriate channel for sending sensitive,unpleasant messages. For example, consider a supervisor calling an employeeinto a private office to discuss the employee’s continual violation of safety regu-lations. A face-to-face meeting provides two distinct benefits:

• The manager can solicit immediate feedback from the receiver to clarify mis-understandings and inaccuracies in the message.

• The manager can “read” equally important nonverbal cues (tone of voice,body movements, etc.) in addition to hearing what the receiver is saying (theverbal message).

The manager may feel comfortable with the verbal message, but the nonver-bal message may indicate the receiver is overamplifying the problem or isunderestimating the importance of the warning. The manager’s discerning choiceof a channel—meeting with the employee face-to-face rather than calling or writ-ing a disciplinary memo—marks this manager as sensitive and empathetic, qual-ities that foster trust and open communication.


TWO-WAY, FACE-TO-FACE

Instant feedback

Nonverbal signals

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!

TWO-WAY, NOT FACE-TO-FACE

Instant feedback

Limited nonverbal signals

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ONE-WAY, NOT FACE-TO-FACE

No instant feedback

Minimal nonverbal signals

!

!

F I G U R E 1 - 2

Channels of communication.

Which channel would be themost appropriate for communi-cating the following messages?Justify your answer.

• Ask a client for additionalinformation needed to pro-vide requested services.

• Inform a customer that anorder cannot be delivered onthe date specified in thecontract.

• Inform the sales staff of aspecial sales incentive (effec-tive six weeks from now).

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T h e R e c e i v e r D e c o d e s t h e M e s s a g e

The receiver is the destination of the message. The receiver’s task is to interpretthe sender’s message, both verbal and nonverbal, with as little distortion as pos-sible. The process of interpreting the message is referred to as decoding.Because words and nonverbal signals have different meanings to different peo-ple, countless problems can occur at this point in the communication process:

• The sender inadequately encodes the original message. For example, thesender may use words not present in the receiver’s vocabulary; use ambigu-ous, nonspecific ideas that distort the message; or use nonverbal signals thatdistract the receiver or contradict the verbal message.

• The receiver is intimidated by the position or authority of the sender. Thistension may prevent the receiver from concentrating on the message effec-tively enough to understand it clearly. Furthermore, an intimidated receivermay be afraid to ask for clarification because of the perceived fear that ques-tions might be associated with incompetence.

• The receiver is unwilling to attempt to understand the message because thetopic is perceived to be too difficult to understand. Regardless of the clarityof a message communicating procedures for operating a computer softwareprogram, a receiver terrified of computers may be incapable of decoding themessage correctly.

• The receiver is unreceptive to new and different ideas; that is, stereotypicalvisions and prejudices prevent the receiver from viewing the message withan open mind.

The infinite number of breakdowns possible at each stage of the communica-tion process makes us marvel that mutually satisfying communication ever occurs.The complexity of the communication process amplifies the importance of thenext stage in the communication process—feedback to clarify misunderstandings.

T h e R e c e i v e r E n c o d e s a M e s s a g e t o C l a r i f y A n y M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s

When the receiver responds to the sender’s message, the response is called feed-back. The feedback may prompt the sender to modify or adjust the originalmessage to make it clearer to the receiver. Feedback may be verbal or nonver-bal. A remark such as “Could you clarify . . .” or a perplexed facial expressionprovides clear feedback to the sender that the receiver does not yet understandthe message. Conversely, a confident “Yes, I understand,” and a nod of the headlikely signal understanding or encouragement.

I n t e r f e r e n c e s H i n d e r t h e P r o c e s s

Senders and receivers must learn to deal with the numerous factors that interferewith the communication process. These factors are referred to as interferencesor barriers to effective communication. Previous examples have illustrated someof the interferences that may occur at various stages of the communicationprocess. For example,


Give examples of nonverbalgestures that have differentmeanings among generationsor cultures.

List three breakdowns in thedecoding process you haveexperienced.

What is meant by the termsinternal barriers and externalbarriers? How can each type beovercome?

Diversity

Challenges

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• Differences in educational level, experience, and culture and other character-istics of the sender and the receiver increase the complexity of encoding anddecoding a message.

• Physical interferences occurring in the channel include loud talking near anarea where a supervisor is explaining a work assignment, distracting andannoying static on a telephone line, or an overly warm room used for alengthy staff meeting. Many companies schedule officer retreats at hotels orremote lodges to eliminate physical and mental interferences such as con-stant interruptions and other distractions present in workday surroundings.

• A supervisor too rushed or too insecure to allow subordinates to ask ques-tions or offer suggestions (feedback) creates a formidable barrier to effectivecommunication. This supervisor loses time and money from errors madebecause unclear messages are not clarified and also generates negative feel-ings because employees perceive their opinions to be unwelcome.

Study carefully the barriers listed in Figure 1-3, and compile a list of otherbarriers that affect your ability to communicate with friends, teachers, cowork-ers, supervisors, and others. By being aware of them, you can make concen-trated efforts to remove these interferences whenever possible.

C O M M U N I C A T I N G W I T H I N O R G A N I Z A T I O N S

O|rganizational structure is the overall design of an organization, much likea blueprint developed to meet the company’s specific needs and to

enhance its ability to accomplish goals. A company’s organizational structure isdepicted graphically in an organization chart, as illustrated in Figure 1-4. Anorganizational chart helps define the scope of the organization and the divisionof specialized tasks among employees who work interdependently to accom-plish common goals.

To be successful, organizations must create an environment that energizesand provides encouragement to employees to accomplish tasks by encouraginggenuine openness and effective communication. Organizational communica-tion is concerned with the movement of information within the company struc-ture. Regardless of your career or level within an organization, your ability tocommunicate will affect not only the success of the organization but also yourpersonal success and advancement within that organization.

L e v e l s o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n

Communication can involve sending messages to both large and small audi-ences. Some messages, internal messages, are intended for recipients withinthe organization. Other messages, external messages, are directed to recipientsoutside the organization. When considering the intended audience, communica-tion can be described as taking place on five levels:

• Intrapersonal communication occurs when an individual processes infor-mation based on his or her own experiences. It is, in a sense, communication


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Identify the five levels of communication.

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Consider a situation in whichyou have experienced a commu-nication breakdown. What fac-tor(s) was/were responsible forthe miscommunication? Whatcould have been done to assuresuccessful communication?

What is the difference betweena task goal and a maintenancegoal?

Diversity

Challenges

within one person. All interpretation of information ultimately takes place inthe individual mind. Self-talk is the term used to describe conversation thattakes place within a person, and it may be either positive and constructive,or negative and destructive. People’s self-talk influences the communicationwith others that they initiate and receive, since attitudes and mind-sets havealready been formed prior to the exchange of ideas between individuals.Self-talk is not considered true communication by some because it does notinvolve a separate sender and receiver.

• Interpersonal communication takes place primarily when two people areinvolved in the process. Their two goals are to (1) accomplish whatever taskconfronts them, and (2) feel better about themselves as a result of theirinteraction. These two goals are commonly referred to as task goals and


F I G U R E 1 - 3

Communication barriers.

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Board of Directors Audit Committee

Chief Executive Officer

V.P. of Operations V.P. of FinanceV.P. of

Information Technology

Marketing FinanceCommunicationsPublic

RelationsStockholder

RelationsSystemsDesign

HumanResources AccountingNetworks

F I G U R E 1 - 4

Organization chart of an Internet company.

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maintenance goals, respectively, and they co-exist in varying degrees inmost of our daily activities. Most of your communication in business willoccur in various one-to-one relationships. Understanding various behaviorpatterns provides supervisors valuable insights that facilitate communicationwith today’s employees.

• Group communication occurs among more than two people: a committee, aclub, or all the students enrolled in a class. Groups are formed usually becausethe combined efforts of a number of people result in greater output than theindividual efforts of the same number of people. In other words, groups can domore for the individuals than the individuals can do for themselves.

• Organizational communication arises when groups discover that they areunable to accomplish their goals without some kind of organization. Thus,organizations are combinations of groups formed in such a way that largetasks may be accomplished.

• Mass communication occurs when an organization reaches out to its pub-lic to achieve its goals. Utilizing media advertising or a corporate web site arepossible means for reaching a large intended audience.

Despite the differences in size and complexity, each of these levels of com-munication continues to have task and maintenance goals. The idea of mainte-nance goals can be divided into two distinct goals—self-maintenance and groupmaintenance:

• A self-maintenance goal describes an individual’s need to maintain his or herpersonal worth or psychological well-being. An example of a self-maintenancegoal would be a group member’s striving to be liked by every member of theteam.

• A group maintenance goal describes a group’s need to maintain the non-task relationships they have developed through interacting with one anotheras a team. An example would be a team’s effort to promote empathetic lis-tening among all members.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N F L O W I N O R G A N I Z A T I O N S

C|ommunication occurs in a variety of ways in an organization; some com-munication flow is planned and structured; some is not. Some communi-

cation flow can be formally depicted, while some defies description.

F o r m a l a n d I n f o r m a l C h a n n e l s

The flow of communication within an organization follows both formal andinformal channels.

• Formal communication channel. This channel is typified by the formalorganization chart, which is created by management to control individual andgroup behavior and to achieve the organization’s goals. Essentially, the for-mal system is dictated by the technical, political, and economic environment

Discuss how informa-tion flows in anorganization (formally and informally, anddownward, upward,and horizontally).

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A corporate study by the FordFoundation found that productiv-ity is increased in companieswho show concern for employ-ees’ personal lives and needs.How do you explain this finding?

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of the organization. Within this system, people are required to behave in cer-tain ways simply to get the work done.

• Informal communication channel. This channel develops as people inter-act within the formal, external system, and certain behavior patterns emerge—patterns that accommodate social and psychological needs. Because theinformal channel undergoes continual changes, it cannot be depicted accu-rately by any graphic means.

When employees rely almost entirely on the formal communication systemas a guide to behavior, the system might be identified as a bureaucracy. Proce-dures manuals, job descriptions, organization charts, and other written materialsdictate the required behavior. Communication channels are followed strictly, andred tape is abundant. Procedures are generally followed exactly; terms such asrules and policies serve as sufficient reasons for actions. Even the most formalorganizations, however, cannot function long before an informal communicationsystem emerges. As people operate within the external system, they must inter-act on a person-to-person basis and create an environment conducive to satis-fying their personal emotions, prejudices, likes, and dislikes.

In the college classroom, for example, the student behavior required to sat-isfy the formal system is to attend class, take notes, read the text, and passexaminations. On the first day of class, this behavior probably is typical ofalmost all students, particularly if they did not know one another prior toattending the class. As the class progresses, however, the informal systememerges and overlaps the formal system. Students become acquainted, sit nextto people they particularly like, talk informally, and may even plan ways to beatthe external system. Cutting class and borrowing notes are examples. Soon,these behaviors become norms for class behavior. Students who do not engagein the informal system may be viewed with disdain by the others. Obviously,

Why do organizations tend tobecome more bureaucratic asthey grow in size?


Company openness withemployees, through bothformal and informal communication channels,builds trust and loyalty.

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the informal system benefits people because it is efficient; and it affects theoverall communication of the group in important ways.

T h e G r a p e v i n e a s a n I n f o r m a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n S y s t e m

The grapevine, often called the rumor mill, is perhaps the best-known informalcommunication system. It is actually a component of the informal system. Aspeople talk casually during coffee breaks and lunch periods, the focus usuallyshifts from topic to topic. One of the topics most certainly would be work—job,company, supervisor, fellow employees. Even though the formal system has def-inite communication channels, the grapevine tends to develop and operatewithin the organization.

As a communication channel, the grapevine has a reputation for beingspeedy but inaccurate. In the absence of alarms, the grapevine may be the mosteffective way to let occupants know that the building is on fire. It certainly beatssending a written memorandum or an e-mail. While the grapevine often isthought of as a channel for inaccurate communication, in reality, it is no moreor less accurate than other channels. Even formal communication may becomeinaccurate as it passes from level to level in the organizational hierarchy. Theinaccuracy of the grapevine has more to do with the message input than withthe output. For example, the grapevine is noted as a carrier of rumor, primarilybecause it carries informal messages. If the input is rumor, and nothing more,the output obviously will be inaccurate. But the output may be an accuratedescription of the original rumor.

For a college student, the grapevine carries much valuable information. Eventhough the names of the choice instructors may not be published, students learnthose names through the grapevine. How best to prepare for certain examina-tions, instructor attitudes on attendance and homework, and even future facultypersonnel changes are messages that travel over the grapevine. In the businessoffice, news about promotions, personnel changes, company policy changes,and annual salary adjustments often is communicated by the grapevine longbefore being disseminated by formal channels.

A misconception about the grapevine is that the message passes from personto person until it finally reaches a person who can’t pass it on—the end of theline. Actually, the grapevine works as a network channel. Typically, one persontells two or three others, who each tell two or three others, who each tell two orthree others, and so on. Thus, the message may spread to a huge number of peo-ple in a short time. Additionally, the grapevine has no single, consistent source.Messages may originate anywhere and follow various routes.

Due at least in part to widespread downsizing during the last few years,employees in many organizations are demanding to be better informed. Somecompanies have implemented new formal ways for disseminating information totheir internal constituents, such as newsletters and intranets. Company opennesswith employees, including financial information, means more information in theformal system rather than risking its miscommunication through informal chan-nels. An employee of The Container Store—named the best company to work

Managers who ignore thegrapevine have difficulty achiev-ing organizational goals. Thinkabout a situation you haveexperienced in which aninstructor/adviser/employerused the grapevine effectivelyor ineffectively. What was theresult?


Team

Environment

Share a personal communica-tion experience that involvedthe grapevine as an informationsource. How reliable was themessage you sent or received?How time-efficient was themessage transmission?

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for in America—said that the company’s willingness to divulge what it makeseach year and its financial goals builds trust in her superiors.2

An informal communication system will emerge from even the most carefullydesigned formal system. Managers who ignore this fact are attempting to man-age blindfolded. Instead of denying or condemning the grapevine, the effectivemanager will learn to use the informal communication network. The grapevine,for instance can be useful in counteracting rumors and false information.

D i r e c t i o n s f o r C o m m u n i c a t i o n F l o w

The direction in which communication flows in an organization may be down-ward, upward, or horizontal, as shown in Figure 1-5. Because these three termsare used frequently in communication literature, they deserve clarification.Although the concept of flow seems simple, direction has meaning for those par-ticipating in the communication process.

Downward Communication. Downward communication flows from super-visor to employee, from policy makers to operating personnel, or from top tobottom on the organization chart. As messages move downward through suc-cessive levels of the organization, they seem to get larger. A simple policy state-ment from the top of the organization may grow into a formal plan for operationat lower levels.

Teaching people how to perform their specific tasks is an element of down-ward communication. Another element is orientation to a company’s rules, prac-tices, procedures, history, and goals. Employees learn about the quality of theirjob performance through downward communication.

Downward communication normally involves both written and oral methodsand makes use of the following guidelines:

• People high in the organization usually have greater knowledge of the orga-nization and its goals than do people at lower levels.

• Both oral and written messages tend to become larger as they move down-ward through organizational levels. This expansion results from attempts toprevent distortion and is more noticeable in written messages.

• Oral messages are subject to greater changes in meaning than are writtenmessages.

When a supervisor sends a message to a lower-level employee who then asksa question or nods assent, the question and the nod are signs of feedback. Feed-back may flow both downward and upward in organizational communication.

Upward Communication. Upward communication generally is feedbackto downward communication. Although necessary and valuable, upward communication does contain risks. When management requests informationfrom lower organizational levels, the resulting information becomes feedback tothat request. Employees talk to supervisors about themselves, their fellowemployees, their work and methods of doing it, and their perceptions of theorganization. These comments are feedback to the downward flow transmitted


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What would be an appropriate“rule of thumb” for a managerin deciding whether to send awritten message to subordi-nates?

What do you believe would bethe typical communication pat-terns of a manager workingunder a win/lose philosophy?Under a win/win philosophy?

in both oral and written form by group meetings, procedures or operations man-uals, company news releases, and the grapevine.

Accurate upward communication keeps management informed about thefeelings of lower-level employees, taps the expertise of employees, helps man-agement identify both difficult and potentially promotable employees, and pavesthe way for even more effective downward communication. Employees report-ing upward are aware that their communications carry the risk of putting themon the spot or committing them to something they cannot handle.

Although employees typically appreciate and welcome genuine opportunitiesto send information to management, they will likely resent any superficial attemptto provide an open communication network with management. These factors,then, are important to consider when upward communication flow is involved.

• Upward communication is primarily feedback to requests and actions ofsupervisors.

Progress reports (oral and written)

Results/accomplishments

Problems/clarifications

•

•

Coordination of interrelated activities

Problem-solving efforts

Policies and procedures

Organizational goals and strategies

Work assignments

Employee development

Job role/responsibility

Performance appraisal

(formal and informal)

Constructive criticism

Deserved praise and recognition

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•

•

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Ideas/suggestions

Feelings/attitudes

UPWARD COMMUNICATION UPWARD COMMUNICATIONDOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

HORIZONTAL ORLATERAL COMMUNICATION

F I G U R E 1 - 5

Flow of information within an organization.


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• Upward communication may be misleading because lower-level employeesoften tell the superior what they think the superior wants to hear. Therefore,their messages might contradict their true observations and perceptions.

• Upward communication is based on trust in the supervisor.• Upward communication frequently involves risk to an employee.• Employees will reject superficial attempts by management to obtain feedback

from employees.

Horizontal Communication. Horizontal, or lateral, communication describesinteractions between organization units on the same hierarchical level. Theseinteractions reveal one of the major shortcomings of organizational charts. Chartsdo not allow much room for horizontal communication when they depictauthority relationships by placing one box higher than another and define rolefunctions by placing titles in those boxes. Yet horizontal communication is theprimary means of achieving coordination in a functional organizational structure.

Management must recognize that informal, horizontal communication takesplace in any system or organization where people are available to one another.Horizontal communication serves a coordinating function in the organization.Units coordinate their activities to accomplish task goals just as adjacent work-ers in a production line coordinate their activities.

In an organization divided into cross-functional teams, horizontal communi-cation among the team members is extremely important to achieve individual andteam goals. Total Quality Management experts emphasize that honest, opencommunication is the single most important factor in successfully creating a TotalQuality Management environment. According to one TQM author, “if people keeptalking to one another, they can work through their problems, overcome barriers,and find encouragement and support from others involved in quality efforts.”3

Many companies are realizing that the traditional hierarchy organized aroundfunctional units is inadequate for competing in the increasingly competitiveglobal markets. Companies are organizing work teams that integrate work-flowprocesses rather than having specialists who deal with a single function or prod-uct. These cross-functional work teams break down the former communicationbarriers between isolated functional departments. Communication patterns takeon varying forms to accommodate team activities.

S T R A T E G I C F O R C E S I N F L U E N C I N G B U S I N E S S C O M M U N I C A T I O N

C|ommunication is often a complicated process. Furthermore, communica-tion does not take place in a vacuum, but rather is influenced by a num-

ber of forces at work in the environment. The effective communicator carefullyconsiders each of these influences and structures communication responsively.Four critical forces influence the communication process and help to determineand define the nature of the communication that occurs, as shown in Figure 1-6.

Explain how legaland ethical con-straints act as astrategic force toinfluence theprocess of businesscommunication.

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How would you rank the fourstrategic forces in terms ofmagnitude of importance tobusiness communication?Why?


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TMHow can a manager maximizethe effectiveness of horizontalcommunication among subordi-nates?

Team

Environment

F I G U R E 1 - 6

Strategic forces influencing business communication.

Legal and Eth ical Constra ints as a Stra -teg ic Force Influenc ing Communicat ion

Legal and ethical constraints act as a strategic force on communication in thatthey set boundaries in which communication can occur. International, federal,state, and local laws affect the way that various business activities can be con-ducted. For instance, legislation controls can and must be stated in letters thatreply to credit applications and those dealing with collection of outstandingdebts. Furthermore, one’s own ethical standards will often influence what he or


Cultural Differences

Language Barriers

Gender Issues

International Laws

Domestic Laws

Codes of Ethics

Stakeholder Interests

Ethical Frameworks

Personal Values

Trust

Team Roles

Shared Goals andExpectations

Synergy

Group Reward

Distributed Leadership

“ “High-touch”Issues

Telecommuting

Databases

Education Levels

Age Factors

Nonverbal Differences

LEGAL AND ETHICAL

CONSTRAINTS

Accuracy andSecurity Issues

Telecommunication

Software Application Tools

LEGAL AND ETHICAL

CONSTRAINTS

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ENVIRONMENT

TEAM

ENVIRONMENT

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COMMUNICATIONDIVERSITY

CHALLENGES

DIVERSITY

CHALLENGES

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she is willing to say in a message. A system of ethics built on honesty mayrequire that the message provide full disclosure, for instance, rather than ashrouding of the truth. Legal responsibilities, then, are the starting point forappropriate business communication. One’s ethical beliefs, or personal sense ofright and wrong behavior, provides further boundaries for professional activity.

The press is full of examples of unethical conduct in the business and govern-mental communities. Business leaders, government officials, and citizens frequentlyexpress concern about the apparent erosion of ethical values in society. Even forthose who want to do the right thing, matters of ethics are seldom clear-cut deci-sions of right versus wrong and often contain many ambiguous elements. In addi-tion, the pressure appears to be felt most strongly by lower-level managers, oftenrecent business school graduates, who are least experienced doing their jobs.

You can take steps now to prepare for dealing with pressure to compromisepersonal values:

• Consider your personal value system. Only if you have definite beliefs on avariety of issues and the courage to practice them will you be able to makesound ethical judgments. Putting ethical business practices first will also bene-fit the company for whom you work as its reputation for fairness and goodjudgment retains long-term clients or customers and brings in new ones.

• Learn to analyze ethical dilemmas. Knowing how to analyze ethicaldilemmas and identify the consequences of your actions will help you makedecisions that conform to your own value system. Thus, unless you know whatyou stand for and how to analyze the ethical issue, you become a puppet, con-trolled by the motives of others, too weak to make a decision on your own.

The Foundation for Legal and Ethical Behavior. Although ethics is a commonpoint of discussion, many find defining ethics challenging. Most people imme-diately associate ethics with standards and rules of conduct, morals, right andwrong, values, and honesty. Dr. Albert Schweitzer defined ethics as “the namewe give to our concern for good behavior. We feel an obligation to consider notonly our own personal well-being, but also that of others and of human societyas a whole.”4 In other words, ethics refers to the principles of right and wrongthat guide you in making decisions that consider the impact of your actions onothers as well as yourself.

Although the recorded accounts of legal and ethical misconduct would seemto indicate that businesses are dishonest and unscrupulous, keep in mind thatmillions of business transactions are made daily on the basis of honesty andconcern for the welfare of others. Why should a business make ethical deci-sions? What difference will it make? James E. Perrella, executive vice presidentof Ingersoll-Rand Company, gave a powerful reply to these questions:5

Our question of today should be, what’s the right thing to do, the rightway to behave, the right way to conduct business? Don’t just ask, is it legal?Have you ever considered what business would be like if we all did it? Ifevery businessman and businesswoman followed the Golden Rule? Manypeople, including many business leaders, would argue that such an appli-cation of ethics to business would adversely affect bottom-line performance.


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What recent events can youthink of that have ethicalthemes?

What is your personal definitionof ethics?

I say nay . . . . Good ethics, simply, is good business. Good ethics willattract investors. Good ethics will attract good employees.

You can do what’s right. Not because of conduct codes. Not because ofrules or laws. But because you know what’s right.

Identifying ethical issues in typical workplace situations may be difficult, andcoworkers and superiors may apply pressure for seemingly logical reasons. Toillustrate, examine each of the following workplace situations for a possible eth-ical dilemma:

• Corporate officers deliberately withhold information concerning a plannedsellout to prevent an adverse effect on stock prices.

• A salesperson, who travels extensively, overstates car mileage to cover thecost of personal telephone calls that the company refuses to reimburse.

• To protect his job, a product engineer decides not to question a design flawin a product that could lead to possible injuries and even deaths to con-sumers because the redesign would cause a delay in product introduction.

• To stay within the departmental budget, a supervisor authorizes that a soft-ware program be installed on fifty office computers when only one legalcopy was actually purchased.

• Angry at a superior for an unfavorable performance appraisal, an employeeleaks confidential information (e.g., trade secrets such as a recipe or prod-uct design, marketing strategies, or product development plans) to anacquaintance who works for a competitor.

Your fundamental morals and values provide the foundation for makingethical decisions. However, as the previous examples imply, even minor con-cessions in day-to-day decisions can gradually weaken an individual’s ethicalfoundation.

Causes of Illegal and Unethical Behavior. Understanding the major causes ofillegal and unethical behavior in the workplace will help you become sensitiveto signals of escalating pressure to compromise your values. Unethical corporatebehavior can have a number of causes:

• Excessive emphasis on profits. Business managers are often judged andpaid on their ability to increase business profits. This emphasis on profitsmay send a message that the end justifies the means.

• Misplaced corporate loyalty. A misplaced sense of corporate loyalty maycause an employee to do what seems to be in the best interest of the com-pany, even if the act is illegal or unethical.

• Obsession with personal advancement. Employees who wish to outper-form their peers or are working for the next promotion may feel that theycannot afford to fail. They may do whatever it takes to achieve the objectivesassigned to them.

• Expectation of not getting caught. Employees who believe that the endjustifies the means often believe that the illegal or unethical activity will neverbe discovered. Unfortunately, a great deal of improper behavior escapesdetection in the business world. Believing no one will ever find out, employ-ees are tempted to lie, steal, and perform other illegal acts.

What situations have you facedas a worker or student thatcaused ethical dilemmas?


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• Unethical tone set by top management. If top managers are not perceivedas highly ethical, lower-level managers may be less ethical as a result.Employees have little incentive to act legally and ethically if their superiorsdo not set an example and encourage and reward such behavior.

• Uncertainty about whether an action is wrong. Many times, companypersonnel are placed in situations in which the line between right and wrongis not clearly defined. When caught in this gray area, the perplexed employeeasks, “How far is too far?”

• Unwillingness to take a stand for what is right. Often employees knowwhat is right or wrong but are not willing to take the risk of challenging awrong action. They may lack the confidence or skill needed to confront oth-ers with sensitive legal or ethical issues. They may remain silent and then jus-tify their unwillingness to act.

Framework for Analyzing Ethical Dilemmas. Determining whether an action isethical can be difficult. Learning to analyze an ethical dilemma from multipleperspectives will help you find a solution that conforms to your own personalvalues. The flow chart shown in Figure 1-7 represents a framework for makingan ethical decision and for supporting that decision in a written or oral message.The framework instructs you (the decision maker) to complete the followingfour-step process after you have identified a possible course of action:

1. Identify the legal implications of the alternative and determine whetherthe alternative adheres to contractual agreements and company policy.In other words, is the alternative legal? The law specifically outlines the “black”area—those alternatives that are clearly wrong. Your employer will expect youto become an expert in the laws that affect your particular area. When youencounter an unfamiliar area, you must investigate any possible legal implica-tions. Obviously obeying the law is in the best interest of all concerned: youas an individual, your company, and society. In addition, contractual agree-ments between the organization and another group provide explicit guidancein selecting an ethically responsible alternative. If the action is legal, then . . .

2. Determine whether the alternative violates any company or profes-sional codes of ethics. If the alternative is legal and complies with relevantcontractual agreements and company policy, your next step is to consult yourcompany’s or profession’s code of ethics. This written document summarizesthe company’s or profession’s standards of ethical conduct. Some companiesrefer to this document as a credo or standards of ethical conduct. If thebehavior does not violate the code of ethics, then . . .

3. Use ethical principles and theories to assess whether the alternativejudged to be legal (Step 1) and in compliance with codes of ethics (Step2) is ethical. The final—and extremely important—test your alternative mustsatisfy is the test of integrity. Is it ethical? If, after careful analysis, you judgethe alternative to be unethical, you must evaluate another alternative begin-ning again with Step 1 of this framework. If you feel the alternative is ethi-cal, then . . .

4. Implement the alternative and communicate ethical decisions toappropriate individuals inside or outside the organization.


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What is meant by the term “situational ethics?”

Consider the following saying:The speed of the leader is thespeed of the pack. What otheradages might be used toenforce the importance of lead-ing by example?

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Framework for analyzing

ethical issues.


Note the three decision points in the framework shown in Figure 1-7. Anyone of the following criteria could cause the rejection of the alternative beingconsidered and selection of another one: (1) The alternative is illegal or does notcomply with relevant contractual agreements and company policy, (2) the alter-native is not consistent with the company’s and/or the profession’s code ofethics, or (3) the alternative violates your personal code of ethics.

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The Pagano Model offers a straightforward method for determining whether aproposed action is ethical.6 You must answer the following six questions honestly:

• Is the proposed action legal—the core starting point? • What are the benefits and costs to the people involved?• Would you want this action to be a universal standard, appropriate for

everyone?• Does the action pass the light-of-day test? That is, if your action appeared on

television or others learned about it, would you be proud?• Does the action pass the Golden Rule test? That is, would you want the same

to happen to you?• Does the action pass the ventilation test? Ask the opinion of a wise friend with

no investment in the outcome. Does this friend believe the action is ethical?

Another framework for examining the correctness of an action is the utilitar-ian theory. Its basic premise is that in all situations one ought to do that whichprovides the greatest balance of good over harm for all parties involved. Thus, anethical decision maker must estimate the impact of each alternative action on allorganization stakeholders (the persons or groups who will be affected by thedecision) and then select the one that optimizes the satisfaction of the greatestnumber of people. Simply stated, the major stakeholders consist of five groups:owners, employees, customers, local communities, and society at large.

Ross’s doctrine of prima facie duties includes (1) not harming innocentpeople, (2) keeping promises, (3) showing gratitude, (4) acting in a just way,and (5) providing reparations to those who have been harmed by one’s actions.7

While these duties are not moral absolutes, they are considered highly desirablemoral tenets that should be honored whenever possible. To apply this doctrine,you must consider the organization’s major stakeholders and determine whichof Ross’s five duties are relevant to the decision under consideration, and ofthose, which may be violated for any of the stakeholders.

As these assessments show, applying ethical theories is not an easy task.Such analytical processes, however, enhance your critical thinking about theconsequences of any action.

D i v e r s i t y C h a l l e n g e s a s a S t r a t e g i c F o r c e I n f l u e n c i n g C o m m u n i c a t i o n

Diversity in the workplace is another strategic force influencing communication.Differences between the sender and the receiver in areas such as culture, age,gender, and education require a sensitivity on the part of both the sender andreceiver so that the intended message is the one that is received.

Understanding how to communicate effectively with people from other cul-tures has become more integral to the work environment as many U.S. companiesare increasingly conducting business with international companies or becomingmultinational. Successful communication must often span barriers of language andrequires a person to consider differing world views resulting from societal, reli-gious, or other cultural factors. When a person fails to consider these factors, com-munication suffers, and the result is often embarrassing and potentially costly.

Explain how diver-sity challenges actas a strategic forceto influence theprocess of businesscommunication.

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Which of the ethical frame-works do you find most appro-priate for you personally? Why?


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Diversity

Challenges

McDonald’s is an example of a large U.S. company that has expanded itsoperations to include most major countries in the world. To be successful on aninternational scale, McDonald’s managers had to be aware of cultural differencesand be willing to work to ensure that effective communication occurred despitethese barriers. The results so far have been overwhelmingly positive for McDon-ald’s; for example, their store in Moscow reports healthy sales despite the ailingeconomy in the former Soviet Union.

Occasionally, however, a whopper of an intercultural communication fauxpas occurs. That is what happened when McDonald’s began their promotionalcampaign in Britain for the World Cup soccer championship. It seemed like aclever (and harmless) idea to reproduce the flags of the 24 nations participatingin the event and print them on packaging—two million Happy Meal bags, to beexact. What marketing personnel failed to consider was that words from theKoran are printed on the Saudi flag. The idea that sacred words from Islam’sholy book were mass-printed to sell a product with the knowledge that the pack-ages would be thrown into the trash angered and offended many Muslims, whoimmediately complained. McDonald’s apologized for the gaffe and agreed tocooperate with the Saudis in finding a solution to the problem.8

While NAFTA has created new business opportunities for U.S. and Mexicanentities, unique problems have also occurred. After seven trips to Mexico andnine months of courtship, a U.S. firm faxed the final contract to the MexicanCEO. This action was a big mistake, since Mexican protocol calls for more for-mal finalizing in a face-to-face meeting.9 These errors serve as examples of howmuch “homework” is involved in maintaining good relations with customers orclients from other cultures. The potential barrier of language is obvious; how-ever, successful managers know that much more is involved in communicatingwith everyone—across cultures, genders, ages, abilities, and other differences.

Communication Opportunities and Challenges in Diversity. As world marketsexpand, U.S. employees at home and abroad will be doing business with morepeople from other countries. You may find yourself working abroad for a largeAmerican company, an international company with a plant in the United States,or a company with an ethnically diverse work force. Regardless of the work-place, your diversity skills, that is, your ability to communicate effectively withboth men and women of all ages and with people of other cultures or minoritygroups, will affect your success in today’s culturally diverse, global economy.

• International issues. Worldwide telecommunications and intense interna-tional business competition have fueled the movement of many industriesinto world markets. During the past four decades, U.S. firms have establishedfacilities in Europe, Central and South America, and Asia. At many U.S. cor-porations, such as Dow Chemical, Gillette, and IBM, more than 40 percent oftotal sales in recent years has come from international operations. Over thepast decade, Asians (primarily Japanese) and Europeans have built plants inthe United States. Many U.S. workers are now employed in manufacturingplants and facilities owned and operated by foreign interests. Understandinga person of another culture who may not speak your language well or under-stand your culturally based behaviors is a daily challenge faced by many.

What is the relationshipbetween political barriers andcommunication barriers?


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Specific guidelines for writing and speaking with an international audienceare provided in later chapters.

• Intercultural issues. Changing demographics in the United States are requir-ing businesses to face ethnic diversity in the workplace. Rather than being amelting pot for people from many countries, the United States has offered anenvironment in which people of varying cultures could live and practice theircultural heritage. People with a common heritage generally formed their ownneighborhoods and worked intently at retaining their traditional customs andlanguage, while still sharing in the common culture. Consequently, mosaicseems to be a more accurate term than melting pot to reflect U.S. culturaldiversity.10 As in a mosaic, small, distinct groups combine to form the patternor design of the U.S. population and work force. U.S. labor statistics reflectthe declining proportion of white males in the labor force and growing pro-portions of minorities and women.11 People from different backgroundsinvariably bring different values, attitudes, and perceptions to the workplace.

• Intergenerational issues. While age diversity has always been present in theworkplace, recent trends have made it a more important issue than ever. Theso-called “greying of America” has changed the age distribution in the U.S.population. The older segment of the population is larger today than at anytime previously. The maturing of the “baby-boomer” generation (those bornbetween 1946 and 1964), a relatively low birthrate, and increasing life spanshave led to a higher average age in the population. Today’s work force reflectsthe advancing age of the general populace. As of the year 2000, for instance,one in every three workers was 45 or older.12 Figure 1-8 illustrates the contin-ued trend toward an older work force. Because of changes in laws affectingretirement benefits and better overall health, many older workers will chooseto continue longer in their professional activities than in past years. Because ofthe broadening of the age span in the workplace, businesses will be faced withnew challenges related to differences in perceptions, values, and communica-tion styles of the generations. Chapter 3 includes a Strategic Forces focus ongenerational differences and their impact on workplace communication.

Source: National Council on Aging13

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Changing work force age

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What impact will the “grayingof America” have on the work-place?


• Gender issues. The flood of women entering the job market has substantiallychanged the American work force. Old social patterns of behavior thatdefined the appropriate roles for men and women do not fit in a work envi-ronment free from discrimination. While civil rights laws prohibiting sex dis-crimination and pay equity requirements have been in place for more than 30years, charges continue to be filed by individuals who feel that their rightshave been violated. The number of sexual harassment cases has increased inrecent years, resulting from a broader-based definition of what indeed consti-tutes sexual harassment. Although a charge of sexual harassment may cer-tainly be based on actions with sexual overtones, it has also been interpretedto include comments, visual images, or other conditions that create a hostileworking environment. One result of the increased focus on sexual harassment

Gender No Obstacle toBusiness Success

hen Carly Fiorina was named CEO

of Hewlett-Packard Co. in 1999, she

became the head of the largest public

corporation ever run by a female execu-

tive. Thirty years after the advent of the

women’s movement, Fiorina is only the

third woman currently holding the title

of CEO at a Fortune 500 corporation.

As leader of a Fortune top 20 firm,

responsible for more than 123,000

employees and with $47 billion in

annual revenues, she was named the

most powerful woman in American

business by Fortune Magazine.

iorina came to HP after serving as

head of the Global Service Provider

division of Lucent Technologies. Her

background in management and busi-

ness technology gives her the ability

to bring creative problem-solving to

the company. Doing so, however, does

not mean an abandonment of the HP

Way. She espouses the long-standing

HP principles of work-life balance and

healthy corporate interaction while

leading the company in its progression

into e-services. “You have to have fun

to be successful. True, this industry

requires hard work—there’s no getting

around that. But if you can’t find joy in

that work, if you can’t take pleasure in

teamwork, if you can’t have fun in solv-

ing problems, it’s not worth it.”14

hile the press has made much of

her gender, Fiorina deflects attention

away from it. When asked how she

feels about being called the most pow-

erful woman in corporate America, she

answers, “I have never thought of

myself as a woman in business; I just

thought of myself as Carly who hap-

pens to be a woman who’s focused on

doing the best job I can. It’s not a for-

mula I plan to change. Frankly, the real

challenge for me—and the reason I’m

sensitive to the gender issue—is that

this isn’t about me as a person; this is

about how to effectively and appropri-

ately represent a business.”15

n terms of her communication style,

Fiorina isn’t afraid of speaking her mind.

“People sometimes interpret candor as

toughness—and

sometimes it’s hard

to tell the truth; but

in the end the truth

sets you free.” In offering advice for

women aspiring to positions of power,

Fiorina says: “All people—including

women—need to stay focused on possi-

bilities. I faced lots of doubters in my

career, lots of hurdles and barriers;

there were many people who didn’t

take me seriously, but there were also

enough people who did. I would say

believe in yourself, stay focused on the

possibilities, seek out the people who

will see what you are capable of,

because talent—in whatever package it

comes in—will rise to the top.”16

Applying What You Have

Learned

1. How does Carly Fiorina’s leader-

ship philosophy relate to the HP

Way?

2. Explain what Fiorina means by

saying that you have to have fun

to be successful.

F

W

Carly Fiorina, CEO, Hewlett-Packard Co.

I

Spotlight Communicator

W

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in the workplace is the reluctance of some to communicate with other work-ers for fear that their actions or words might be misconstrued. Both men andwomen confront workplace communication challenges.

Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications;but it also poses opportunities to improve both workers and organizations.Managers must be prepared to communicate effectively with workers of differ-ent nationalities, genders, races, ages, abilities, and so forth.

Managing a diverse work force effectively will require you to communicatewith everyone and to help all employees reach their fullest potential and contributeto the company’s goals. When miscommunication occurs, both sides are frustratedand often angry. To avoid such problems, increasing numbers of companies areproviding diversity training seminars to help workers understand and appreciategender and age differences and the cultures of coworkers. To prepare for thesecommunication challenges, commit the time and energy to enhance your diversityskills while you are attending classes as well as after you enter the workplace.

Culture and Communication. Managers with the desire and the skill to conductbusiness in new international markets and to manage a diverse work force effec-tively will confront problems created by cultural differences. The way messagesare decoded and encoded is not just a function of the experiences, beliefs, andassumptions of the person sending or receiving those messages but also areshaped by the society in which he or she lives.

People learn patterns of behavior from their culture. The culture of a peo-ple is the product of their living experiences within their own society. Culturecould be described as “the way of life” of a people and includes a vast array ofbehaviors and beliefs. These patterns affect how people perceive the world,what they value, and how they act. Differing patterns can also create barriers tocommunication. Culture has several key characteristics:

• Culture is learned by people over time. Individuals are not born knowingtheir culture but acquire it through interactions with others. Social institutionssuch as religious organizations, clubs, businesses; the family; schools; as wellas the media, all play a part in teaching each member of a society the expec-tations and norms of behavior.

• Components of culture are interrelated. In the United States, for instance,the high value placed on material goods is related to the use of economicwell-being as a measure of success and happiness. These values provide sup-port for the approval placed on independence of mind and action, which inturn is connected to the existence of a relatively fluid class structure.

• Culture is shared. While the various aspects of culture are common tomany individuals, no country has one unified culture. Modern societies areso large and diverse that many different cultures can exist within them; theseare called subcultures. Although each subculture differs from others, theyoften share some traits that derive from the main or dominant culture.

• Culture provides standards for behavior. In providing individuals withstandards for behavior, culture gives them a feeling of identification andbelonging; they feel a part of something larger than themselves. Customs arethe accepted way of interacting as dictated by one’s culture. The North

What are some examples inyour own community of culture-oriented activities?


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What other aspects of diversitycan influence communication?

American practice of shaking hands reflects the value that is placed on theindividual. Indians greet each other with a slight bow to honor the divinespark that they believe resides in each person.

• Culture provides symbolic references. Each culture has certain objects,gestures, sounds, or images that contain special meaning. The American flagsymbolizes the nation’s independence and strength; a red, white, and bluepackage tries to associate itself with those meanings. Advertising, which insome respects is the use of cultural symbols, requires sensitivity to the spe-cific meanings of the symbols employed and recognizes that these meaningsdiffer by culture. For example, white, which stands for purity and cleanlinessin much of the Western culture, stands for death in China.17

• Culture shapes communication. How people communicate in speakingand writing as well as nonverbally is shaped by culture. Culture enables peo-ple to acquire a language that they may use in common with others of thesame culture and as a medium for passing culture from one generation to thenext. The language also reflects cultural values and norms. English is the lan-guage of Australia, Jamaica, and South Africa, as well as Great Britain,Canada, and the United States. However, all of these cultures are very differ-ent; in fact, even their forms of English differ.

Barriers to Intercultural Communication. Because cultures give different defi-nitions to such basics of interaction as values and norms, people raised in twodifferent cultures may clash. Some of the main areas in which cultures clash areexplored below:

• Ethnocentricism. Problems occur between people of different cultures pri-marily because people tend to assume that their own cultural norms are theright way to do things. They wrongly believe that the specific patterns ofbehavior desired in their own cultures are universally valued. This belief,known as enthnocentrism, is certainly natural; but learning about other cul-tures and developing sensitivity will help minimize ethnocentric reactionswhen dealing with other cultures.

• Stereotypes. One group often forms a mental picture of the main character-istics of another group, creating preformed ideas of what people in thisgroup are like. These pictures, called stereotypes, influence the way mem-bers of the first group interact with members of the second. When membersof the first group observe a behavior that conforms to that stereotype, thevalidity of the preconceived notion is reinforced. They view the other personas a representative of a class of people rather than as an individual. All cul-tures have stereotypes about other cultures they have encountered. Thesestereotypes can interfere with communication when people interact on thebasis of the imagined representative and not the real individual.

• Interpretation of time. The study of how a culture perceives time and itsuse is called chronemics. In the United States, we have a saying that “time ismoney.” North Americans, like some northern Europeans who are also con-cerned about punctuality, make appointments, keep them, and do not wastetime completing them. In some other cultures, time is the cheapest commod-ity and an inexhaustible resource; time represents a person’s span on earth,

Give several examples of stereo-types that prevail concerningcertain cultural groups.


Give some examples of wordsand phrases that have differentmeanings for speakers ofBritish English than for speak-ers of American English.

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which is only part of eternity. To these cultures, long casual conversationsprior to serious discussions or negotiations is time well spent in establishingand nurturing relationships. On the other hand, the time-efficient Americanbusinessperson, is likely to fret about the waste of precious time.

• Personal space requirements. Space operates as a language just as timedoes. The study of cultural space requirements is known as proxemics. Inall cultures, the distance between people functions in communication as“personal space” or “personal territory.” In the United States, for example, forintimate conversations with close friends and relatives, individuals are will-ing to stay within about a foot and a half of each other; for casual conver-sations, up to two or three feet; for job interviews and personal business,four to twelve feet; and for public occasions, more than twelve feet. How-ever, in many cultures outside the United States, closer personal contact isaccepted, or greater distance may be the norm.

• Body language. The study of body language is known as kinesics. Bodylanguage is not universal, but instead is learned from one’s culture. Even themost basic gestures have varying cultural meanings—the familiar NorthAmerican symbol for “okay” means zero in France, money in Japan, and anexpression of vulgarity in Brazil. Similarly, eye contact, posture, and facialexpressions carry different meanings throughout the world. Chapter 2 con-tains an expanded discussion of nonverbal communication.

• Translation limitations. Words in one language do not always have anequivalent meaning in other languages, and the concepts the words describeare often different as well. Translators can be helpful, but keep in mind that atranslator is working with a second language and must listen to one language,


Do differences exist in the non-verbal communication of peo-ple of different generations?Justify your answer.

Nike Inc. has overcomemany challenges in creat-ing its global imagethrough the use of sportscelebrity endorsements.The use of sports heroes isa global concept becausethe celebrities have becomeglobal brands in and ofthemselves.

Select a word with varioussynonyms. How are the mean-ings of each word somewhatdifferent?

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mentally cast the words into another language, then speak them. This processis difficult and opens the possibility that the translator will fall victim to oneor more cultural barriers. The Internet Investigation following Chapter 3 pro-vides additional opportunity for you to explore translation issues.

• Lack of language training. The following is an anecdote that speaks to theneed for language training:

What do you call someone who speaks two languages? (Reply: bilingual) What do you call someone who speaks three languages? (Reply: trilingual) What do you call someone who speaks one language? (Reply: an American)

This tongue-in-cheek humor reinforces the language illiteracy of mostU.S. citizens. Since familiarity with a second language certainly improves yourcompetitiveness as a job applicant, be sure to exploit that ability in yourrésumé. In some situations, learning a second language may not be feasi-ble—you are completing a short-term assignment, you must leave immedi-ately, or the language is extremely difficult to learn (e.g., Japanese andArabic). However, even if you cannot speak their language fluently, peoplefrom other cultures will appreciate simple efforts to learn a few commonphrases. Other suggestions for overcoming language differences are dis-cussed in the accompanying Strategic Forces feature.

C h a n g i n g T e c h n o l o g y a s a S t r a t e g i cF o r c e I n f l u e n c i n g C o m m u n i c a t i o n

Electronic tools have not eliminated the need for basic communication skills; andthey can, in fact, create new obstacles or barriers to communication that must beovercome. These tools, however, also create opportunities, which range from thekinds of communications that are possible to the quality of the messages them-selves. Electronic tools can help people in various ways, such as (1) collectingand analyzing data, (2) shaping messages to be clearer and more effective, and(3) communicating quickly and efficiently with others over long distances.

Tools for Data Collection and Analysis. Knowing how to collect information andcommunicate in a networked world is critical if you and your company are to becompetitive. The Internet has brought vast amounts of data into our homes andbusinesses, and on-line information services provide a wide range of sources tofacilitate our research. Generally, electronic communication provides researcherswith two distinct advantages: (1) electronic searches of organizational databasesand electronic networks can be done in a fraction of the time required to conductmanual searches of printed sources, and (2) the vast amount of information avail-able allows researchers to develop better solutions to problems.

Internal databases enable decision makers to obtain information from theirown company records quickly and accurately. Databases offer these advantages:

• Data organization, the ability to organize large amounts of data. • Data integrity, assurance that the data will be accurate and complete. • Data security, assurance that the data are secure because access to a data-

base is controlled through several built-in data security features.

Explain how chang-ing technology actsas a strategic forceto influence theprocess of businesscommunication.

7

In your opinion, what communi-cation technology has mostchanged the way business isconducted? Why?

Changing

Technology

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Learning

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External databases (networks) allow users to access information from remotelocations literally around the world and in an instant transfer that information totheir own computers for further manipulation or storage. The Internet, a loosecollection of millions of computers at thousands of sites around the world, allowsusers to access information of all types and share files. While the Internet was


S T R AT E G I C F O R C E S

Diversity Challenges

Viva la Difference!

With so many barriers to communica-

tion, communicating with people of

another culture is difficult. Communicat-

ing between genders, through the gen-

eration gap, among races, and through

other differences presents unique chal-

lenges as well. Anyone who enters the

business world today must be aware of

these potential trouble spots and of

ways to avoid them. Application of

some common-sense guidelines can

help to overcome intercultural barriers.

• Learn about that person’s cul-

ture. Many sources of useful

information are available. Univer-

sity courses in international busi-

ness communication are

increasing,18 and experienced

businesspeople have written

books recounting some of the

subtle but important ways that

people from other cultures com-

municate. Networking can gener-

ate the names of other business-

people who have made success-

ful contact with another culture.

A telephone conversation or a

lunch meeting may provide use-

ful pointers on proper and

improper behavior. Large corpora-

tions with frequent and extensive

dealings in other countries often

establish workshops in which

employees receive briefing and

training before accepting over-

seas assignments. Learning the

language is an invaluable way of

becoming more familiar with

another culture.

• Have patience—with yourself

and the other person. Convers-

ing with someone from another

culture, when one of you is likely

to be unfamiliar with the language

being used, can be difficult and

time consuming. By being patient

with mistakes, making sure that all

questions are answered, and not

hurrying, you are more likely to

make the outcome of the conver-

sation positive. You must also learn

to be patient and tolerant of ambi-

guity. Being able to react to new,

different, and unpredictable situa-

tions with little visible discomfort

or irritation will prove invaluable.

The author Howard Schuman

writes that “a sense of humor is

indispensable for dealing with the

cultural mistakes and faux pas you

will certainly commit.”19

• Get help when you need it. If

you are not sure what is being

said—or why something is being

said in a certain way—ask for

clarification. If you feel uneasy

about conversing with someone

from another culture, bring along

someone you trust who under-

stands that culture. You will have

a resource if you need help.

You will certainly work in a cultur-

ally diverse workplace, and perhaps

for a multinational firm. Your success

will likely depend on your ability to

communicate effectively across cul-

tures, genders, ages, abilities, and

other differences. Language, values,

attitudes, and other cultural traits

change very slowly. Therefore, com-

municating interculturally requires you

to recognize the cultural elements that

cause people to view things differently

and thus create barriers to communi-

cation. Instead of ignoring cultural fac-

tors, workers and employers can

improve communication by recogniz-

ing them and by considering people

as individuals rather than as members

of stereotypical groups.

Application

Interview a person from a cultural

group other than your own. Include

the following questions:

1. What examples can you give of

times when you experienced dis-

crimination or isolation?

2. What information can you provide

to aid other groups in understand-

ing your cultural uniqueness?

3. What advice would you give for

improving intercultural under-

standing?

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Learning

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first intended to be used for academic and research purposes, the majority of thenetworks worldwide are registered to corporations whose primary use is elec-tronic mail.20

Many people as well as organizations subscribe to an on-line service to assistthem in using Internet resources effectively. Through membership with such anon-line service, subscribers can

• send electronic messages and computer files across the world.• participate in discussion groups (forums) to get answers to questions and to

benefit from the information generated by a group interested in a specific topic.• browse occasionally through the “network news” generated by other discus-

sion groups to read the latest discussions in these areas.• download software available on the service.• access vast amounts of information from a wide range of sources.

Information is available on general news, stocks, financial markets, sports,travel, weather, and a variety of publications (some of which allow you to retrievethe full text). An on-line encyclopedia is a standard service that is updated regu-larly. A clipping service that locates all articles on a specific topic from the vari-ous news services is a time-efficient way to stay abreast of important topics.

Using a modem, the appropriate communication software, and an assignedpassword, you can obtain information from around the world. However, know-ing how to “tunnel” through the vast amount of irrelevant information to findwhat you want can be overwhelming. The experience can also be expensive interms of human time spent and charges incurred for on-line time. Locating infor-mation from electronic sources requires that you know the search proceduresand methods for constructing an effective search strategy. You will develop theseskills when studying the research process in Chapter 9.

For preparing reports containing any analysis of numbers, an electronicspreadsheet is invaluable. An electronic spreadsheet is a forecasting anddecision-making tool that can manipulate and analyze data easily. The spread-sheet’s forecasting ability allows you to ask, for instance, how profits would changeif costs and sales were reduced by 10 percent or increased by 5 percent. The abil-ity to calculate quickly these variable forecasts—called “what-if” questions—is oneof the main benefits of spreadsheets. Spreadsheets can transform a vast amount ofnumerical data into information that can be used in decision making. By condens-ing data into organized tables, the spreadsheet greatly assists the manager in mean-ingfully interpreting the data. Once it has been created, a spreadsheet can beinserted into a word processing file. To depict complex data more clearly, themanager can also quickly construct a graphic using the prepared spreadsheet.

Tools for Shaping Messages to Be Clearer and More Effective. Another signifi-cant benefit to communication offered by technology is message clarification andrefinement. Documents that took days to produce during the b.c. (before com-puters) era can now be created in hours. Perhaps the greater benefit, however, isthe advent of whole new possibilities for document preparation and presentation.

Word processing software expedites the production of a document andalso improves the quality of the message. Other features that improve writingare electronic spell check, thesaurus, and writing analysis software. Using word

How can spreadsheet usage beabused?


Lack of Internet access is caus-ing some nations to be classi-fied as information “have-nots.”What international problemscould result?

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processing, you can draft a document, store it on magnetic medium, and retrieveand revise it as many times as necessary to produce a clear, understandable doc-ument. Word processing software also allows you to format the document usingprint features, graphic and layout features, and various typefaces, and then printa highly professional copy.

Reports and longer documents become less tedious to produce because offeatures that facilitate writing and editing. Most full-feature word processing soft-ware includes a feature that generates a contents page, index, and document ref-erences automatically. This feature saves time in the initial creation of these pagesand in their updating if pagination changes during editing. The mail-merge fea-ture facilitates large-scale mailings of personalized form letters; guidelines forusing this feature to personalize form letters is presented in Chapter 5. See theStrategic Force feature in Chapter 3 on “Writing Effectively at the Computer.”

Collaborative software assists groups in writing collaboratively. Each authormarks revisions and inserts document comments in much the same way as withword processing software and then sends the computer file to the coauthor. Somecollaborative software programs allow multiple authors to work on documents atthe same time when they are placed on an electronic whiteboard. Drawings orinformation written on its surface can be displayed simultaneously on the com-puter monitors of others in the work team. The Strategic Force feature in Chap-ter 4 explores the capabilities of groupware software in greater detail.

Graphics software helps managers and other workers surpass simple wordprocessing capabilities by using typography and design elements to create com-munications that are persuasive and professional looking. Using desktop pub-lishing software and a high-quality printer, a person can create importantpublications such as prospectuses, annual reports, and newsletters. When printedon a laser printer, the result can be visually convincing. Presentation softwareallows speakers to develop dynamic multimedia presentation visuals that com-bine text, graphics, animation, sound, and video.

Decision makers who do not have the time to wade through pages of writ-ten text searching for key information are among the primary beneficiaries ofgraphic presentations. A salesperson might close a deal by incorporating into aproposal five bar graphs illustrating the superiority of a product over the com-petition’s version. A manager may win the day by supporting a case for expan-sion with a highly professional slide show depicting the resulting increase inprofits.

Quality graphics can be produced using a variety of software programs andare available from several sources:

• Use electronic spreadsheet and presentation graphics software to preparecharts and drawing software to generate other images such as flowcharts,pictograms, scaled drawings of products, and so on.

• Integrate clip art (predrawn graphics stored on disk), photos, and soundavailable with full-feature software and that can be purchased from com-mercial sources or imported from online sources.

• Use scanners to convert images (graphics, photos, signatures, letterhead, andtext) to electronic files and digital cameras to capture photographs as elec-tronic files.


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In what way has word process-ing software become more andmore like desktop publishingsoftware?

Team

Environment

Web publishing tools facilitate the creation of web pages for posting to theInternet. Such applications allow for the integration of text and graphic elementsand eliminate the need for extensive knowledge of hypertext markup language,or HTML. Hyperlinks to other documents and web sites can also be included inthe page design. The formatted web pages may then be viewed using a webbrowser. Most organizations realize the importance of having a web presenceand have devised useful web pages to provide information to their various con-stituents. Figure 1-9 shows Hewlett-Packard’s corporate web site, which offerseye-appealing access to various types of information.

Tools for Communicating Quickly and Efficiently Over Long Distances. Com-puter networks have placed the world at our fingertips. To exploit the possibilities,whole new channels for communication have emerged. The businessperson isno longer limited to paper-copy letters and memos, the telephone, and face-to-face meetings; rather, exciting new methods for sending and receiving mes-sages are available:

• Electronic mail. Electronic mail, or e-mail, as it is often called can be usedto distribute memos, reports, and documents without sending them in a printed(hard copy) form. E-mail helps solve the problem of “telephone tag.” Approx-imately 70 percent of business telephone callers do not reach the person theycalled on the first try. The result is a game of tag, as the caller and the personcalled keep trying to reach the other unsuccessfully. With electronic mail, thecaller simply keys a message and sends it to an electronic mailbox. Receiversare notified that a message awaits them, and they respond to the caller as soonas the message is read. When it is delivered and read quickly, electronic mailcan be almost as convenient and articulate as a personal conversation.

F I G U R E 1 - 9

An effective Internet presence

is essential for most busi-

nesses’ success.

Will e-mail replace the tele-phone and postal mail? Justifyyour answer.


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E-mail systems that operate on a company’s existing computer system arerelatively inexpensive. When a single message is sent to several recipients, thesavings are even greater compared to the cost of traditional communicationmethods. More advanced corporate applications of e-mail include (a) theforms definition feature that allows a user to select and complete a form tobe sent to a recipient, who will sign the form electronically and forwardcopies of the signed forms to appropriate persons and (b) use of intelligentagents that will automatically route messages (e.g., claims of more than$10,000 will be forwarded to a senior bank officer).21 As you study Chapter 6,you will learn more about the benefits of e-mail and acceptable practices forwriting and using electronic communication appropriately.

• Voice mail. Voice mail allows you to use your telephone to dial a voicemail service and store an oral message. The message is then delivered to theperson or list of persons you are calling. Recipients can retrieve messageswhen they return to the office or dial in from remote locations to listen totheir messages. Voice mail provides many of the benefits of e-mail but doesnot require a computer.

• Facsimile. A facsimile, or fax, is a flexible and inexpensive form of elec-tronic mail. A fax machine reads a document that has been inserted into themachine and transmits the document (text, pictures, and graphics) over tele-phone lines to another fax machine that receives the message and preparesa printed copy of the document. High-speed fax machines can transmit ahigh-quality page in a few seconds; and because they can be programmed,the cost of transmission can be cut by sending a message in evening hoursto take advantage of lower telephone rates. Sending faxes also facilitatescommunicating with people in different time zones.

• Telecommuting. Telecommuting allows individuals to work in their homesand transmit work from home to the office electronically. The major advan-tages of telecommuting are the reduced time and expense of commuting andthe increased flexibility of working hours. Rather than spending two to threehours a day commuting to work in an urban area, for example, employeesuse a modem, telephone lines, and a remote workstation to transmit theirwork electronically. Transmitting information and computing from remotelocations have become more prevalent because of the availability of laptopand notebook computers. These smaller computers give professionals accessto computing power regardless of where they are—hotel room, airplane,taxi, client’s office, and so on. Such portable systems are battery-operatedand generally contain secondary storage (a hard disk drive, a floppy diskdrive, and/or a CD-ROM), a screen, and a keyboard. Other portable systemsinclude palmtop computers, tiny hand-held computers that rest on the palmof the hand, lapbody computers that can drape from the neck, and “wear-able” computers (e.g., computers that wrap around the forearm to facilitaterecording inventory).

• Cellular telephone. Cellular telephones, often called mobile phones orcell phones, are cellular radios that transmit messages over airways. Cellu-lar telephones are a powerful communication tool, especially for workerswho spend several hours commuting to and from work, travel from one

How would telecommutingaffect the social dynamics ofthe worker, colleagues, andfamily?


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meeting or work site to another, or work at sites with no access to a tele-phone. The increased productivity resulting from the more efficient use oftime justifies the cost of cellular service. Cellular telephones also helpmanagers stay in closer contact with coworkers and with current andprospective clients and customers. Quick, courteous responses build stronginterpersonal relations, which in turn lead to increased customer commitmentand an edge over competitors.

• Electronic conferencing. Electronic conferencing via teleconferencing andvideoconferencing are alternatives to face-to-face meetings that allow severalpeople at different locations to communicate electronically. Teleconferenc-ing allows several persons in different geographic locations to be on thesame line at the same time. Videoconferencing takes advantage of allmedia—audio, graphics, and video. Speakers provide the audio feedback,facsimile devices send graphics, and cameras transmit the video portion ofthe conference in a specially equipped room. Participants engage in groupdiscussions while observing one another’s facial expressions and gestures.Using collaborative software with the desktop technology, users in remotelocations can see each other as they “document conference,”that is, share andannotate computer files and images in real time.

Electronic conferences can eliminate or reduce the high costs of face-to-face meetings: travel, hotels, food, and time lost in transit. Videoconferenc-ing restores the nonverbal elements of interpersonal communication that arelost over the telephone, and thus, is more personal than a “disembodied”voice on the other end of a telephone line. The availability of less expensivedesktop videoconferencing systems that allows users to hold electronicmeetings across existing local area networks and telephone lines has madeelectronic conferences more accessible to businesses of all sizes.

Legal and Ethical Implications of Technology. In addition to its many benefits,technology poses some challenges for the business communicator. For instance,technology raises issues of ownership, as in the case of difficulties that arise inprotecting the copyright of documents transmitted over the Internet. Technologyposes dilemmas over access, that is, who has the right to certain stored infor-mation pertaining to an individual or a company.

Technology threatens our individual privacy, our right to be left alone, freefrom surveillance or interference from other individuals or organizations.Common invasions of privacy caused by technology include collecting exces-sive amounts of information for decision making and maintaining too manyfiles, monitoring the exact time employees’ spend on a specific task andbetween tasks and the exact number and length of breaks, and supervisors’or coworkers’ reading of another employee’s electronic mail and computerfiles. Integrating computer files containing information collected from morethan one agency without permission is a major threat to privacy. Although anindividual may have authorized the collection of the individual information,merging the information may reveal things the individual may want to remainprivate.22 The privacy issue is explored further in the accompanying StrategicForces feature.

Have you personally beenaffected by a loss of privacybecause of technology? How?

In your opinion, what does thefuture hold for business travel?


Team

Environment

Legal

and Ethical

Constraints

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T e a m E n v i r o n m e n t a s a S t r a t e g i cF o r c e I n f l u e n c i n g C o m m u n i c a t i o n

A team-oriented approach is replacing the traditional top-down managementstyle in today’s organizations. Firms around the world are facing problems indecreasing productivity, faltering product quality, and worker dissatisfaction.Work teams are being examined as a way to help firms remain globally com-petitive. Although worker involvement in the management process has longbeen the hallmark of Japanese business, many U.S. businesses, as well as thoseof other countries, are experimenting with self-directed work teams.26 The list ofcompanies using self-directed work teams is diverse, including such firms asHunt-Wesson, the Internal Revenue Service, and the San Diego Zoo. Other com-panies using the team concept include Hewlett-Packard, Southwest Airlines,Toyota, Motorola, General Electric, and Corning.

Is Anything Private

Anymore?

Despite the passage of federal legisla-

tion and additional state laws designed

to enhance and strengthen electronic

privacy, most Americans feel they have

less privacy today than ever. According

to a recent Harris poll, 76 percent of

Americans believe they have lost all

control over personal information, and

67 percent believe that computers

must be restricted in the future to pre-

serve privacy.23 Workplace privacy has

also become an area of concern, as

computer monitoring and surveillance

capabilities expand.

George Orwell, in his classic novel

1984, described what many believe to

be the ultimate in privacy-shattering

totalitarianism as he offered a fore-

boding look at future society. In his

fictitious account “ . . . there was of

course no way of knowing whether

you were being watched at any given

moment . . . . It was even conceivable

that they watched everybody all the

time. . . . You had to live—did live—,

from habit that became instinct in the

assumption that every sound you made

was overheard, and, except in darkness,

every movement scrutinized.”24 We

have now advanced technologically to

the point that, if desired, this kind of

surveillance is easily possible.

An important aspect of technol-

ogy is its seductive power: If a tech-

nology exists, it must be used. Where

does this principle leave the individual

regarding privacy needs in a highly

automated world? Experts in the area

of individual privacy have suggested

three key aspects in the ethical man-

agement of information and protection

of privacy:25

• Relevance. An inquiring party

should have a clear and valid pur-

pose for delving into the informa-

tion of an individual.

• Consent. An individual should be

given the right to withhold consent

prior to any query that might vio-

late privacy.

• Methods. An inquiring party

should distinguish between meth-

ods of inquiry that are reasonable

and customary and those that are

of questionable ethical grounding.

While technology offers tremen-

dous advantages and endless possibili-

ties for enhancing communication, it

poses challenges for both individuals

and organizations in the maintenance

of a proper degree of privacy. Most of

us are not ready for the all-seeing eye

of Orwell’s “Big Brother.”

Application

Read a book review of George

Orwell’s 1984. In a two-page written

summary, cite instances in which

Orwell described technological capa-

bilities that have been realized in

recent years. How has society’s

response to these capabilities differed

from the fictional plot?

S T R AT E G I C F O R C E S

Legal andEthical Constraints

Explain how teamenvironment acts asa strategic force toinfluence theprocess of businesscommunication.

8

Team

Environment

Thom

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Work Team Defined. The terms team, work team, group, work group, cross-functional team and self-directed team are often used interchangeably.27 What-ever the title, a team is a small number of people with complementary skillswho work together for a common purpose. Team members set their own goals,in cooperation with management, and plan how to achieve those goals and howtheir work is to be accomplished. The central organizing element of a team isthat it has a common purpose and measurable goals for which the team can beheld accountable, independent of its individual members. Employees in a self-directed work team handle a wide array of functions and work with a minimumof direct supervision.28 Some major strengths of teams are as follows: 29

• Teams make workers happier by causing them to feel that they are shapingtheir own jobs.

• Teams increase efficiency by eliminating layers of managers whose job wasonce to pass orders downward.

• Teams enable a company to draw on the skills and imagination of a wholework force. A key element in team success is the concept of synergy. Syn-ergy is defined as a situation in which the whole is greater than the sum ofthe parts. Teams provide a depth of expertise that is unavailable at the indi-vidual level, as illustrated in the Ziggy cartoon. Teams open lines of com-munication that then lead to increased interaction among employees andbetween employees and management. The result is that teams help compa-nies reach their goals of delivering higher-quality products and services fasterand with more cost-effectiveness.

The concept of synergy isthat the whole is greaterthan the sum of the parts.

©19

94

Zig

gy and

Friends, Inc./D

ist. by U

niversal Press S

yndicate

Explain the significance of1+1=3.

Considering the four strategicforces discussed, how is busi-ness communication today dif-ferent from that of 30 yearsago? In what ways is it easier?In what ways is it more difficult?

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Communication Differences in Work Teams. In the past most businesses wereoperated in a hierarchical fashion, with most decisions made at the top. Com-munication followed a top-down/bottom-up or lateral pattern. Communicationpatterns are different in successful team environments as compared to traditionalorganizational structures. Trust building is the primary factor that changes theorganization’s communication patterns. Open meetings are an important methodfor enhancing communication, as they educate employees about the businesswhile building bridges of understanding and trust. A second trust-building struc-ture is shared leadership, which involves more direct and effective communica-tion between management and its internal customers. Listening, problemsolving, conflict resolution, negotiation, and consensus become important fac-tors in group communication.

Communication is perhaps the single most important aspect of successfulteamwork. Open lines of communication increase interaction between employ-ees and management. Information must flow vertically up to management anddown to workers, as well as horizontally among team members, other teams,and supervisors. All affected parties should be kept informed as projectsprogress.

Maximization of Work Team Effectiveness. Grouping employees into a teamstructure does not mean that they will automatically function as a team. A groupmust go through a developmental process to begin to function as a team. Mem-bers need training in such areas as problem solving, goal setting, and conflictresolution. Teams must be encouraged to establish the “three R’s”—roles, rules,and relationships.30

The self-directed work team can become the basic organizational buildingblock to best ensure success in dynamic global competition. Skills for success-ful participation in team environments are somewhat different from those nec-essary for success in old-style organizations. Effective communication skillsinclude the ability to give and take constructive criticism, listen actively, clearlyimpart one’s views to others, and provide meaningful feedback. Emotional bar-riers, such as insecurity or condescension, can limit team effectiveness. Processbarriers, such as prevailing policies and procedures, can also interfere by stiflingeffective team functioning. Cultural barriers, such as role assignment and per-ceived responsibilities, can separate workers from management. Effective teamcommunication will involve overcoming all of these barriers.31

Perhaps the greatest requirement for successful teams is the ability to under-stand the feelings and needs of coworkers. Members must feel comfortable stat-ing their opinions and discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the team. Theability to experience this openness is largely dependent on the level of trustworkers have in one another and in management. Team members must alsodevelop leadership skills that apply to a dynamic group setting. In dynamic teamleadership, which is referred to as distributed leadership, the role of leadermay alternate among members, and more than one leadership style may beactive at any given time.32

To improve group communication, time needs to be set aside to assess thequality of interaction. Questions to pose about the group process might includethe following:

Provide other examples of emo-tional barriers, process barriers,and cultural barriers that deterteam function.


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1998 survey revealed that only

3.8 percent of top executive positions

at Fortune 500 companies are held

by women. While Carly Fiorina, CEO

of Hewlett-Packard, deflects attention

from her gender, other observers do

not. “Whether she wants to be or not,

she becomes a poster out there,“ says

Lynn Martin, former U.S. Secretary of

Labor. Despite Fiorina’s credibility,

Martin fears that business critics will

tie her performance to her gender. “If

she fails, it will be ‘a woman executive

failed.’”33

• Visit the Hewlett-Packard web site

at http://www.hp.com. Find out

the company’s philosophy about

diversity.

• Locate the following article that

describes some success factors

for workplace diversity: Diversity:

Less than meets the eye (1997,

June). Getting Results . . . For the

Hands-On Manager, 42(6), 8.

orm a small group; identify in

what ways the group is diverse. Iden-

tify a list of attitudes that promote a

successful diversity initiative within an

organization. Identify a list of behaviors

that promote workplace diversity.

F

http://www.hp.com

Capitalizing on Workplace Diversity

S U M M A R Y

• What are our common goals?• What roles are members playing? For instance, is one person dominating

while others contribute little or nothing?• Is the group dealing with conflict in a positive way?• What in the group process is going well?• What about the group process could be improved?

Gender, cultural, and age differences among members of a team can presentbarriers to team communication. Knowing what behaviors may limit the groupprocess is imperative to maximizing results. Team members may need aware-ness training to assist in recognizing behaviors that may hinder team perfor-mance and in overcoming barriers that may limit the effectiveness of theircommunication. You can explore the team model versus reward for individualeffort by completing the Internet Investigation at the end of this chapter.

What do you see as the threemajor challenges to the suc-cess of work teams?

A

1. Define communication and describe themain purposes for communication inbusiness. Communication is the process of exchang-ing information and meaning between or among individu-als through a common system of symbols, signs, andbehavior. Managers spend most of their time in communi-cation activities.

2. Explain the communication process modeland the ultimate objective of the commu-nication process. People engaged in communicationencode and decode messages while simultaneously servingas both senders and receivers. In the communication

process, feedback helps people resolve possible misunder-standings and thus improve communication effectiveness.Feedback and the opportunity to observe nonverbal signsare always present in face-to-face communication, the mostcomplete of the three communication levels.

3. Identify the five levels of communica-tion. Communication takes place at five levels: intraper-sonal (communication within one person), interpersonal(communication between two people), group (communica-tion among more than two people), organizational (commu-nication among combinations of groups), and mass(communication from one entity to the greater public).

ShowCASE

Diversity

Challenges

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4. Discuss how information flows within anorganization (formally and informally,and downward, upward, and horizon-tally). Both formal and informal communication systemsexist in every organization. The formal system exists toaccomplish tasks, and the informal system serves a personalmaintenance purpose that results in people feeling betterabout themselves and others. Communication flows upward,downward, and horizontally or laterally. These flows often defyformal graphic description, yet each is a necessary part of theoverall communication activity of the organization.

5. Explain how legal and ethical con-straints act as a strategic force toinfluence the process of business com-munication. Communication occurs within an environ-ment of strategic forces that includes legal and ethicalconstraints. Pressures to succeed often place individuals indifficult legal and ethical dilemmas. International, federal,state, and local laws impose legal boundaries for businessactivity. Ethical boundaries are determined by personalanalysis that can be assisted by application of various frame-works for decision making.

6. Explain how diversity challenges act asa strategic force to influence theprocess of business communication. Com-munication occurs within an environment of strategic forcesthat includes diversity in nationality, culture, age, gender, and

other factors. Such diversity offers challenges for the busi-ness communicator in interpretation of time, personal spacerequirements, body language, language translation, and lackof language training. Through diversity, the organization andthe individual are provided with tremendous opportunities tomaximize talent, ideas, and productivity.

7. Explain how technology acts as a strate-gic force to influence the process ofbusiness communication. Communication occurswithin an environment of strategic forces that includeschanging technology. Significant strides have occurred in thedevelopment of tools for data collection and analysis, toolsfor shaping messages to be clearer and more effective, andtools for communicating quickly and efficiently over long dis-tances. The use of technology also raises various legal andethical concerns in regard to ownership, access, and privacy.

8. Explain how team environment acts as astrategic force to influence the processof business communication. Communicationoccurs within an environment of strategic forces thatincludes team environment. Communicating in teams differsfrom communication in traditional organizational structures.Team orientation focuses on group synergy rather than onindividual effort. The result of effective teams is better deci-sions, more creative solutions to problems, and higherworker morale.

1 The challenges facing workers in the future. (1999, August).HR Focus, 6.

2 Roth, D. (2000, January 10). My job at the Container Store.Fortune, 74–78.

3 Hunt, V. D. (1993). Managing for quality: Integrating qual-ity and business strategy. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin.[p. 37].

4 Slayton, M. (1980). Common sense & everyday ethics.Washington, DC: Ethics Resource Center.

5 Slayton, M. (1991, May–June). Perspectives. Ethics Journal.Washington, DC: Ethics Resource Center.

6 Mathison, D. L. (1988). Business ethics cases and decisionmodels: A call for relevancy in the classroom. Journal of BusinessEthics, 10 (7), 781.

7 Freeman, R. E., & Gilvert, D. R. (1988). Corporate strategyand the search for ethics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

8McGarry, M. J. (1994, June 9). Short cuts. Newsday, p. A50.9 Allen, M. (1996). NAFTA can’t undo mistakes: Small busi-

nesses still find it hard to sell into Mexico, sidestep goofs. DallasBusiness Journal, 1.

10 Solomon, J. (1990, September 12). Learning to accept cul-tural diversity. The Wall Street Journal, p. B1.

11 Miller, W. H. (1991, May 6). A new perspective for tomor-row’s work force. Industry Week, 6.

12 Marshall-Mims, P. (1999, July 26). Aging work force createsnew challenges for restaurant industry. Nation’s RestaurantNews, 33 (30), 82.

13 Bisio J. (1999. February). The age boom. Risk Manage-ment, 46 (2), 22–27.

14 Chellam, R. (1999, October 29). Fiorina’s fun formula forsuccess. Business Times (Singapore), p. 30.

15 Zesiger, S. (1999, August 16). Fortune cover girls storm val-ley. Fortune, 29.

16 Chellam, R. (1999, October 29). Fiorina’s fun formula forsuccess. Business Times (Singapore), p. 30.

17 Fitzgerald, N . (1996). Transcultural faux pas. World Trade,9 (9), 92–93.

18 Green, D. J., & Scott, J. C. (1996). The status of interna-tional business communication courses in schools accredited bythe American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. TheDelta Pi Epsilon Journal, 39(1), 43–62.

19 Marquardt, M. J., & Engel, D. W. (1993). HRD competenciesfor a shrinking world. Training & Development, 47(5), 59–64.

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20 Grant, G. (1996). Emerging platforms for commerce overthe Internet. In Cronin, M. J. (Ed.), The Internet strategy hand-book. (1996) Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

21 Shannon, J. H., & Rosenthal, D. A. (1993). Electronic mailand privacy: Can the conflicts be resolved? Business Forum,18 (1,2), 31–34.

22 Mason, R. O. (1986). Four ethical issues of the informationage. In Dejoie, R., Fowler, G., & Paradice, D. (1991). Ethical issuesin information systems (pp. 46–55). Boston: Boyd & Fraser.

23Equifax report on consumers in the information age, anational survey. (1992). In Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (1994).Management information systems: Organization and technol-ogy, (3rd ed.). New York: MacMillan.

24 Orwell, G. (1949). 1984. New York: Signet Classics. [6–7].25 Brown, W. S. (1996). Technology, workplace privacy, and

personhood. Journal of Business Ethics, 15 (11), 1237–1248.26 Felts, C. (1995). Taking the mystery out of self-directed

work teams. Industrial Management, 37 (2), 21–26.27 Miller, B. K., & Butler, J. B. (1996, November/December).

Teams in the workplace. New Accountant, 18–24.

28 Ray, D., & Bronstein, H. (1995). Teaming up. New York:McGraw Hill.

29 The trouble with teams. (1995, January 14). Economist,61.

30 Frohman, M. A. (1995, April 3). Do teams . . . but do themright. Industry Week, 21–24.

31 Zuidema, K. R., & Kleiner, B. H. (1994). New developmentsin developing self-directed work groups. Management Decision,32 (8), 57–63.

32 Barry, D. (1991). Managing the baseless team: Lessons indistributed leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 20 (1), 31–47.

33 Marchetti, M. (1999, September). A sales pro tries to ener-gize HP. Sales & Marketing Management, 151(9), 15.

34 Pounds, M. H. (1996, April 12). New breed of executive isruthless, highly paid. Sun-Sentinel (Fort Lauderdale), p. 1F.

Note: Selected portions of the discussion of ethical con-straints were adapted with permission from Spencer, B. A., &Lehman C. M. (1990). Analyzing ethical issues: Essential ingredi-ent in the business communication course. Bulletin of the Asso-ciation for Business Communication, 53 (3), 7–16.

1. What are the three purposes for which people communi-cate? What percentage of a manager’s time is spent com-municating? Give examples of the types of communicationmanagers use. (Obj. 1)

2. Describe the five stages in the communication processusing the following terms: (a) sender, (b) encode, (c) chan-nel, (d) receiver, (e) decode, (f) feedback, and (g) interfer-ences or barriers. (Obj. 2)

3. What types of differences between sender and receiver cre-ate barriers to communication? (Obj. 2)

4. What is the difference between intrapersonal and interper-sonal communication? (Obj. 3)

5. How is the formal flow of communication different from theinformal flow of communication? (Obj. 4)

6. Discuss four strategic forces that influence business com-munication. (Objs. 5, 6, 7, 8)

7. Give two definitions for ethics. (Obj. 5)

8. What are some common causes of unethical behavior in theworkplace? (Obj. 5)

9. What are some aspects of diversity that pose communica-tion challenges? (Obj. 6)

10. Describe several intercultural communication barriers andhow they might be overcome. (Obj. 6)

11. Describe several ways that communication technology canassist individuals and organizations. (Obj. 7)

12. What concerns are raised over the use of technology?(Obj. 7)

13. Explain the concept of synergy. (Obj. 8)

14. How does communication in work teams differ from that oftraditional organizations? (Obj. 8)

15. Why has communication been identified as perhaps the sin-gle most important aspect of team work? (Obj. 8)

1. Communication Activities (Obj. 1)

Shadow a business manager for a day. Keep a log ofhis/her communication activities for the time period youare observing. Divide the communication activities intothe following categories: (1) attending meetings; (2) pre-senting information to groups; (3) explaining and clarifying

management procedures and work assignments; (4) coor-dinating the work of various employees, departments, andother work groups; (5) evaluating and counseling employ-ees; (6) promoting the company’s products/services andimage; (7) other activities. Calculate the percentage oftime spent in each activity.

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2. Communication Barriers (Obj. 2)

In groups of three, develop a list of 12 to 15 annoying habitsof yours or of others that create barriers (verbal and nonver-bal) to effective communication. Classify each according tothe portion of the communication it affects. For each, giveat least one suggestions for improvement.

Stages of Communication

Point in Model (Encoding,Channel, Decoding, Feed- Suggestions for

Barrier back, Noise, Interferences) Improvement

_________ _______________________ ________________

_________ _______________________ ________________

3. Communication Activities (Obj. 2)

Prepare a record of your listening, speaking, reading, andwriting activities and time spent in each during the hoursof 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. for the next two days. You shouldattempt to record the time spent doing each activity foreach one-hour time block in such a way that you obtain atotal time for each activity. Be prepared to share your dis-tribution with the class.

4. Organizational Communication Flows (Objs. 3, 4)

Draw an organizational chart to depict the formal system ofcommunication within an organization with which you arefamiliar. How is the informal system different from the orga-nization chart? How are the five levels of communicationachieved in the organization?

5. Legal and Ethical Constraints as a Strategic Force

(Obj. 5)

Read The Power of Ethical Management by Kenneth Blan-chard and Norman Vincent Peale, a short, engaging storyabout a sales manager’s attempt to make an ethical deci-sion. Write a brief report summarizing the ethical principlespresented in the book.

6. Identifying Ethical Dilemmas (Obj. 5)

Using an on-line index, locate a current newspaper or maga-zine article that describes an illegal or unethical act by a busi-ness organization or its employee(s). Choose an incident asclosely related as possible to your intended profession. Pre-pare a written summary of the article.

7. Analyzing an Ethical Dilemma (Obj. 5)

Over the past two years, the salaries and bonuses of topmanagement at Golden Value Stores have increased over50 percent—an increase consistent with management com-pensation levels of similar companies. Much of this increaseresulted from management’s achieving a variety of non-income-related goals such as the number of retail outletsopened during the year. During the same period, however,Golden Value Stores’ stock and company earnings have

increased at an annual rate of four percent, and dividendshave increased only seven percent.

A stockholder has submitted a proposal to eliminate allmanagement bonuses if the company does not achieve a10 percent growth rate. You are an assistant manager of astock mutual fund that owns 100,000 shares of GoldenValue stock. You have been asked to determine how themutual fund should cast its votes on the proposal.

Use the ethical framework in Figure 1-6 to analyzewhether the following action demonstrates ethical behavior.Consider the costs and benefits of the action on each of thecompany’s stakeholders (persons who will be affected bythe decision): Golden Value Stores, management, stock-holders, and employees. Consider which of Ross’s fiveduties are relevant and which may be violated for any of thestakeholders. Use the following table as a guide for youranalysis.

Decision: Restrict Management Compensation

Stakeholder Cost Benefit

Golden Value Proposal (restricting Will relate com-Stores compensation) could pensation costs

encourage managers to more directly totake risks or unethical company operat-actions to achieve goals. ing results.

Attaining 10 per-cent growth would improve market position.

Stakeholder Obligation

Stockholders Meets obligation to provide a fair return ontheir investment in the short term. Restrictingsalary could have a long-term negative impacton the company’s ability to attract and retainquality managers.

8. Diversity Challenges as a Strategic Force (Obj. 6)

Conduct an on-line search to locate examples of intercul-tural communication mistakes made by U.S. companiesdoing business in another country. How can an organizationimprove its diversity awareness to avoid such problems?Share your results with the class.

9. Understanding Diversity Issues (Obj. 6)

In groups of three, interview an international student at yourinstitution and generate a list of English words that have noequivalents in his/her language. Share your findings in ashort oral presentation to the class.

10. Using E-Mail to Communicate Effectively (Obj. 7)

Read an article from a current magazine or journal abouthow technology is impacting communication or anothertopic assigned by your instructor. Send your instructor a briefe-mail message discussing the major theme of the article.

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Can the United States Succeed WithoutRewarding Rugged Individuality?

A basic element of the fabric of U.S. entrepreneurship is thefaith in the ingenuity of the individual person’s ability to con-ceive, develop, and profit from a business endeavor. The fron-tier spirit and triumph of the individual over looming oddshave been a predominant force in the development of theUnited States. Such individualism has also been recognizedby organizations, with reward going to those who contributewinning ideas and efforts.

The recent shift in organizational structures toward teamdesign has caused management to reassess reward systemsthat focus on individual recognition and to consider rewardsthat are based on team performance. Some fear that remov-ing individual incentive will lead to mediocrity and a reductionin personal effort. They argue that while the team modelmight work in other cultures, it is inconsistent with the U.S.way of thinking and living. According to Madelyn Hoshstein,president of DYG Inc., a New York firm that researches corpo-rate trends, America is moving away from the model of teambuilding in which everyone is expected to do everything andtoward focusing on employees who are the best at what theydo. She describes this change as a shift toward social Dar-winism and away from egalitarianism, in which everyone hasequal economic, political, and social rights.34

Team advocates say that teams are here to stay and likenthose who deny that reality to the proverbial ostrich with its

head in the sand. Thy stress the need for newly structuredincentive plans to reward group effort.

Visit the following Internet sites for information on theissue and respond to one or more of the following activitiesas directed by your instructor.

Internet sites

http://www.againtech.com/products/studies.htmlhttp://www.tpcorp.com/fed/library/articles/scholtes.htmlhttp://www.gainshare.com/define.html

You may link to these URLs or other updated sites from thetext web site.

Activities

1. How would you respond to those with con-cerns about loss of individual incentive? Argue for oragainst the increased emphasis on team reward, usingeither personal examples or examples from business.

2. Structure a reward system that would recognize bothindividual and team performance.You may use an orga-nization of your choice to illustrate.

3. Select a specific corporation or nation that has imple-mented the team model. Describe the transition awayfrom a hierarchical structure and the consequences thathave resulted from the shift, both positive and negative.

Include a complete bibliographic entry so the instructorcould locate the article (refer to Appendix B for examplesfor formatting references). Your instructor will provide direc-tions for setting up an e-mail account and composing andsending an e-mail message.

11. Changing Technology as a Strategic Force (Objs. 2, 7)

Indicate which of the following communication mediumswould be most appropriate for sending the following mes-sages: e-mail, fax, telephone, or face-to-face communica-tion. Justify your answer.

a. The company is expecting a visit from members of acommittee evaluating your bid for this year’s MalcolmBaldrige National Quality Award. All employees mustbe notified of the visit.

b. After careful deliberation, the management of a mid-sized pharmaceutical company is convinced the onlyway to continue its current level of research is to sell thecompany to a larger one. The employees must beinformed of this decision.

c. Lincoln Enterprises is eager to receive the results of a drugtest on a certain employee. The drug testing company hasbeen asked to send the results as quickly as possible.

d. The shipping department has located the common car-rier currently holding a customer’s shipment that shouldhave been delivered yesterday. Inform the customer thatthe carrier has promised delivery by tomorrow morning.

e. An employee in another division office has requestedyou send a spreadsheet you have prepared so he canmanipulate the data to produce a report.

12. Exploring Use of Teams in the Workplace (Obj. 8)

Using the Internet, locate an article that covers how a com-pany or organization is using teams in its operation. Write aone-page abstract of the article.

13. Importance of Communication in Your Career Field

(Objs. 1–8)

Conduct an on-line search related to communication in yourchosen career field. Write a brief paper providing informa-tion such as (a) evidence of the value of communication inthe profession, (b) major audiences to whom you will com-municate, (c) examples of how each of the strategic forcesinfluences communication in the field, and (d) typical com-munication requirements. Be prepared to share your resultswith the class.

Technology

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Pacific Bell DirectoryThe United States is a nation ofcultural diversity. Each wave ofimmigration, whether promptedby religious, political, or eco-nomic reasons, has added newfacets to our distinct culture.The term eclectic has beenused to describe this diversity;it refers to that which is made

up of components from various sources and implies that theresult is the sum of many perspectives.

As businesses attempt to serve the diverse needs of aneclectic community, recognizing and respecting cultural differ-ences becomes increasingly important. The management ofPacific Bell Directory discusses this vital concept in terms of theunique characteristics of the Southern California interculturalenvironment. While the particular cultural components may vary,the same communication challenges exist.

Discussion Questions

1. Stephanie Dollschnieder refers to an important ingredient insuccessful intercultural communication as “cutting eachother slack.” What does she mean? Give examples of howthis strategy can be accomplished.

2. What part do respect and trust play in intercultural commu-nication? How are they related concepts?

3. To what extent is courtesy a universal concept?

4. How does the “salad bowl” concept of culture differ fromthe traditional “melting pot” idea?

5. Jan Birkelbach discusses the wide array of behavior withincultural groups and cautions against generalizing that allmembers of a specific group fit a certain stereotype. Giveexamples of several such stereotypes.

Application

You must make a short presentation to your company’s staff con-cerning the cultural diversity of your community and the impor-tance of effective intercultural communication.

1. Determine what cultural groups are present in your com-munity and in what proportions. (Your chamber of com-merce or city offices may be of help.)

2. Interview one or more persons from each of the major cul-tural groups in your community. Identify what is uniqueabout their language, nonverbal communication, perceptionof time, customs, family life, and so on.

3. Prepare an outline for your talk, emphasizing the impor-tance of intercultural communication and including severalsuggestions for improving intercultural communication inyour community.

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14. OfficeTeam Survey Outlines Future Worker Trends

(Objs. 1–8)

Locate the following article through an on-line index: Thechallenges facing workers in the future (1999, August). HRFocus, 76 (8), 6.

In small groups, discuss the following:

1. What communication trends are revealed from the sur-vey results? Are any of these surprising? Why?

2. Which trends are likely to impact your chosen careerfield most significantly? In what ways?

3. How do the predicted trends relate to the four strategicforces presented in Chapter 1?

4. What did the author mean in saying “employees’ inter-personal or ‘people’ skills will be subject to their sever-est test“ during the new millennium?

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communication foundations

Documents

company philosophy

hp waytreating customers

astrategic force

thesuccess of hp printers

communicationprocess

william hewlett

inception of hewlett

basic principles