combustion.pdf
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CHARLES E. BAUKAL, JR.
BAUKAL
2 DESIGN AND OPERATIONS Vol. 2
The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 2 Design and Operations Edited by Charles E. Baukal, Jr.,
John Zink Company LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
2nd Edition
Editor
THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
www.crcpress.com
K11815ISBN: 978-1-4398-3964-5
9 781439 839645
9 0 0 0 0
Combustion
Despite the length of time it has been around, its importance, and vast amounts of research,
combustion is still far from being completely understood. Issues regarding the environment, cost,
and fuel consumption add further complexity, particularly in the process and power generation
industries. Dedicated to advancing the art and science of industrial combustion, The John Zink
Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 2 Design and Operations serves
as a field manual for operators, engineers, and managers working in design and operations.
Under the leadership of Charles E. Baukal, Jr., top engineers and technologists from John Zink
Hamworthy Combustion examine equipment design and operations in the context of the process
and power generation industries. Coverage includes testing, installation, maintenance, and
troubleshooting. This second volume features color illustrations and photographs throughout,
and extensive appendices contain property data relevant to industrial combustion equipment and
processes.
Whats New in This Edition
Expanded to three volumes, with Volume 2 focusing on equipment design and operations
Extensive updates and revisions throughout, reflecting new standards, energy sources,
processes, and conservation concerns
New material on combustion diagnostics and testing
Updated material on safety and combustion controls
New material on metallurgy, refractories, and blowers
Expanded coverage of burners, flares, and thermal oxidizers, including testing, operations, and
troubleshooting
More property data useful for the design and operation of combustion equipment
The second of three volumes in the new, expanded edition of the bestselling handbook, this
volume helps you broaden your understanding of industrial combustion design and operations to
better meet the challenges of this field.
K11815_COVER_final.indd 1 1/23/13 3:31 PM
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THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY
COMBUSTIONHANDBOOKSECOND EDITION
Volume 2DESIGN AND OPERATIONS
-
IndustrIal combustIon serIesSeries Editors:
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
The Coen & Hamworthy Combustion Handbook: Fundamentals for Power, Marine & Industrial Applications
Stephen Londerville and Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition Volume 1 Fundamentals
Volume II Design and Operations Volume II1 Applications
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
Industrial Burners HandbookCharles E. Baukal, Jr.
The John Zink Combustion HandbookCharles E. Baukal, Jr.
Computational Fluid Dynamics in Industrial CombustionCharles E. Baukal, Jr., Vladimir Gershtein, and Xianming Jimmy Li
Heat Transfer in Industrial CombustionCharles E. Baukal, Jr.
Oxygen-Enhanced CombustionCharles E. Baukal, Jr.
-
THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY
COMBUSTIONHANDBOOKSECOND EDITION
Edited by
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
Volume 2DESIGN AND OPERATIONS
-
CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCCRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government worksVersion Date: 20130111
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-3965-2 (eBook - PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
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v 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................................................... viiList of Tables ...........................................................................................................................................................................xxvForeword to the First Edition ............................................................................................................................................ xxviiPreface to the First Edition ...................................................................................................................................................xxixPreface to the Second Edition ..............................................................................................................................................xxxiAcknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................................. xxxiiiEditor..................................................................................................................................................................................... xxxvContributors ....................................................................................................................................................................... xxxviiPrologue to the First Edition ..................................................................................................................................................xli
1. Safety.................................................................................................................................................................................... 1Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
2. Combustion Controls ...................................................................................................................................................... 45Rodney Crockett and Jim Heinlein
3. Blowers for Combustion Systems ................................................................................................................................ 73John Bellovich and Jim Warren
4. Metallurgy ........................................................................................................................................................................ 95Wes Bussman, Garry Mayfield, Jason D. McAdams, Mike Pappe, and Jon Hembree
5. Refractory for Combustion Systems .......................................................................................................................... 133Jim Warren
6. Burner Design ................................................................................................................................................................ 151Richard T. Waibel, Michael G. Claxton, and Bernd Reese
7. Combustion Diagnostics .............................................................................................................................................. 173Wes Bussman, I.-Ping Chung, and Jaime A. Erazo, Jr.
8. Burner Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 191Jaime A. Erazo, Jr. and Thomas M. Korb
9. Flare Testing ................................................................................................................................................................... 203Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Roger Poe
10. Thermal Oxidizer Testing ........................................................................................................................................... 227Bruce C. Johnson and Nathan S. Petersen
11. Burner Installation and Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 245William Johnson, Mike Pappe, Erwin Platvoet, and Michael G. Claxton
12. Burner/Heater Operations ........................................................................................................................................... 299William Johnson, Erwin Platvoet, Mike Pappe, Michael G. Claxton, Richard T. Waibel, andJasonD. McAdams
13. Burner Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................................................... 331William Johnson, Erwin Platvoet, Mike Pappe, Michael G. Claxton, and Richard T. Waibel
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14. Flare Operations, Maintenance, and Troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 377Robert E. Schwartz and Zachary L. Kodesh
15. Thermal Oxidizer Installation and Maintenance ................................................................................................... 395Dale Campbell
16. Thermal Oxidizer Operations and Troubleshooting ............................................................................................. 415Dale Campbell
Appendix A: Units and Conversions ................................................................................................................................ 437
Appendix B: Physical Properties of Materials ................................................................................................................ 447
Appendix C: Properties of Gases and Liquids ............................................................................................................... 463
Appendix D: Properties of Solids ..................................................................................................................................... 507
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vii 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Test heater that has been overpressured ........................................................................................................ 2
Figure 1.2 Fire tetrahedron ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 1.3 Metal mesh shielding personnel from hot exhaust stack ............................................................................ 8
Figure 1.4 Insulated temporary ductwork ........................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 1.5 Radiation from a viewport ............................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 1.6 Stainless steel fence shielding flow control equipment from thermal radiation during flare testing .................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 1.7 Radiometer for measuring thermal radiation .............................................................................................. 10
Figure 1.8 Viewport with shutter ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 1.9 Heat resistant suit ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 1.10 Quarter wave tube on a propylene vaporizer .............................................................................................. 11
Figure 1.11 Silencers ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 1.12 Natural draft burner with no air inlet muffler ............................................................................................ 12
Figure 1.13 Natural draft burner with an air inlet damper ........................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.14 Typical muffler for a radiant wall-fired natural draft burner ................................................................... 12
Figure 1.15 Large mufflers on two natural draft burners............................................................................................... 13
Figure 1.16 Large mufflers on two radiant wall burners ................................................................................................ 13
Figure 1.17 Two enclosed flares .......................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 1.18 Typical muffler used on a natural draft burner........................................................................................... 14
Figure 1.19 Sound pressure versus frequency with and without a muffler ................................................................ 15
Figure 1.20 Cylindrical muffler on a suction pyrometer ................................................................................................ 15
Figure 1.21 Typical ear plugs .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 1.22 Typical ear muffs ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 1.23 Ear muffs designed to be used with hard hats............................................................................................ 16
Figure 1.24 Pressurized gas cylinders located outside a building where gases are used in a lab inside the building ............................................................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 1.25 Tube rupture in a fired heater ........................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 1.26 Trapped steam in a dead-end that can freeze and cause pipe failure...................................................... 17
Figure 1.27 CO detector. ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 1.28 Flare stack explosion due to improper purging .......................................................................................... 21
Figure 1.29 Burner damaged from a flashback ................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 1.30 Premix burner lifting off ................................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 1.31 Coen iScan flame detector ............................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 1.32 Typical continuous emission measurement system ................................................................................... 25
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Figure 1.33 Typical in situ analyzer ................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 1.34 Rubber mat over tripping hazard .................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 1.35 Safety tape around test apparatus ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 1.36 Furnace camera ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 1.37 Emergency stop pushbuttons in a control room ......................................................................................... 29
Figure 1.38 Emergency stop pushbutton next to a sight port on a test furnace .......................................................... 30
Figure 1.39 Liquid fuel containment for diesel storage tanks ....................................................................................... 30
Figure 1.40 Example of a cabinet used to store flammables........................................................................................... 30
Figure 1.41 NO, CO, O2, and combustible analyzers in a combustion laboratory ...................................................... 31
Figure 1.42 Example of a containment system designed to keep potentially hazardous fluids from leaking onto the ground. ............................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 1.43 Example of safety signs on the outside of a building ................................................................................. 31
Figure 1.44 Fire alarm system in a combustion test facility ........................................................................................... 32
Figure 1.45 Large portable fire extinguisher .................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 1.46 Emergency pull ring to shut down the entire facility ................................................................................ 33
Figure 1.47 Examples of safety and medical kits ............................................................................................................. 33
Figure 1.48 Emergency shower ........................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 1.49 Wind sock.......................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 1.50 Vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons ....................................................................................................... 36
Figure 1.51 Ethylene oxide plant explosion caused by autoignition ............................................................................. 38
Figure 1.52 Photo of a flame arrestor. ................................................................................................................................ 38
Figure 1.53 Safety documentation feedback flowchart ................................................................................................... 39
Figure 1.54 Aerial photos of Phillips 66 Incident in Pasadena, TX, on October 23, 1989 ........................................... 40
Figure 2.1 Programmable logic controller. ...................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 2.2 Touchscreen ...................................................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 2.3 Simplified flow diagram of a standard burner light-off sequence ........................................................... 49
Figure 2.4 Simple analog loop .......................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 2.5 Feedforward loop............................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 2.6 Double-block-and-bleed system. ................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 2.7 Fail-safe input to PLC ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 2.8 Shutdown string. .............................................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 2.9 Master fuel trip circuit .................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.10 Typical pipe rack .............................................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 2.11 (a) Large control panel. (b) Small control panel ........................................................................................... 55
Figure 2.12 Inside the large control panel. ........................................................................................................................ 55
Figure 2.13 Two different types of pressure switches. .................................................................................................... 56
Figure 2.14 Pneumatic control valve. ................................................................................................................................. 58
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Figure 2.15 Control valve characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 2.16 Thermocouple ................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 2.17 Thermowell and thermocouple. ..................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 2.18 Velocity thermocouple. .................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 2.19 Pressure transmitter (left) and pressure gage (right). ................................................................................. 60
Figure 2.20 Mechanically linked parallel positioning. ................................................................................................... 62
Figure 2.21 Electronically linked parallel positioning. ................................................................................................... 63
Figure 2.22 A variation of parallel positioning ................................................................................................................ 64
Figure 2.23 Fuel flow rate versus control signal .............................................................................................................. 64
Figure 2.24 Typical butterfly-type valve calculation ....................................................................................................... 65
Figure 2.25 The required shape of the air valve characterizer ...................................................................................... 65
Figure 2.26 Fully metered control scheme ........................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 2.27 Fully metered control scheme with cross limiting ..................................................................................... 66
Figure 2.28 O2 trim of airflow rate ..................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 2.29 O2 trim of air SP ............................................................................................................................................. 68
Figure 2.30 Multiple fuels and O2 sources ........................................................................................................................ 68
Figure 2.31 Controller .......................................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 2.32 Analog controller with manual reset. ........................................................................................................... 69
Figure 2.33 Analog controller with automatic reset. ....................................................................................................... 70
Figure 3.1 A centrifugal fan .............................................................................................................................................. 74
Figure 3.2 Fan wheel designs. ........................................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 3.3 A vane axial fan ............................................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 3.4 A purge air blower on the side of a combustion chamber ......................................................................... 75
Figure 3.5 A multistage high-speed centrifugal blower for a landfill application.................................................... 75
Figure 3.6 Fan drive arrangements for centrifugal fans AMCA standard 99-2404-03. ............................................ 76
Figure 3.7 An arrangement 4 fan...................................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 3.8 Basic centrifugal fan curve ............................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 3.9 Basic vane axial fan curve. .............................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 3.10 Basic centrifugal fan curve with HP. ............................................................................................................. 79
Figure 3.11 Forward-tip blade operating curve for 1780 RPM, 70F, and 0.075 lb/ft3 density ................................... 80
Figure 3.12 Backward-curved blade operating curve for 1780 RPM 70F and 0.075 lb/ft3 density. ......................... 80
Figure 3.13 One primary and one backup fan in the field with ducting. ..................................................................... 81
Figure 3.14 Six-blade vane axial fan in the field. .............................................................................................................. 81
Figure 3.15 Outlet damper effects on fan performance .................................................................................................. 83
Figure 3.16 Inlet damper effects on fan performance ..................................................................................................... 83
Figure 3.17 Centrifugal fan with inlet and outlet dampers............................................................................................ 83
Figure 3.18 Speed change effects on fan performance. ................................................................................................... 84
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Figure 3.19 Variable and controlled pitch change effects on fan performance ........................................................... 84
Figure 3.20 Close-up of variable pitch blades on a vane axial fan ................................................................................ 84
Figure 3.21 Close-up of a flexible coupling. ...................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 3.22 A belt-driven centrifugal blower ................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 3.23 Oil-lubricated bearing with reservoir ........................................................................................................... 86
Figure 3.24 Maintenance of arrangement 8 bearings. ..................................................................................................... 87
Figure 3.25 Fan foundation ................................................................................................................................................. 87
Figure 3.26 Inlet and outlet expansion joints for vibration isolation of ducting ......................................................... 88
Figure 3.27 Outlet damper fan curve with HP ................................................................................................................ 90
Figure 3.28 Inlet damper fan curve with HP. ................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 3.29 Speed control fan curve with HP. .................................................................................................................. 91
Figure 4.1 Electron microscope image of corroded carbon steel. ................................................................................ 97
Figure 4.2 Electron microscope image of chromium oxide layer on SS surface ....................................................... 98
Figure 4.3 Magnified view of SS showing grain boundary where the steel is rich in chromium content. .......... 99
Figure 4.4 Magnified view showing intergranular corrosion. ..................................................................................... 99
Figure 4.5 Magnified view showing crack propagating across the grain boundary due to stress corrosion cracking ........................................................................................................................................................... 100
Figure 4.6 Magnified view showing removal of the oxide scale from an alloy surface due to thermal cycling .......100
Figure 4.7 Magnified view showing the cross section of an alloy suffering from sulfidation attack. ................. 101
Figure 4.8 Corrosion of carbon steel process equipment located along the Texas coastline. ................................ 102
Figure 4.9 Metal dusting on an inlet tube of a heat exchanger unit ......................................................................... 103
Figure 4.10 Charpy impact test apparatus. ..................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 4.11 Charpy impact test specimens of carbon steel at 50F (10C) ............................................................. 104
Figure 4.12 Results of Charpy impact tests for high-carbon steel, low-carbon steel, and austenitic SS. ............... 104
Figure 4.13 Normalizing of a forged carbon steel specimen. (a) Magnified view of grain structure before normalizing and (b) after normalizing. The normalizing process involved heating the specimen to 1600F and then allowing it to cool in still air. .................................................................... 104
Figure 4.14 Process burner schematic. ............................................................................................................................. 105
Figure 4.15 Oxide scale formed on the outer surface of process tubes....................................................................... 109
Figure 4.16 Heater process tubes coated with ceramic ..................................................................................................110
Figure 4.17 Rupture process tube after long-term overheating. ...................................................................................111
Figure 4.18 Ruptured process heater tube. ......................................................................................................................111
Figure 4.19 (a) Process tubes lying on top of a burner. (b) Tubes pulled from the radiant section oftheheater ......111
Figure 4.20 (a) Failure of a process heater tube. (b) Close-up view of ruptured tube .............................................. 112
Figure 4.21 Large crack in a process tube used in a SMR. ........................................................................................... 112
Figure 4.22 External corrosion of a heater process tube ............................................................................................... 112
Figure 4.23 Various two-phase flow regimes that can occur in process heater tubes ..............................................113
Figure 4.24 A vacuum heater tube showing signs of oxidation due to stratified two-phase flow ..........................113
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Figure 4.25 Sagging process tube due to high-temperature creep. ..............................................................................113
Figure 4.26 Rupture strength of low-carbon steel and 300-series SS at various temperatures ...............................114
Figure 4.27 Damage to a burner caused by a failure of a support system upstream in the coker reactor .............114
Figure 4.28 Damage to a control valve due to sulfidation corrosion ...........................................................................114
Figure 4.29 Damaged oil burner fuel nozzle. ..................................................................................................................114
Figure 4.30 Orifice spud in service for 10 years. .............................................................................................................115
Figure 4.31 Center fuel gas burner tip showing signs of corrosion damage due to high-temperature oxidation. .... 115
Figure 4.32 (a) Corroded burner tip and (b) new burner tip. ........................................................................................116
Figure 4.33 Photographs of erosioncorrosion damage of a tip from a PSA burner gas ..........................................116
Figure 4.34 Flame retention segments located around the inside perimeter of the flare tip ...................................117
Figure 4.35 Scale and loss of a pilot tip due to sulfidation attack ................................................................................118
Figure 4.36 (a) External burning on flare tip and (b) pilot that was positioned on the downwind side of the flare tip suffered extreme corrosion damage to the windshield. ............................................................119
Figure 4.37 Pilot that was positioned on the downwind side of the flare tip suffered extreme corrosion damage to the windshield. ............................................................................................................................119
Figure 4.38 (a) Internal burning on an air-assisted flare and (b) failure of an air-assisted flare due to stress corrosion cracking ......................................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 4.39 (a) Inspection by helicopter of steam leaking from underneath a steam-assisted flare tip and (b)close-up view showing a ruptured lower steamring. ........................................................................ 121
Figure 4.40 Deterioration to the inlet of the lower steam educator tube due to flame impingement for an extended period of time. ............................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 4.41 Deterioration of a steam spider due to flame impingement for an extended period of time ............. 122
Figure 4.42 Binary ironcarbon phase diagram. ........................................................................................................... 122
Figure 4.43 Typical TTT diagram for medium-carbon steel. ....................................................................................... 123
Figure 4.44 Typical TTT diagram for medium-carbon alloy steel AISI 4340. ............................................................ 123
Figure 4.45 Maximum hardness versus % carbon by weight. ..................................................................................... 124
Figure 4.46 Tensile and bend specimens ........................................................................................................................ 124
Figure 4.47 Solidification cracking susceptibility .......................................................................................................... 125
Figure 4.48 Penetrant testing the connection welds of a flare ..................................................................................... 126
Figure 4.49 Dye penetrant indication example. ............................................................................................................. 126
Figure 4.50 Magnetic particle testing of gas piping using the AC yoke dry method .............................................. 127
Figure 4.51 (a) Radiographic testing of flare component welds using an iridium 192 radioactive source in a containment vaultand (b) radiographic film image of a weld as viewed in a prescribed darkened room .... 128
Figure 4.52 An ultrasonic, angle-beam apparatus (foreground) with the resulting signal..................................... 129
Figure 4.53 Positive material identification using a handheld analyzer on a process burner riser pipe to confirm the material type ............................................................................................................................. 130
Figure 4.54 Metallographic replicas taken from a flare tip during fabrication. ........................................................ 131
Figure 5.1 Example of everyday refractory. .................................................................................................................. 134
Figure 5.2 Several raw materials used in making refractory. .................................................................................... 135
Figure 5.3 Drawing representing glue phase. .............................................................................................................. 135
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Figure 5.4 Photograph demonstrating glue phase. ...................................................................................................... 135
Figure 5.5 Chemically bonded plastic pieces ............................................................................................................... 136
Figure 5.6 Installation of plastic ..................................................................................................................................... 136
Figure 5.7 Plastic refractory anchoring system. ........................................................................................................... 136
Figure 5.8 Common firebricks ........................................................................................................................................ 137
Figure 5.9 Shapes and sizes of standard bricks. ........................................................................................................... 138
Figure 5.10 Example of labor-intensive brick installation. ........................................................................................... 139
Figure 5.11 Firebricks cut and installed in a circular pattern. ..................................................................................... 139
Figure 5.12 Use of pogo sticks to ensure brick is properly seated. .............................................................................. 139
Figure 5.13 Example of many different types of ceramic refractory. .......................................................................... 139
Figure 5.14 Refractory blanket. ......................................................................................................................................... 139
Figure 5.15 Ceramic refractory anchoring components ............................................................................................... 140
Figure 5.16 Illustration of anchors penetrating through refractory ............................................................................ 140
Figure 5.17 Photograph of installed ceramic refractory. ............................................................................................... 140
Figure 5.18 Relationship of different refractory physical properties ...........................................................................141
Figure 5.19 Difference between single- and multiple-component lining....................................................................141
Figure 5.20 Several different wire anchors and components. ..................................................................................... 142
Figure 5.21 Examples of different anchoring ................................................................................................................. 143
Figure 5.22 Typical anchor spacing ................................................................................................................................. 143
Figure 5.23 Several different vee-type anchors.............................................................................................................. 144
Figure 5.24 Example of footed wavy V-anchor installation. ........................................................................................ 144
Figure 5.25 Anchor welding.............................................................................................................................................. 144
Figure 5.26 Extensive use of wavy anchors .................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 5.27 Anchor distance below refractory surface ................................................................................................. 145
Figure 5.28 Example of steel fibers. .................................................................................................................................. 146
Figure 5.29 Example of cold drawn fibers. ..................................................................................................................... 146
Figure 5.30 Example of chopped fibers ........................................................................................................................... 146
Figure 5.31 Example of curl anchors. ............................................................................................................................... 147
Figure 5.32 Example of K-bar anchors. ............................................................................................................................ 147
Figure 5.33 Example of S-bar anchors. ............................................................................................................................ 147
Figure 5.34 Example of refractory failure ....................................................................................................................... 148
Figure 5.35 Prequalifying work. ....................................................................................................................................... 148
Figure 5.36 Example of vessel having refractory spray installed. ............................................................................... 148
Figure 5.37 Example of adequate personnel and equipment. ...................................................................................... 149
Figure 5.38 Example of poured refractory in a mold .................................................................................................... 149
Figure 5.39 Cracked refractory ......................................................................................................................................... 150
Figure 6.1 Graph of sustainable combustion for methane. ......................................................................................... 153
Figure 6.2 Typical raw gas burner tips .......................................................................................................................... 154
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Figure 6.3 Typical premix metering orifice spud and air mixer assembly............................................................... 154
Figure 6.4 Typical gas fuel capacity curve. ................................................................................................................... 155
Figure 6.5 Internal mix twin fluid atomizer (EA style). .............................................................................................. 155
Figure 6.6 Internal mix twin fluid atomizer (MEA style). .......................................................................................... 155
Figure 6.7 Port mix twin fluid atomizer (PM style). .................................................................................................... 156
Figure 6.8 Typical liquid fuel capacity curve ............................................................................................................... 156
Figure 6.9 Typical throat of a raw gas burner. .............................................................................................................. 157
Figure 6.10 Ledge in the burner tile. ................................................................................................................................ 160
Figure 6.11 Flame stabilizer or flame holder .................................................................................................................. 160
Figure 6.12 Swirler. ..............................................................................................................................................................161
Figure 6.13 Round-shaped flame.......................................................................................................................................161
Figure 6.14 Flat-shaped flame. ...........................................................................................................................................162
Figure 6.15 (a) Regen tile and (b) swirler. ........................................................................................................................ 165
Figure 6.16 Combustor schematic. ................................................................................................................................... 165
Figure 6.17 View combustor with organ set ................................................................................................................... 166
Figure 6.18 Front view to the organ set of a combustor ................................................................................................ 166
Figure 6.19 Axial velocity within combustion chamber (cold air flow model) ..........................................................167
Figure 6.20 Combustor flame. ............................................................................................................................................167
Figure 6.21 Standard combustor normalFD combustor short ..................................................................................167
Figure 6.22 Typical conventional raw gas burner. ......................................................................................................... 168
Figure 6.23 Typical premix gas burner. ........................................................................................................................... 168
Figure 6.24 Typical round flame combination burner. ................................................................................................. 169
Figure 6.25 Typical round flame, high-intensity combination burner........................................................................ 169
Figure 6.26 Typical staged-fuel flat flame burner .......................................................................................................... 169
Figure 6.27 Typical radiant wall burner. ......................................................................................................................... 170
Figure 6.28 Downfired burners in a hydrogen reformer furnace ............................................................................... 170
Figure 7.1 U-tube manometer ..........................................................................................................................................174
Figure 7.2 The Bourdon pressure gauge. ........................................................................................................................174
Figure 7.3 Internal view of the Bourdon pressure gauge ........................................................................................... 175
Figure 7.4 Basic components of a Bourdon pressure gauge ....................................................................................... 175
Figure 7.5 Pressure snubber .............................................................................................................................................176
Figure 7.6 An oil-type deadweight tester. ......................................................................................................................176
Figure 7.7 Basic components of a deadweight tester ....................................................................................................176
Figure 7.8 Orifice plate ..................................................................................................................................................... 177
Figure 7.9 Illustration showing static pressure drop through an orifice metering run ......................................... 177
Figure 7.10 Common pressure-tap arrangements for orifice metering runs ............................................................. 178
Figure 7.11 Cutaway view of a venturi meter ................................................................................................................. 180
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Figure 7.12 Schematic of a venturi meter ........................................................................................................................ 180
Figure 7.13 Turbine meter .................................................................................................................................................. 180
Figure 7.14 NASA satellite image of clouds off the Chilean coast near the Juan Fernandez Islands showing von Karman vortex streets and figure drawn for greater clarity ............................................................ 180
Figure 7.15 Vortex meter .................................................................................................................................................... 181
Figure 7.16 Principles of magnetic induction ................................................................................................................. 181
Figure 7.17 Time-of-flight ultrasonic flow meter: single-path type. ............................................................................ 182
Figure 7.18 Time-of-flight ultrasonic flow meter: multipath type ............................................................................... 182
Figure 7.19 Thermal mass meter. ...................................................................................................................................... 183
Figure 7.20 Energy balance type thermal mass meter .................................................................................................. 183
Figure 7.21 Positive displacement meter ......................................................................................................................... 183
Figure 7.22 Types of positive displacement meters ....................................................................................................... 183
Figure 7.23 Locations for a Pitot tube traverse in a round or rectangular duct, based on centroids of equal area ...........................................................................................................................................................................184
Figure 7.24 Averaging Pitot tube ...................................................................................................................................... 185
Figure 7.25 Photograph of an averaging Pitot tube located inside a large duct ........................................................ 185
Figure 7.26 A simple FTIR spectrometer layout. ............................................................................................................ 186
Figure 7.27 Photograph of an FTIR system. .................................................................................................................... 186
Figure 7.28 Schematic of phase Doppler particle anemometer (PDPA). ..................................................................... 187
Figure 7.29 Schematic of oil gun and spray chamber by using PDPA for droplet size measurements. ................ 188
Figure 7.30 Typical PDPA droplet size measurements.. ................................................................................................ 188
Figure 7.31 PDPA mass accumulation measurements at different mass ratios. ........................................................ 188
Figure 7.32 Spray images for liquid planar laser-induced fluorescence (LPLIF) (left) and scattered light (right) .........189
Figure 8.1 Aerial view of an industrial combustion testing facility. ......................................................................... 194
Figure 8.2 Test furnace used primarily for ethylene applications. ............................................................................ 195
Figure 8.3 Test furnace capable of simulating terrace wall-fired heaters. ................................................................ 195
Figure 8.4 Vertical cylindrical furnace for freestanding, upfired burner tests ....................................................... 196
Figure 8.5 Self-contained, portable combustion air heater and blower used for testing forced draft, preheated air burner designs ....................................................................................................................... 196
Figure 8.6 Schematic of heat flux probe ........................................................................................................................ 197
Figure 8.7 Schematic of heat flux probe mounted in a test furnace. ......................................................................... 198
Figure 8.8 Schematic of a CO probe mounted in a test furnace ................................................................................ 198
Figure 8.9 Test fuel selection process flow diagram. ................................................................................................... 200
Figure 9.1 World-class flare test facility at John Zink Company, LLC, in Tulsa, OK .............................................. 206
Figure 9.2 An air-assisted flare undergoing testing .................................................................................................... 206
Figure 9.3 Pressure-assisted flare utilizing the Coanda principle ............................................................................ 207
Figure 9.4 Block diagram of flare test facility ............................................................................................................... 208
Figure 9.5 Fuel processing system ................................................................................................................................. 208
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Figure 9.6 A test in progress as viewed from the control room .............................................................................. 209
Figure 9.7 Typical flare test control screen .................................................................................................................. 210
Figure 9.8 Graph of a typical flow control history for manual and automatic operation .....................................211
Figure 9.9 Flare test control center ................................................................................................................................211
Figure 9.10 (a) Upwind and (b) crosswind views of a flame during a flare test...................................................... 212
Figure 9.11 Thermogram of a flare flame ...................................................................................................................... 212
Figure 9.12 Radiation measurement system (foreground) in use during a flare test ............................................. 213
Figure 9.13 Isoflux profiles for typical radiation measurement ..................................................................................214
Figure 9.14 Sound measurement system in use during a flare test ............................................................................214
Figure 9.15 Typical overall sound level as a function of time .................................................................................... 215
Figure 9.16 Average sound profile for a given time window ..................................................................................... 215
Figure 9.17 Flare pilot test stand .....................................................................................................................................216
Figure 9.18 Hydrostatic flare tip test ...............................................................................................................................216
Figure 9.19 Typical ground flare array .......................................................................................................................... 217
Figure 9.20 Photo of a row of ground flares, with flame heights compared to those previously measured for single and dual burner tests ................................................................................................................. 218
Figure 9.21 Multiple ground flare burners being tested to determine flame heights and cross lighting distances ........................................................................................................................................................ 218
Figure 9.22 Multiple Indair flare test to determine minimum operating pressure range and tip spacing for cross lighting .......................................................................................................................................... 219
Figure 9.23 Air-assisted flare test ................................................................................................................................... 220
Figure 9.24 Air flare blower failure test ........................................................................................................................ 221
Figure 9.25 Effectiveness of steam in smoke suppression .......................................................................................... 222
Figure 9.26 Steam-assisted flare test experiencing over-steaming conditions. ....................................................... 222
Figure 9.27 Radiation from an offshore flare ................................................................................................................ 223
Figure 9.28 Testing a water-assisted flare ..................................................................................................................... 223
Figure 9.29 Radiation reduction by water injection .................................................................................................... 224
Figure 9.30 Noise reduction by water injection ........................................................................................................... 224
Figure 10.1 Thermal oxidizer test facility ..................................................................................................................... 228
Figure 10.2 Schematic of a common configuration of a horizontal thermal oxidizer. ........................................... 229
Figure 10.3 Thermal oxidizer test facility control room. ............................................................................................ 229
Figure 10.4 Cutaway view of a thermal oxidizer test burner capable of both fuel and air staging. .................... 231
Figure 10.5 Test facility metering skid........................................................................................................................... 235
Figure 10.6 Commercial test rack with the following components from top to bottom: CO meter, oxygen meter, NOx meter, total hydrocarbons (THC) meter, and gas conditioning system. ........................ 239
Figure 10.7 Portable combustion gas analyzer. ............................................................................................................ 239
Figure 10.8 FTIR gas analyzer. ........................................................................................................................................ 239
Figure 10.9 In situ oxygen analyzer. .............................................................................................................................. 240
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Figure 10.10 Extractive sample probe. ............................................................................................................................. 240
Figure 10.11 Orifice plate meter. ....................................................................................................................................... 241
Figure 10.12 Thermal mass flowmeter ............................................................................................................................ 241
Figure 10.13 Ceramic-sheathed thermocouple. .............................................................................................................. 242
Figure 10.14 Handheld radiometer. ................................................................................................................................. 242
Figure 10.15 U-tube manometer. ...................................................................................................................................... 243
Figure 10.16 Inclined manometer. .................................................................................................................................... 243
Figure 10.17 Bourdon tube pressure gauge. ................................................................................................................... 243
Figure 11.1 Burner tiles: (a) flat shaped and (b) round shaped .................................................................................. 246
Figure 11.2 Burner tile with intricate design features................................................................................................. 246
Figure 11.3 Gas tips with different drill patterns ........................................................................................................ 247
Figure 11.4 Burner mounting sleeve. ............................................................................................................................. 248
Figure 11.5 Round burner tile ......................................................................................................................................... 249
Figure 11.6 Rectangular or flat flame burner tile. ........................................................................................................ 249
Figure 11.7 Burner tile sections ...................................................................................................................................... 249
Figure 11.8 Dry fit to check dimensions. ................................................................................................................... 249
Figure 11.9 Burner tiles with mortared joints .............................................................................................................. 250
Figure 11.10 Applying mortar to burner tile .................................................................................................................. 250
Figure 11.11 Gas tips protected with masking tape during installation .................................................................... 250
Figure 11.12 Tile with groove-clearing bolt heads......................................................................................................... 251
Figure 11.13 Handle burner tile with caution. ............................................................................................................... 251
Figure 11.14 Crane-lifting burner. .................................................................................................................................... 252
Figure 11.15 Burner stand and forklift ............................................................................................................................ 252
Figure 11.16 Lifting device for burner installation. ....................................................................................................... 253
Figure 11.17 Various lifting techniques. .......................................................................................................................... 254
Figure 11.18 Cables and hoist used to mount burners. ................................................................................................. 255
Figure 11.19 Burner mounted to heater floor. ................................................................................................................. 255
Figure 11.20 Burner designed to be mounted in a common plenum ......................................................................... 256
Figure 11.21 P-box-type burner with an integral plenum ............................................................................................ 256
Figure 11.22 Expansion joint between tile and floor ..................................................................................................... 257
Figure 11.23 Open area around tip for future removal ................................................................................................ 257
Figure 11.24 Floor is (incorrectly) higher than gas tips ................................................................................................ 257
Figure 11.25 Gas tips above floor as designed ............................................................................................................... 257
Figure 11.26 Horizontally mounted burner. ................................................................................................................... 257
Figure 11.27 Horizontal burners in service .................................................................................................................... 258
Figure 11.28 Down-fired burners located on top of the heater. ................................................................................... 258
Figure 11.29 Down-fired burners in operation .............................................................................................................. 259
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Figure 11.30 Horizontally mounted burner. ................................................................................................................... 259
Figure 11.31 Ultralow-NOx radiant wall burners.......................................................................................................... 260
Figure 11.32 Gas tip/diffuser cone position ................................................................................................................... 260
Figure 11.33 Radiant wall tip location. ............................................................................................................................ 261
Figure 11.34 Gas tip location (before mounting in a heater) ........................................................................................ 261
Figure 11.35 Final burner inspection. .............................................................................................................................. 262
Figure 11.36 Dual-blade air dampers. ............................................................................................................................. 262
Figure 11.37 Rotary-type air register. .............................................................................................................................. 263
Figure 11.38 Jackshaft system to control the combustion air. ...................................................................................... 263
Figure 11.39 Fuel piping insulated and steam traced ................................................................................................... 264
Figure 11.40 Burner fuel lines taken from the top of the header to reduce gas tip fouling .................................... 264
Figure 11.41 Example pilot conduit boxes. ...................................................................................................................... 265
Figure 11.42 Burners with flame scanners. ..................................................................................................................... 265
Figure 11.43 Visual inspection of the burner ................................................................................................................. 265
Figure 11.44 Recording operating information. ............................................................................................................. 266
Figure 11.45 Premix and raw gas tips ............................................................................................................................. 266
Figure 11.46 Raw gas burner tips. .................................................................................................................................... 266
Figure 11.47 Gas tips may look similar, but they are not the same. ............................................................................ 267
Figure 11.48 Burner drawings will show number of gas tips and proper orientation............................................. 267
Figure 11.49 Example of gas tip drilling information on burner documentation. ................................................... 268
Figure 11.50 Overheated gas tip ....................................................................................................................................... 268
Figure 11.51 Plugged gas tip ............................................................................................................................................. 268
Figure 11.52 Coke buildup in tip ...................................................................................................................................... 268
Figure 11.53 Pipe vise for gas tip maintenance. ............................................................................................................. 269
Figure 11.54 Floor-mounted burners in a vertical cylindrical furnace ...................................................................... 269
Figure 11.55 Gas riser mounting flange. ......................................................................................................................... 270
Figure 11.56 Using steam to blow out the gas riser/tip assembly. .............................................................................. 270
Figure 11.57 Thread lubricant. .......................................................................................................................................... 270
Figure 11.58 Checking ports with correct sized drill bit. ............................................................................................. 270
Figure 11.59 Using a drill bit to clean a gas port. .......................................................................................................... 271
Figure 11.60 T-handle used to manually clean gas tips. ............................................................................................... 271
Figure 11.61 Diagram of a HEVD premix burner. ......................................................................................................... 271
Figure 11.62 View of primary air door assembly including fuel orifice .................................................................... 271
Figure 11.63 Single-port orifice spud. .............................................................................................................................. 272
Figure 11.64 QD orifice spud ............................................................................................................................................ 272
Figure 11.65 Plugged QD orifice spud ............................................................................................................................. 272
Figure 11.66 JZV premix gas tip ....................................................................................................................................... 272
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Figure 11.67 LPM radiant wall gas tip. .......................................................................................................................... 272
Figure 11.68 Burner damaged from flashback. ............................................................................................................. 273
Figure 11.69 Dirty mixer/primary air door .................................................................................................................. 273
Figure 11.70 Spider with severe oxidation from overheating. .................................................................................... 273
Figure 11.71 HEVD spider with internal fouling. .........................................................................................................274
Figure 11.72 HEVD burner without a primary muffler. ..............................................................................................274
Figure 11.73 HEVD burner with muffler installed. ......................................................................................................274
Figure 11.74 Primary air muffler removed for inspection. ..........................................................................................274
Figure 11.75 Worn gasket and dirty insulation. .......................................................................................................... 275
Figure 11.76 Burner tile in good condition ................................................................................................................... 275
Figure 11.77 Burner tile with large broken pieces. ...................................................................................................... 275
Figure 11.78 Tile with large crack .................................................................................................................................. 276
Figure 11.79 Tile crumbling and coming apart. ........................................................................................................... 276
Figure 11.80 Radiant wall burner tile that should be replaced ................................................................................. 276
Figure 11.81 Vanadium attack on burner tile. .............................................................................................................. 276
Figure 11.82 Catalyst buildup on regen oil tile. ........................................................................................................... 277
Figure 11.83 Inspection of burner tiles inside a furnace. ........................................................................................... 277
Figure 11.84 Small cracks can be repaired. ................................................................................................................... 277
Figure 11.85 Tile with large cracks should be replaced. ............................................................................................. 277
Figure 11.86 Applying a thin layer of mortar. .............................................................................................................. 277
Figure 11.87 Checking gas tip orientation .................................................................................................................... 278
Figure 11.88 Final tile installation. ................................................................................................................................. 278
Figure 11.89 Multiple section burner tile ...................................................................................................................... 278
Figure 11.90 Diffuser cone used for stabilizing the flame. ......................................................................................... 278
Figure 11.91 Burner tile ledge used to stabilize the flame. ......................................................................................... 278
Figure 11.92 Diffuser cones used for flame stability. .................................................................................................. 279
Figure 11.93 Swirler used to stabilize oil flames. ......................................................................................................... 279
Figure 11.94 Flame deflector ring with stabilizing tabs. ............................................................................................. 279
Figure 11.95 Diffuser cone in good condition. ............................................................................................................. 279
Figure 11.96 Damaged diffuser cone. ............................................................................................................................ 279
Figure 11.97 Diffuser cone location too low. ................................................................................................................. 280
Figure 11.98 Rotating-type air registers ........................................................................................................................ 280
Figure 11.99 Rotary air register with E-Z Roll bearings ............................................................................................. 280
Figure 11.100 Burner damper shown in closed and open position ............................................................................ 281
Figure 11.101 Locking air control handle with 18 positions ........................................................................................ 281
Figure 11.102 Burners with air handles all set at the same position. .......................................................................... 281
Figure 11.103 Damper linkage for dual-bladed opposed motion design. .................................................................. 281
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Figure 11.104 Bearings for smooth damper operation. ................................................................................................. 282
Figure 11.105 Combination oil and gas LoNOx burner. ............................................................................................... 282
Figure 11.106 Secondary and primary (regen) tiles. ...................................................................................................... 282
Figure 11.107 Regen tile and one section of secondary tile. ......................................................................................... 283
Figure 11.108 Regen tile used to stabilize the oil flame. ............................................................................................... 283
Figure 11.109 Oil and steam spray at the oil tip. ............................................................................................................ 283
Figure 11.110 Regen oil tile with an oil gun in the center ............................................................................................ 284
Figure 11.111 Typical rotary-type air registers .............................................................................................................. 284
Figure 11.112 Vane-type air register ................................................................................................................................ 285
Figure 11.113 Integral plenum box with inlet air damper and muffler. ..................................................................... 285
Figure 11.114 Oil gun insert and oil body receiver (with red caps) ............................................................................ 286
Figure 11.115 Oil body receiver with copper gaskets for sealing ................................................................................ 286
Figure 11.116 Oil gun bodies ............................................................................................................................................ 286
Figure 11.117 Oil gun parts. .............................................................................................................................................. 286
Figure 11.118 EA-/SA-type oil tip..................................................................................................................................... 286
Figure 11.119 Oil tip stamped with 864. ...................................................................................................................... 287
Figure 11.120 MEA oil gun parts ..................................................................................................................................... 287
Figure 11.121 MEA-type oil tip. ........................................................................................................................................ 287
Figure 11.122 MEA oil gun parts ..................................................................................................................................... 287
Figure 11.123 HERO oil tip with dual atomizing design ............................................................................................. 287
Figure 11.124 HERO oil tip, sleeve, and collar. ............................................................................................................... 288
Figure 11.125 HERO oil tips and atomizers. ................................................................................................................... 288
Figure 11.126 HERO oil gun inserts ................................................................................................................................ 288
Figure 11.127 Applying high-temperature anti-seize to oil gun threads. .................................................................. 289
Figure 11.128 Atomizer with labyrinth seals and steam ports. ................................................................................... 290
Figure 11.129 Checking atomizer location in sleeve ..................................................................................................... 290
Figure 11.130 ST-1S high-stability burner pilot .............................................................................................................. 291
Figure 11.131 Pilot shield glowing in normal operation............................................................................................... 291
Figure 11.132 Pilot parts ........................................................................................