combat skills of the soldier
TRANSCRIPT
FM 21-75
ii
3 August 1984
FIELD MANUALNo. 21-75
* FM 21-75
HEADQUARTERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 3 August 1984
Combat Skills of the Soldier
Preface
This manual is dedicated to the soldier — the key to success on the battle-field. Wars are not won by machines and weapons but by the soldiers whouse them. Even the best equipped army cannot win without motivated andwell-trained soldiers. If the US Army is to win the next war, its soldiers mustbe motivated by inspired leadership, and they must know how to do their jobsand survive on the battlefield.
This is the soldier’s field manual. It tells the soldier how to perform thecombat skills needed to survive on the battlefield. These are basic skills thatmust be learned by soldiers in all military occupational specialties (MOS).
Users of this manual may submit recommended changes or comments,referring to the page and line(s) of the text. Reasons should be provided toinsure understanding and complete evaluation. Comments should be forwardedon DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications) addressed to theCommandant, US Army Infantry School, ATTN: ATSH-I-V-PD, Fort Benning,GA 31905.
The words “he,” “him,” “his,” “man,” and “men,” when used in thispublication, represent both the masculine and feminine genders, unless other-wise specifically stated.
* This manual supersedes FM 21-75, 10 July 1967.
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FM 21-75
CHAPTER 1
Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage
GENERAL
If the enemy can see you, he can hit you withhis fire. So you must be concealed from enemyobservation and have cover from enemy fire.
When the terrain does not provide natural coverand concealment, you must prepare your cover anduse natural and man-made materials to camouflageyourself, your equipment, and your position. Thischapter provides guidance on the preparation anduse of cover, concealment, and camouflage.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1COVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2CONCEALMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-3CAMOUFLAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
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COVERCover gives protection from bullets, frag-
ments of exploding rounds, flame, nucleareffects, and biological and chemical agents.Cover can also conceal you from enemy observa-tion. Cover can be natural or man-made.
Natural cover includes such things aslogs, trees, stumps, ravines, and hollows. Man-made cover includes such things as fightingpositions, trenches, walls, rubble, and craters.Even the smallest depression or fold in theground can give some cover. Look for and useevery bit of cover the terrain offers.
In combat, you need protection fromenemy direct and indirect fire.
To get this protection in the defense, builda fighting position (man-made cover) to add tothe natural cover afforded by the terrain.
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To get protection from enemy fire in theoffense or when moving, use routes that putcover between you and the places where theenemy is known or thought to be. Use ravines,gullies, hills, wooded areas, walls, and othercover to keep the enemy from seeing and firingat you. Avoid open areas, and do not skylineyourself on hilltops and ridges.
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CONCEALMENTConcealment is anything that hides you
from enemy observation. Concealment doesnot protect you from enemy fire. Do not thinkthat you are protected from the enemy’s firejust because you are concealed. Concealment,like cover, can also be natural or man-made.
Natural concealment includes such thingsas bushes, grass, trees, and shadows. If possible,natural concealment should not be disturbed.Man-made concealment includes such thingsas battle-dress uniforms, camouflage nets, facepaint, and natural material that has been movedfrom its original location. Man-made conceal-ment must blend into the natural concealmentprovided by the terrain.
Light discipline, noise discipline, move-ment discipline, and the use of camouflagecontribute to concealment. Light discipline iscontrolling the use of lights at night by suchthings as not smoking in the open, not walkingaround with a flashlight on, and not usingvehicle headlights. Noise discipline is takingaction to deflect sounds generated by your unit(such as operating equipment) away from theenemy and, when possible, using methods tocommunicate that do not generate sounds(arm-and-hand signals). Movement discipline
is such things as not moving about fightingpositions unless necessary, and not moving onroutes that lack cover and concealment. In thedefense, build a well-camouflaged fighting posi-tion and avoid moving about. In the offense,conceal yourself and your equipment withcamouflage and move in woods or on terrainthat gives concealment. Darkness cannot hideyou from enemy observation in either offenseor defense. The enemy’s night vision devicesand other detection means let them find you inboth daylight and darkness.
CAMOUFLAGE
Camouflage is anything you use to keepyourself, your equipment, and your positionfrom looking like what they are. Both naturaland man-made material can be used forcamouflage.
Change and improve your camouflageoften. The time between changes and improve-ments depends on the weather and on thematerial used. Natural camouflage will oftendie, fade, or otherwise lose its effectiveness.Likewise, man-made camouflage may wear offor fade. When those things happen, you andyour equipment or position may not blend withthe surroundings. That may make it easy forthe enemy to spot you.
CAMOUFLAGE CONSIDERATIONS
Movement draws attention. When yougive arm-and-hand signals or walk about yourposition, your movement can be seen by thenaked eye at long ranges. In the defense, staylow and move only when necessary. In theoffense, move only on covered and concealedroutes.
Positions must not be where the enemyexpects to find them. Build positions on theside of a hill, away from road junctions or lonebuildings, and in covered and concealed places.Avoid open areas.
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Outlines and shadows may reveal yourposition or equipment to air or ground ob-servers. Outlines and shadows can be brokenup with camouflage. When moving, stay in theshadows when possible.
Shine may also attract the enemy’s at-tention. In the dark, it may be a light such as aburning cigarette or flashlight. In daylight, it
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can be reflected light from polished surfacessuch as shiny mess gear, a worn helmet, a wind-shield, a watch crystal and band, or exposedskin. A light, or its reflection, from a positionmay help the enemy detect the position. Toreduce shine, cover your skin with clothing andface paint. However, in a nuclear attack, darklypainted skin can absorb more thermal energyand may burn more readily than bare skin. Also,dull the surfaces of equipment and vehicleswith paint, mud, or some type of camouflagematerial.
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Shape is outline or form. The shape of ahelmet is easily recognized. A human body isalso easily recognized. Use camouflage andconcealment to breakup shapes and blend themwith their surroundings. Be careful not tooverdo it.
The colors of your skin, uniform, andequipment may help the enemy detect you ifthe colors contrast with the background. Forexample, a green uniform will contrast withsnow-covered terrain. Camouflage yourself andyour equipment to blend with the surroundings.
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Dispersion is the spreading of men, vehi-cles, and equipment over a wide area. It isusually easier for the enemy to detect soldierswhen they are bunched. So, spread out. Thedistance between you and your fellow soldierwill vary with the terrain, degree of visibility,and enemy situation. Distances will normallybe set by unit leaders or by a unit’s standingoperating procedure (SOP).
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HOW TO CAMOUFLAGE
Before camouflaging, study the terrainand vegetation of the area in which you areoperating. Then pick and use the camouflagematerial that best blends with that area. Whenmoving from one area to another, change camou-flage as needed to blend with the surroundings.Take grass, leaves, brush, and other materialfrom your location and apply it to your uniformand equipment and put face paint on your skin.
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Fighting Positions. When building a fightingposition, camouflage it and the dirt taken fromit. Camouflage the dirt used as frontal, flank,rear, and overhead cover. Also camouflage thebottom of the hole to prevent detection fromthe air. If necessary, take excess dirt awayfrom the position (to the rear).
Do not overcamouflage. Too much camou-flage material may actually disclose a position.Get your camouflage material from a wide area.An area stripped of all or most of its vegetationmay draw attention. Do not wait until the posi-tion is complete to camouflage it. Camouflagethe position as you build. -
Do not leave shiny or light-colored objectslying about. Hide mess kits, mirrors, food con-tainers, and white underwear and towels. Donot remove your shirt in the open. Your skinmay shine and be seen. Never use fires wherethere is a chance that the flame will be seen orthe smoke will be smelled by the enemy. Also,cover up tracks and other signs of movement.
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When camouflage is complete, inspect theposition from the enemy’s side. This shouldbe done from about 35 meters forward of theposition. Then check the camouflage periodi-cally to see that it stays natural-looking andconceals the position. When the camouflagebecomes ineffective, change and improve it.
Helmets. Camouflage your helmet with theissue helmet cover or make a cover of cloth orburlap that is colored to blend with the terrain.The cover should fit loosely with the flaps foldedunder the helmet or left hanging. The hangingflaps may break up the helmet outline. Leaves,grass, or sticks can also be attached to thecover. Use camouflage bands, strings, burlapstrips, or rubber bands to hold those in place.If there is no material for a helmet cover, dis-guise and dull helmet surface with irregularpatterns of paint or mud.
Uniforms. Most uniforms come already camou-flaged. However, it may be necessary to addmore camouflage to make the uniform blendbetter with the surroundings. To do this, putmud on the uniform or attach leaves, grass, orsmall branches to it. Too much camouflage,however, may draw attention.
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When operating on snow-covered ground, Skin. Exposed skin reflects light and maywear overwhites (if issued) to help blend with draw the enemy’s attention. Even very darkthe snow. If overwhites are not issued, use skin, because of its natural oil, will reflect light.white cloth, such as white bedsheets, to get the Use the following methods when applyingsame effect. camouflage face paint to camouflage the skin.
When applying camouflage stick to yourskin, work with a buddy (in pairs) and help eachother. Apply a two-color combination of camou-flage stick in an irregular pattern. Paint shinyareas (forehead, cheekbones, nose, ears, andchin) with a dark color. Paint shadow areas(around the eyes, under the nose, and under thechin) with a light color. In addition to the face,
paint the exposed skin on the back of the neck,arms, and hands. Palms of hands are not nor-mally camouflaged if arm-and-hand signals areto be used. Remove all jewelry to further reduceshine or reflection.
When camouflage sticks are not issued,use burnt cork, bark, charcoal, lamp black, orlight-colored mud.
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CHAPTER 2
Fighting Positions
GENERAL
When defending, or when temporarily haltedwhile making an attack, you must seek cover fromfire and concealment from observation. Cover andconcealment are best provided by some type of fight-ing position. This may be an existing hole, a hastilydug prone shelter, or a well-prepared position withoverhead cover. The time available for preparationdetermines how well you build your position.
Your fighting position must:
Allow you to fire.
Protect you from observation anddirect and indirect fire.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1COVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2CONCEALMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
SECTORS AND FIELDSOF FIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5HOW TO BUILDFIGHTING POSITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
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COVERThe cover of your fighting position must
be strong enough to protect you from smallarms fire, indirect fire fragments, and the blastwave of nuclear explosions. The position shouldhave frontal cover to give protection from smallarms fire from the front. Natural frontal cover(trees, rocks, logs, and rubble) is best, becauseit is hard for the enemy to detect a position thatis concealed by natural cover. If natural coveris not available, use the dirt taken from the holeyou dig to build additional cover. The cover canbe improved by putting the dirt in sandbagsand then wetting them.
Frontal cover must be:
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Thick enough (at least 46 cm [18 in]of dirt) to stop small arms fire.
High enough to protect your headwhen you fire from behind the cover.
Far enough in front of the hole to allowroom for elbow holes and sector stakesso that you can fire to the oblique.
Long enough to give you cover andhide the muzzle blast of your riflewhen you fire to the oblique.
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Your fighting position should be built sothat, when you come under direct fire from yourfront, you can move behind the frontal coverfor protection and yet fire to the oblique.
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For all-round protection, to include pro-tection from a nuclear attack, your positionshould also have overhead, flank, and rearcover. The dirt from the hole can also be usedto build that cover, which protects againstindirect fire that bursts overhead or to theflanks and rear of the position. Cover alsoguards against the effects of friendly weaponssupporting from the rear, such as small armsfire or discarding sabot rounds fired from tanks.You should leave crawl spaces in the rear cover.This lets you enter and leave the positionwithout exposing yourself to the enemy.
To increase your chances of survival in anuclear attack, you should insure that yourfighting position incorporates the followingconsiderations:
Rounded walls hold up better againsta blast wave than square or rectangu-lar walls, and rounded walls are easierto dig.
Small openings help keep out radia-tion. Most nuclear radiation in the
bottom of the position is scatteredinto the position through the opening.
Deeper fighting positions place agreater thickness of shielding materialor earth between you and the nucleardetonation therefore, deep positionsprovide greater reduction of initialradiation entering the hole. Radiationis reduced by a factor of two for each16 inches of hole depth.
Low body positions put more dirt be-tween you and the source of radiation.Curling upon your side or, better yet,lying on your back with knees drawnup to the chest is best. Tucked-up legsand arms tend to shield the body fromradiation.
Thermal radiation enters your fightingposition by line of sight or by reflec-tion off the sides. Dark and roughmaterials (such as wool blankets andshelter halves) can be used to coverpotential reflecting surfaces.
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CONCEALMENTIf your position can be detected, it can be
hit by enemy fire. If it can be hit, you can bekilled in it. Therefore, your position must be sowell hidden that the enemy will have a hard timedetecting it even after he is in hand-grenaderange.
Natural, undisturbed concealment is betterthan man-made concealment because:
It is already prepared.
It usually will not attract the enemy’sattention.
It need not be replaced.
While digging your position, try not todisturb the natural concealment around it. Putthe unused dirt from the hole behind the posi-tion and camouflage it.
Camouflage material that does not haveto be replaced (rocks, logs, live bushes, andgrass) is best. You should not use so muchcamouflage that your position looks differentfrom its surroundings.
Your position must be concealed fromenemy aircraft as well as from ground troops.If the position is under a bush or tree, or in abuilding, it is less likely to be seen from above.Leaves, straw, or grass placed on the floor ofthe hole will keep the fresh earth from con-trasting with the ground around it. Do not usesticks, as they may stop grenades from rolling—into the grenade sumps.
Man-made concealment must blend withits surroundings so that it cannot be detected.
SECTORS AND FIELDS OF FIRE
The sectors of fire are those areas intowhich you must observe and fire. When yourleader assigns you a fighting position, he shouldalso assign you a primary and a secondarysector of fire. The primary sector of fire is tothe oblique of your position, and the secondarysector of fire is to the front.
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To be able to see and fire into your sectors Cut off lower branches of large, scat-of fire, you may have to clear some vegetationand other obstructions from them. That is calledclearing a field of fire.
When clearing a field of fire:
Do not disclose your position by care-less or too much clearing.
Leave a thin, natural screen of vege-tation to hide your position.
tered trees in sparsely wooded areas.Clear underbrush only where it blocksyour view.Remove cut brush, limbs, and weedsso the enemy will not spot them.Cover cuts on trees and bushes for-ward of your position with mud, dirt,or snow.Leave no trails as clues for the enemy.
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A field of fire to the front is needed out tothe range of your weapon.
A field of fire to the oblique lets you hit fired to the oblique, your fire interlocks withthe attackers from an unexpected angle. It also the fire of other positions. That helps create alets you support the positions next to you. When wall of fire that the enemy must pass through.
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HOW TO BUILDFIGHTING POSITIONS
HASTY FIGHTING POSITION
When there is little time for preparation,build a hasty fighting position. It should bebehind whatever cover is available. It shouldgive frontal cover from enemy direct fire butallow firing to the front and the oblique. Theterm hasty does not mean that there is nodigging.
If there is a natural hole or ditch available,use it. If not, dig a prone shelter that will givesome protection. The hole should be aboutone-half meter (18 to 20 in) deep. Use the dirtfrom the hole to build cover around the edge ofthe position.
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TWO-MAN FIGHTING POSITIONIn the defense, you and another soldier
will build a two-man fighting position. Improveyour position as time permits.
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Keep the hole small. The smaller the hole,the less likely it is that rounds, grenades, orairburst fragments will get into it. It should belarge enough for you and your buddy in fullcombat gear. It should extend beyond the edgesof the frontal cover enough to let you and yourbuddy observe and fire to the front. The holeis usually dug straight, but it may be curvedaround the frontal cover.
Curving the hole around the frontal covermay be necessary in close terrain to allow betterobservation and fire to the front and to the nextflank position. To curve the hole, simply extendone or both ends of it around the frontal cover.
A curved hole lets one of you watch forthe enemy to the front while the other sleeps oreats. Also, you can observe and fire to the frontwhen not being fired at, and move back behindthe frontal cover when under heavy fire.
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On a steep slope, a straight hole may at attackers. You may have to stand up andnot let you stay behind frontal cover and fire expose yourself to the attackers’ fire.
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To avoid such exposure, dig firing portsin each end of the hole. The ground between thefiring ports will then be additional frontal cover.
Dig the hole armpit deep. This lowersyour profile and still lets you fire. Other dimen-sions should be the length of two M16s and thewidth of two bayonets.
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Leave enough distance between the hole can put your elbows when firing.and the frontal cover to make a shelf where you
Dig elbow holes to keep your elbows from If you or your buddy has an automaticmoving around when you fire. Your fire will rifle, dig a small trench to stabilize its bipodthen be more accurate. legs.
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Hammer in sector stakes (right and left)to define your sectors of fire. Sector stakes pre-vent accidental firing into friendly positions.Tree limbs about 46 cm (18 in) long make goodstakes. The stakes must be sturdy and muststick out of the ground high enough to keepyour rifle from being pointed out of your sector.
Hammer in aiming stakes to help you fireinto dangerous approaches at night and at othertimes when visibility is poor. Forked tree limbsabout 30 cm (12 in) long make good stakes. Putone stake near the edge of the hole to rest thestock of your rifle on. Then put another stakeforward of the rear (first) stake toward eachdangerous approach. The forward stakes areused to hold the rifle barrel. To change the direc-tion of your fire from one approach to another,move the rifle barrel from one forward staketo another. Leave the stock of the rifle on therear stake.
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Dig two grenade sumps in the floor (oneon each end). If the enemy throws a grenade intothe hole, kick or throw it into one of the sumps.The sump will absorb most of the blast. Therest of the blast will be directed straight upand out of the hole. Dig the grenade sumps:
As wide as the entrenching tool blade.
At least as deep as an entrenchingtool.
As long as the position floor is wide.
For water drainage, slope the floor of thehole toward the grenade sumps. This may also.cause grenades to roll into the sumps.
Build overhead cover for protectionagainst airburst fragments. Build the overheadcover either across the center of the hole or offto its flanks.
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When center overhead cover would not the frontal and rear cover.make a position easy to detect, build it. Put Put logs 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) in diametersupport logs 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) in diameter side by side across the support logs as the baseon top of each other along the entire length of for the overhead cover.
Put a water-repellent layer, such as This helps keep water from leaking throughC-ration boxes or a poncho, over the base logs. the overhead cover.
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Then put 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of dirton top of the waterproofing material. Finally,mold and camouflage the cover to blend withthe terrain.
When center overhead cover would makeyour position easy to detect, build flank over-head cover. That method gives both you andyour buddy your own overhead cover. However,neither of you can observe or fire into yoursectors of fire while under it.
When flank overhead cover is used, digonly one grenade sump. Dig it in the center ofthe floor against the back wall and slope thefloor toward it.
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Dig out an area for flank overhead coverat each end of the position:
About 30 cm (12 in) deep.
Long enough to extend about 45 cm(18 in) beyond both sides of the hole.About 1 meter (3 ft) wide.
Save the sod for camouflage.
Next, place support logs, about 10 to15 cm (4 to 6 in) in diameter, across the dug-outholes. This will support the rest of the overheadcover material. Put a water-repellent layer, suchas C-ration boxes or a poncho, over the supportlogs. This helps keep water from leaking throughthe overhead cover.
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Then put 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) of dirt ontop of the waterproofing material. Cover thedirt with the sod and camouflage it.
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Then get in the hole and dig out a cave-likecompartment at each end of the position underthe overhead cover. Dig your compartmentlarge enough for you and your equipment. Digyour buddy’s compartment large enough forhim and his equipment.
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In sandy or loose soil, the sides of yourposition may require revetments to keep themfrom collapsing. Use such things as mesh wire,boards, or logs for revetting. Tie anchor string,rope, or wire to the revetting material andstake them down. Drive the stakes into theground. This hides them and keeps them frombeing mistaken for aiming stakes or sectorstakes.
ONE-MAN FIGHTING POSITIONSometimes you may have to build and
occupy a one-man fighting position. Except forits size, a one-man position is built the sameway as a two-man fighting position. The hole
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of a one-man position is only large enough foryou and your equipment.
MACHINE GUN FIGHTING POSITIONIf you are in a machine gun crew, you and
the other members must build a machine gunfighting position. However, before you can startwork on the position, your leader must:
Position the machine gun.
Assign it a primary (and a secondary,if required) sector of fire.
Assign it a principal direction of fire(PDF) or final protective line (FPL).
NOTE: The FPL is a line on which the gunfires grazing fire across the unit’s front.Grazing fire is fired 1 meter above theground. When an FPL is not assigned, aPDF is. A PDF is a direction toward whichthe gun must be pointed when not firingat targets in other parts of its sector.
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The first thing to do when building a with sector stakes, and trace the outline of themachine gun position is to mark the position of hole and its frontal cover on the ground.the tripod legs. Then mark the sectors of fire
For an M60 machine gun position, dig secondary sector of fire side of the position,two firing platforms for the gun. One platform and the machine gun biped is used when firingis on the primary sector of fire side of the posi- on this platform. A trench must be dug for thetion, and the machine gun tripod is used on bipod legs.this platform. The other platform is on the
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The firing platforms reduce the profile ofthe gunner. They also reduce the height of thefrontal cover needed. The firing platforms mustnot, however, be so low that the gun cannot betraversed across its sector of fire.
In some cases, the floor of the platformsmay need to be lined with sandbags. Also,sandbags may be needed on each tripod leg tokeep it from moving.
After the firing platforms have been dug,prepare your range card (app I) and then digyour hole. Dig the hole in the shape of an in-verted T. The top of the T, however, must belonger than the shaft of the T. Dig the holedeep enough to, protect the crew and still letthe gunner fire the machine gun (usually aboutarmpit deep). Use the dirt from the hole to buildfrontal, flank, and rear cover. The frontal coveris built first. When the frontal cover is highand thick enough, use the rest of the dirt tobuild flank and rear cover.
Dig three grenade sumps, one at each endof the T. Dig the grenade sumps like those in atwo-man fighting position.
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Build the overhead cover for the positionlike that for a two-man fighting position.
When an M60 machine gun has only onesector of fire, dig only half of the position (onlyone firing platform).
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When there is a three-man crew for anM60 machine gun, the third man (the ammunit-ion bearer) digs a one-man fighting position.Usually, his position is on the same side of themachine gun as its FPL or PDF. From that posi-tion, he can observe and fire into the machinegun’s secondary sector and, at the same time,see the gunner and assistant gunner. Theammunition bearer’s position is connected tothe machine gun position by a crawl trench sothat he can bring ammunition to the gun orreplace the gunner or the assistant gunner.
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In a caliber .50 machine gun position, digonly one firing platform for the gun. Dig theplatform below ground level, like that for anM60 machine gun except deeper. Because ofthe gun’s vibrations, you may have to line thefloor of the platform with sandbags. Sandbagsmay also be needed on each tripod leg to keep itfrom moving. Also, the walls of the platformmay need revetments.
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After digging the platform, prepare your the machine gun (usually about armpit deep).range card and then dig your hole. The hole Use the dirt from the hole to build frontal,should be the shape of an L, with the platform flank, and rear cover. Build the frontal coverin the center of the L. Dig the hole deep enough first. When that is completed, use the rest ofto protect the crew and still let the gunner fire the dirt to build flank and rear cover.
Dig two grenade sumps, one at both Build the overhead cover like that for aends of the L, like those in a two-man fighting two-man fighting position.position.
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DRAGON FIGHTING POSITION
The Dragon can be fired from eithera one-man or a two-man fighting position.However, you must make some changes in thepositions. Like the machine gun, a Dragonneeds a range card. Prepare it before diggingyour hole.
Dig the hole wide enough to let the muzzleend of the launcher extend 15 cm (6 in) beyondthe front of the hole and the rear of the launcherextend out over the rear of the hole. This is tokeep the backblast out of the hole.
Dig the hole only waist deep on the sidethe Dragon will be fired from. This lets youmove while tracking. Dig the other side of thehole armpit deep. Also, dig a small hole forthe biped legs in front of the hole. Because ofyour height above the ground when firing theDragon, build frontal cover high enough to hideyou and, if feasible, the backblast.
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Build overhead cover on the flanks of theposition. Build it large enough for you, yourequipment, and the Dragon. Overhead cover isnot usually built across the center of the hole ina Dragon position. The center overhead coverwould have to be so high that it would be easyfor the enemy to spot.
weapon. That means checking to see if anyClear the backblast area before firing the
soldiers are in the backblast area or if anywalls, large trees, or other things are in a posi-tion to deflect the backblast. If the weapon isto be fired from a two-man fighting position,make sure that the other soldier in the hole isnot in the backblast area.
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90-MM RECOILLESS RIFLEFIGHTING POSITION
Build a 90-mm recoilless rifle (RCLR)position like a Dragon position, but dig the holea little longer when firing to the right side ofthe frontal cover. That lets the assistant gunnerwork from the right side of the RCLR. Prepareyour range card before digging the hole. Also,clear the backblast area before firing the RCLR.
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LIGHT ANTITANK WEAPON (M72A2)AND FLAME ASSAULT
SHOULDER WEAPON (FLASH)FIGHTING POSITION
There is no special fighting position forthe M72A2 or FLASH. They can be fired fromany fighting position. Before firing any ofthese weapons, clear the backblast area.
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TRENCHES
When there is time, dig trenches to connectfighting positions. Trenches provide coveredroutes between positions. The depth of thetrenches depends on the time and type of helpand equipment available to dig them. Withoutengineer help, crawl trenches about 1 meter(3 feet) deep and two thirds of a meter (2 feet)wide are probably all that can be dug. Dig thetrenches zigzagged so that the enemy will notbe able to fire down a long section if he getsinto the trench, and so that shrapnel from shellbursts will lose some of its effectiveness.
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STORAGE COMPARTMENTS
A fighting position should have a place for the back wall. The size of the compartmentstoring equipment and ammunition. When your depends on the amount of equipment andposition has overhead cover across its center, ammunition to be stored.dig a storage compartment in the bottom of
When your position has flanked overhead head cover as storage compartments.cover, use the compartments dug for the over-
If you dig your storage compartment largeenough, it may provide extra space in which
you can stretch out while sleeping. This letsyou sleep inside the position and under cover.
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CHAPTER 3
Movement
GENERAL
Normally, you will spend more time moving thanfighting. You must use proper movement techniquesto avoid contact with the enemy when you are notprepared for contact.
The fundamentals of movement discussed in thischapter provide techniques that all soldiers shouldlearn. These techniques should be practiced untilthey become second nature.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2IMMEDIATE ACTIONSWHILE MOVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5MOVING WITHIN A TEAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8FIRE AND MOVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9MOVING WITH TANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
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MOVEMENT TECHNIQUESYour unit’s ability to move depends on
your movement skills and those of your fellowsoldiers. Use the following techniques to avoidbeing seen or heard by the enemy:
Camouflage yourself and your equip-ment.
Tape your dog tags together and tothe chain so they cannot slide or rattle.Tape or pad the parts of your weaponand equipment that rattle or are soloose that they may snag (the tape orpadding must not interfere with theoperation of the weapon or equip-ment). Jump up and down and listenfor rattles.
Wear soft, well-fitting clothes.
Do not carry unnecessary equipment.Move from covered position to reveredposition (taking no longer than 3 to 5seconds between positions).
Stop, look, and listen before moving.Look for your next position beforeleaving a position.
Look for covered and concealed routeson which to move.
Change direction slightly from time totime when moving through tall grass.
Stop, look, and listen when birds oranimals are alarmed (the enemy maybe nearby).
Use battlefield noises, such as weaponnoises, to conceal movement noises.
Cross roads and trails at places thathave the most cover and concealment(large culverts, low spots, curves, orbridges).
Avoid steep slopes and places withloose dirt or stones.
Avoid cleared, open areas and tops ofhills and ridges.
METHODS OF MOVEMENTIn addition to walking, you may move in
one of three other methods — low crawl, highcrawl, or rush.
The low crawl gives you the lowest silhou-ette. Use it to cross places where the conceal-
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ment is very low and enemy fire or observationprevents you from getting up. Keep your bodyflat against the ground. With your firing hand,grasp your weapon sling at the upper sling—swivel. Let the front handguard rest on yourforearm (keeping the muzzle off the ground),and let the weapon butt drag on the ground.
To move, push your arms forward and pullyour firing side leg forward. Then pull with yourarms and push with your leg. Continue thisthroughout the move.
The high crawl lets you move faster thanthe low crawl and still gives you a low silhouette.Use this crawl when there is good concealmentbut enemy fire prevents you from getting up.Keep your body off the ground and resting onyour forearms and lower legs. Cradle yourweapon in your arms and keep its muzzle offthe ground. Keep your knees well behind yourbuttocks so your body will stay low.
To move, alternately advance your rightelbow and left knee, then your left elbow andright knee.
The rush is the fastest way to move fromone position to another. Each rush should lastfrom 3 to 5 seconds. The rushes are kept shortto keep enemy machine gunners or riflemenfrom tracking you. However, do not stop and hitthe ground in the open just because 5 secondshave passed. Always try to hit the groundbehind some cover. Before moving, pick outyour next covered and concealed position andthe best route to it.
Make your move from the prone positionas follows:
Slowly raise your head and pick yournext position and the route to it.
Slowly lower your head.
Draw your arms into your body (keep-ing your elbows in).
Pull your right leg forward.
Raise your body by straightening yourarms.
Get up quickly.
Run to the next position.
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When you are ready to stop moving, dothe following:
Plant both of your feet.
Drop to your knees (at the same timeslide a hand to the butt of your rifle).
Fall forward, breaking the fall withthe butt of the rifle.
Go to a prone firing position.
If you have been firing from one positionfor some time, the enemy may have spotted youand may be waiting for you to come up frombehind cover. So, before rushing forward, rollor crawl a short distance from your position.By coming up from another spot, you may foolan enemy who is aiming at one spot, waiting foryou to rise.
When the route to your next position isthrough an open area, rush by zigzagging. Ifnecessary, hit the ground, roll right or left,then rush again.
MOVING WITH STEALTH
Moving with stealth means movingquietly, slowly, and carefully. This requiresgreat patience.
To move with stealth, use the followingtechniques:
Hold your rifle at port arms (readyposition).
Make your footing sure and solid bykeeping your body’s weight on thefoot on the ground while stepping.
Raise the moving leg high to clearbrush or grass.
Gently let the moving foot down toefirst, with your body’s weight on therear leg.
Lower the heel of the moving footafter the toe is in a solid place.
Shift your body’s weight and balanceto the forward foot before moving therear foot.
Take short steps to help maintainbalance.
At night, and when moving through densevegetation, avoid making noise. Hold yourweapon with one hand, and keep the other handforward, feeling for obstructions.
When going into a prone position, use thefollowing techniques:
Hold your rifle with one hand andcrouch slowly.
Feel for the ground with your freehand to make sure it is clear of mines,tripwires, and other hazards.
Lower your knees, one at a time, untilyour body’s weight is on both kneesand your free hand.
Shift your weight to your free handand opposite knee.
Raise your free leg up and back, andlower it gently to that side.
Move the other leg into position thesame way.
Roll quietly into a prone position.
Use the following techniques whencrawling:
Crawl on your hands and knees.Hold your rifle in your firing hand.Use your nonfiring hand to feel forand make clear spots for your handsand knees to move to.
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Move your hands and knees to thosespots, and put them down softly.
IMMEDIATE ACTIONSWHILE MOVING
This section furnishes guidance for theimmediate actions you should take when react-ing to enemy indirect fire and flares.
REACTING TO INDIRECT FIREIf you come under indirect fire while
moving, quickly look to your leader for orders.He will either tell you to run out of the impactarea in a certain direction or will tell you tofollow him. If you cannot see your leader, butcan see other team members, follow them. Ifalone, or if you cannot see your leader or theother team members, run out of the area in adirection away from the incoming fire.
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It is hard to move quickly on rough ter-rain, but the terrain may provide good cover.In such terrain, it may be best to take coverand wait for flares to burn out. After they burnout, move out of the area quickly.
REACTING TO GROUND FLARESThe enemy puts out ground flares as
warning devices. He sets them off himself orattaches tripwires to them for you to trip onand set them off. He usually puts the flares inplaces he can watch.
If you are caught in the light of a groundflare, move quickly out of the lighted area. Theenemy will know where the ground flare is andwill be ready to fire into that area. Move wellaway from the lighted area. While moving outof the area, look for other team members. Try tofollow or join them to keep the team together.
REACTING TO AERIAL FLARES
The enemy uses aerial flares to light upvital areas. They can be set off like ground
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flares; fired from hand projectors, grenadelaunchers, mortars, and artillery; or droppedfrom aircraft.
If you hear the firing of an aerial flarewhile you are moving, hit the ground (behindcover if possible) while the flare is rising andbefore it bursts and illuminates.
If moving where it is easy to blend withthe background (such as in a forest) and youare caught in the light of an aerial flare, freezein place until the flare burns out.
If you are caught in the light of an aerialflare while moving in an open area, immediatelycrouch low or lie down.
If you are crossing an obstacle, such as abarbed-wire fence or a wall, and get caught inthe light of an aerial flare, crouch low and staydown until the flare burns out.
The sudden light of a bursting flare maytemporarily blind both you and the enemy.When the enemy uses a flare to spot you, hespoils his own night vision. To protect yournight vision, close one eye while the flare isburning. When the flare burns out, the eye thatwas closed will still have its night vision.
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MOVING WITHIN A TEAM
You will usually move as a member of a wedge, determined by the type weapon heteam. Small teams, such as infantry fire teams, carries. That position, however, may be changednormally move in a wedge formation. Each by the team leader to meet the situation. Thesoldier in the team has a set position in the normal distance between soldiers is 10 meters.
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You may have to make a temporary changein the wedge formation when moving throughclose terrain. The soldiers in the sides of thewedge close into a single file when moving inthick brush or through a narrow pass. Afterpassing through such an area, they shouldspread out, again forming the wedge. Youshould not wait for orders to change the for-mation or the interval. You should changeautomatically and stay in visual contact withthe other team members and the team leader.
The team leader leads by setting theexample. His standing order is, FOLLOW MEAND DO AS I DO. When he moves to the left,you should move to the left. When he getsdown, you should get down. When he fires, youshould fire.
When visibility is limited, control duringmovement may become difficult. Two l-inchhorizontal strips of luminous tape, sewn directlyon the rear of the helmet camouflage band witha l-inch space between them, are a device fornight identification.
Night identification for your patrol capcould be two l-inch by 1/2-inch strips of luminoustape sewn vertically, directly on the rear of thecap. They should be centered, with the bottomedge of each tape even with the bottom edge ofthe cap and with a l-inch space betweentwo tapes.
FIRE AND MOVEMENT
When a unit makes contact with
the
theenemy, it normally starts firing at and movingtoward the enemy. Sometimes the unit maymove away from the enemy. That technique iscalled fire and movement. It is conducted eitherto close with and destroy the enemy, or to moveaway from the enemy so as to break contactwith him.
The firing and moving take place at thesame time. There is a fire element and a move-ment element. These elements may be singlesoldiers, buddy teams, fire teams, or squads.Regardless of the size of the elements, the actionis still fire and movement.
The fire element covers the move of themovement element by firing at the enemy.This helps keep the enemy from firing backat the movement element.
The movement element moves either toclose with the enemy or to reach a better posi-tion from which to fire at him. The movementelement should not move until the fire elementis firing.
Depending on the distance to the enemyposition and on the available cover, the fireelement and the movement element switch rolesas needed to keep moving.
Before the movement element movesbeyond the supporting range of the fire element(the distance within which the weapons of thefire element can fire and support the movement
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element), it should take a position from whichit can fire at the enemy. The movement elementthen becomes the next fire element and the fireelement becomes the next movement element.
If your team makes contact, your teamleader should tell you to fire or to move. Heshould also tell you where to fire from, what tofire at, or where to move to. When moving, usethe low crawl, high crawl, or rush.
MOVING WITH TANKS
You will often have to move with tanks.When you must move as fast as the tanks, youshould ride on them. However, riding on a tankmakes you vulnerable to all types of fire. It alsoreduces the tank’s maneuverability and theability to traverse its turret. If contact is made
with the enemy, you must dismount from thetank at once.
To mount a tank, first get permission fromthe tank commander. Then mount from thetank’s right front, not its left side where the coaxmachinegun is mounted. Once mounted, move tothe rear deck, stand, and hold on to the bustlerack. If there is not enough room for you on therear deck, you may have to stand beside theturret and hold onto a hatch or hatch opening.
When riding on a tank, be alert for treesthat may knock you off and obstacles that maycause the tank to turn suddenly. Also be alertfor enemy troops that may cause the tank totravers its turret quickly and fire.
Riding on a tank is always hazardous andshould be done only when the risks of ridingare outweighed by the advantages of riding.
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CHAPTER 4
Observation
GENERAL
During all types of operations, you will be look-ing for the enemy. However, there will be times whenyou will be posted in an observation post (OP) towatch for enemy activity.
An OP is a position from which you watch anassigned sector of observation and report all activityseen or heard in your sector. Chapter 6 providesguidance on collecting and reporting informationlearned by observation.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1HOW TO OBSERVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2THINGS TO LOOKAND LISTEN FOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4RANGE ESTIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
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HOW TO OBSERVE
This section discusses the techniques youwill use for day and night observation.
DAY OBSERVATIONIn daylight, use the visual search tech-
nique to search terrain. Do this in two steps:
Step 1. Make a quick, overall searchof the entire sector for obvious tar-gets and unnatural colors, outlines, ormovements. Look first at the area justin front of your position, and thenquickly scan the entire area out to themaximum range you want to observe.If the sector is wide, divide it andsearch each subsector as in Step 2.
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Step 2. Observe overlapping, 50-meter-wide strips, alternating from left toright and right to left, until you havesearched the entire sector. When yousee a suspicious spot, search it well.
NIGHT OBSERVATION
At night, use anyone of three night obser-vation techniques to search terrain.
Dark Adaptation Technique. First, let youreyes become adjusted to the darkness. Do soby staying either in a dark area for about 30minutes, or in a red-lighted area for about20 minutes followed by about 10 minutes in adark area. The red-lighted method may save
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time by allowing you to get orders, check equip-ment, or do some other job before moving intodarkness.Off-Center Vision Technique. Focus your atten-tion on an object but look slightly away fromit. The object will be more visible this waythan when you look straight at it.
Scanning Technique. Again focus your atten-tion on an object, but do not look directly atit. Now move your eyes in short, abrupt, andirregular movements around it, pausing a fewseconds after each move.
THINGS TO LOOK ANDLISTEN FOR
In trying to find the enemy in a sectorof observation, look and listen for these signsof his presence:
Sounds.
Dust or vehicle exhaust.
Movement.
Positions.
Outlines or shadows.
Shine or glare.
Contrasting colors.
SOUNDS
Listen for such things as footsteps, limbsor sticks breaking, leaves rustling, men cough-ing, and equipment or vehicle sounds. Thesemay be hard to distinguish from other battle-field and animal sounds.
Sounds can alert you to the direction orgeneral location of the enemy. They may notpinpoint his exact location. However, if a soundalerts you, you are more apt to spot the enemy.
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DUST OR VEHICLE EXHAUST
Moving foot soldiers or vehicles oftenraise dust. Vehicle exhaust smoke also rises.You can spot dust and vehicle smoke at longranges.
MOVEMENT
Look for movement in yourthe visual search technique.
POSITIONS
sector. Use
Look for enemy positions in obviousplaces, such as road junctions, hilltops, andlone buildings. Also look at areas with coverand concealment, such as woods and draws.
OUTLINES OR SHADOWS
Look for outlines or shadows of enemysoldiers, equipment, vehicles, or guns. Theenemy may use the shadows of trees or buildingsto hide himself and his equipment. Look forhim in shaded areas.
SHINE OR GLARE
In darkness, look for light sources such asburning cigarettes, headlights, or flashlights.In daylight, look for reflected light or glarefrom smooth, polished surfaces such as wind-shields, headlights, mess gear, watch crystals,or uncamouflaged skin.
CONTRASTING COLORS
Look for contrasts between backgroundcolor and the colors of uniforms, equipment,and skin. For example, a soldier’s T-shirt ortowel may contrast with its background.
RANGE ESTIMATION
You must often estimate ranges. Yourestimates will be easier to make and more accu-rate if you use the 100-meter unit-of-measure
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method, the appearance-of-objects method,or the flash-and-sound method. This sectiondiscusses the use of these methods.
1OO-METER UNIT-OF-MEASUREMETHOD (DAYTIME)
Picture a distance of 100 meters on theground. For ranges up to 500 meters, count thenumber of 100-meter lengths between the twopoints you want to measure. Beyond 500 meters,pick a point halfway to the target, count thenumber of 100-meter lengths to the halfwaypoint, and then double that number to get therange to the target.
Sloping ground changes the appearance ofl00-meter lengths. Ground that slopes upwardmakes them look longer than 100 meters, andground that slopes downward makes them lookshorter than 100 meters. Thus, the tendency isto underestimate 100-meter lengths on upslopesand overestimate them on downslopes.
The accuracy of the 100-meter methoddepends on how much ground is visible. This ismost true at long ranges. If a target is at arange of 500 meters or more, and you can onlysee part of the ground between yourself andthe target, it is hard to use this method withaccuracy.
APPEARANCE-OF-OBJECTS METHOD(DAYTIME)
This method is a way to estimate rangeby the apparent size and detail of an object. Itis a common method that is used in everydaylife. For example, a motorist trying to passanother car judges the distance of oncomingcars based on their apparent size. He is notinterested in exact distances, but only in havingenough room to safely pass the car in frontof him. Suppose he knows that at a distance of1 mile an oncoming car appears to be 1 inchwide and 2 inches high, with a half inch between
the headlights. Then, any time he sees anoncoming car that fits those dimensions, heknows it is about 1 mile away.
The same technique can be used to esti-mate ranges on the battlefield. If you know theapparent size and detail of troops and equip-ment at known ranges, then you can comparethose characteristics to similar objects atunknown ranges. When the characteristicsmatch, the range does also.
To use the appearance-of-objects method,you must be familiar with characteristic detailsof objects as they appear at various ranges.As you must be able to see those details tomake the method work, anything that limitsvisibility (such as weather, smoke, or darkness)will limit the effectiveness of this method.
COMBINATION OF METHODSBattlefield conditions are not always
ideal for estimating ranges. If the terrain limitsthe use of the 100-meter unit-of-measuremethod, and poor visibility limits the use of theappearance-of-objects method, you may haveto use a combination of methods. For example,if you cannot see all of the terrain out to thetarget, you can still estimate distance from theapparent size and detail of the target itself.A haze may obscure the target details, but youmay still be able to judge its size or use the100-meter method. By using either one or bothof the methods, you should arrive at a figureclose to the true range.
FLASH-AND-SOUND METHOD(BEST AT NIGHT)
Sound travels through air at 300 meters(1,100 feet) per second. That makes it possibleto estimate distance if you can both see andhear a sound-producing action.
When you see the flash or smoke of aweapon, or the dust it raises, immediately startcounting. Stop counting when you hear the
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sound associated with the action seen. The meters. If you stop at three, the distance isnumber at which you stop should be multi- about 900 meters. When you must count higherplied by three. This gives you the approximate than nine, start over again after countingdistance to the weapon in hundreds of meters. nine (counting higher numbers throws theIf you stop at one, the distance is about 300 timing off).
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CHAPTER 5
Nuclear, Biological, And Chemical Warfare
GENERAL
Nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weaponscan cause casualties, destroy or disable equipment,restrict the use of terrain, and disrupt operations.You must be prepared to fight and survive in anenvironment where NBC weapons have been used.
This chapter prescribes active and passive pro-tection measures that will avoid or reduce the effectsof NBC weapons.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1NUCLEAR WEAPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICALWEAPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
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NUCLEAR WEAPONS
This section describes the characteristicsof nuclear explosions and their effects on sol-diers, equipment, and supplies, and gives hastymeasures for protection against nuclear attacks.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEAREXPLOSIONS
The four main characteristics of nuclearexplosions are:
BLAST (an intense shock wave).THERMAL RADIATION (heat andlight).NUCLEAR RADIATION (radioactivematerial).EMP (electrical power surge).
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Blast produces an intense shockwave andhigh winds that create flying debris. It maycollapse shelters and some fighting positions.
Thermal radiation causes burns and startsfires. The bright flash at the time of the ex-plosion can cause a temporary loss of visionor permanent eye damage if you look at theexplosion, especially at night.
Nuclear radiation can cause casualtiesand delay movements. It may last for days andcover large areas of terrain. It occurs in twostages: initial and residual.
Initial radiation is emitted directlyfrom the fireball in the first minuteafter the explosion. It travels at thespeed of light along straight lines andhas high penetrating power.
Residual radiation lingers after thefirst minute. It comes from the radio-active material originally in a nuclearweapon or from material, such as soiland equipment, made radioactive bythe nuclear explosion.
EMP is a massive surge of electricalpower. It is created the instant a nucleardetonation occurs and is transmitted at thespeed of light in all directions. It can damagesolid-state components of electrical equipment(radios, radars, computers, vehicles) andweapon systems (TOW and Dragon). Equip-ment can be protected by disconnecting it fromits power source and placing it in or behindsome type of shielding material (armored vehi-cle or dirt wall) out of the line of sight to theburst. If no warning is received prior to adetonation, there is no effective means ofprotecting operating equipment.
EFFECTS ON SOLDIERS
The exposure of the human body to nuclearradiation causes damage to the cells in all.
parts of the body. This damage is the cause of“radiation sickness.” The severity of this sick-ness depends on the radiation dose received,the length of exposure, and the condition of thebody at the time. The early symptoms of radia-tion sickness will usually appear 1 to 6 hoursafter exposure. Those symptoms may includeheadache, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.Early symptoms may then be followed by alatent period in which the symptoms disappear.There is no first aid for you once you have beenexposed to nuclear radiation. The only help isto get as comfortable as possible while under-going the early symptoms.
If the radiation dose was small, the symp-toms, if any, will probably go away and notrecur. If the symptoms recur after a latentperiod, you should go to an aid station.
EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENTAND SUPPLIES
Blast can crush sealed or partly sealedobjects like food cans, barrels, fuel tanks,and helicopters. Rubble from buildings beingknocked down can bury supplies and equipment.
Heat can ignite dry wood, fuel, tar-paulins, and other flammable material. Lightcan damage eyesight.
Nuclear radiation can contaminate foodand water.
PROTECTION AGAINSTNUCLEAR ATTACKS
The best hasty protection against a nuclearattack is to take cover behind a hill or in a fight-ing position, culvert, or ditch. If caught in theopen, drop flat on the ground at once and closeyour eyes. Cover exposed skin and keep yourweapon under your body to avoid loss. If youknow the direction of the burst, drop with yourhead away from the burst. Stay down until theblast wave passes, then check for injuries andequipment damage and prepare to continue themission. See chapter 2 for additional considera-tions in the building of your fighting positions.
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Radiation is the only direct nuclear effectthat lingers after the explosion. As it cannot bedetected by the senses, use radiac equipmentto detect its presence. Procedures for detectioncan be found in FM 3-12 and FM 21-40. Whenfeasible, move out of the contaminated area.
If your unit must stay in the contaminatedarea, it is best to stay in a dug-in position withoverhead cover. When time does not permit con-structing a well-prepared overhead cover, use a
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poncho. Stay under cover. When the fallout hasfinished falling, brush contamination off your-self and your equipment. Wash yourself andyour equipment as soon as the mission permits.
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICALWEAPONS
Enemy forces have both chemical andbiological weapons. These weapons may be usedseparately or together, with or without nuclearweapons. Regardless of how they are used, youmust be able to survive their effects and con-tinue your mission.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICALAND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
AND TOXINS
Chemical agents are like poisonous pesti-cides, but are far more powerful. They are meantto kill or injure you and are released to coverlarge areas. They may be released as gases,liquids, or sprays. The enemy may use a mixtureof agents to cause confusion and casualties.Artillery, mortars, rockets, missiles, aircraft,bombs, and land mines can deliver the agents.
Biological agents are disease-producinggerms. They create a disease hazard where noneexists naturally. They may be dispersed assprays by generators, or delivered by explosives,bomblets, missiles, and aircraft. They may alsobe spread by the release of germ-carrying flies,mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks. The US Army doesnot employ these agents, but other armies may.
Toxins are poisonous substances producedby living things (such as snake venom). Toxinsare not living things and in this sense arechemicals. They would be used in combat inthe same way as chemical-warfare agents, andthey may disable or kill without warning.
EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT
Chemical and biological agents have littledirect effect on equipment. Liquid chemicalagents on your equipment can restrict its useuntil it is decontaminated.
EFFECTS ON TERRAINLiquid chemical agents may restrict the
use of terrain and buildings.
It is difficult to decontaminate terrain.When time permits, it is best to wait for weatherto decontaminate terrain naturally. Contami-nated areas should be either bypassed or, whenprotective equipment is worn, crossed. Aftercrossing a contaminated area, decontaminateyourself and your equipment as soon as thesituation permits.
EFFECTS ON SOLDIERS
Chemical and biological agents may enteryour body through your eyes, nose, mouth, orskin. They can disable or kill.
Liquid agents may be dispersed on you,your equipment, the terrain, and foliage. Theagents may linger for hours or days and en-danger you when you are unprotected.
Biological agents are hard to detect inearly stages of use. If you find out or suspectthat the enemy is using biological agents, reportit to your leader.
The M8 automatic chemical-agent alarmcan detect the presence of chemical agents inthe air and produce an audible or visual signal.It will detect nerve, blood, and choking agents.The M43A1 detects only nerve-agent vapor.The use and maintenance of the M8 alarm is theresponsibility of the unit NBC defense team.
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DETECTION OF CHEMICALAND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
tasteless, and invisible in battlefield concentra-tions. However, you can detect chemical agents
Your senses may not detect chemical by using the chemical-agent alarms and detec-agents, as most agents are odorless, colorless, tion kits found in each company (FM 21-40).
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The ABC-M8 chemical-agent detectorpaper comes in a booklet of 25 sheets. It is apart of the M256 chemical-agent detector kit.The paper sheets turn dark green, yellow, orred on contact with liquid V-type nerve agents,G-type nerve agents, or blister (mustard)agents, respectively they do not detect vapor,The test is not always reliable on porous materialsuch as wood or rubber. Many substances(including some solvents and decontaminants)can cause a color change in the paper, so such achange indicates only that a chemical agent maybe present. Positive detector-paper tests shouldbe verified by testing with chemical-agentdetector kits.
The M256 chemical-agent detector kit isissued to squads. It is used to detect dangerousvapor concentrations of nerve, blister, or bloodagents. It should be used when the platoon
suspected.
or company is under chemical attack, whena chemical attack is reported to be likely,or when the presence of a chemical agent is
ALARMSIf you recognize or suspect a chemical or
biological attack, STOP BREATHING, PUTYOUR MASK ON, CLEAR AND CHECK IT,AND GIVE THE ALARM set by your unit’sSOP.
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PROTECTION AGAINST CHEMICALAND BIOLOGICAL ATTACKS
Protective Equipment. Your main protectionagainst a CB attack is your protective mask.It keeps you from inhaling chemical or bio-logical agents. Additionally, protective clothingwill provide protection from liquid agents. Pro-tective clothing includes the mask with hood,the chemical protective suit (overgarment),boots, and gloves.
Protection from Insects. The duty uniform andgloves protect you against bites from insectssuch as mosquitoes and ticks that may carrydisease-causing germs. Keep your clothesbuttoned and your trouser legs tucked into yourboots. Covering the skin reduces the chancesof an agent entering the body through cuts andscratches. It also keeps disease-carrying insectsfrom reaching the skin. Insect repellents andinsecticides are effective against most disease-carrying insects. High standards of sanitationalso protect against some insects.
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Mission-Oriented Protective Posture. MOPP isa flexible system of protection against chemicalagents. Your leader will specify the level ofMOPP based on the chemical threat, workrate,and temperature prior to performing a mission.Later, he may direct a change in MOPP accord-ing to the changing situation.
The MOPP level determines what equip-ment you must wear and what you must carry.The standard MOPP levels are shown in thefollowing chart.
The best local defense against biolog-ical warfare is strict preventive medical andsanitation measures and high standards ofpersonal hygiene.
Chemical Attack. When an individual displaysthe symptoms of chemical-agent poisoning, firstaid must be given immediately to save his life.
Nerve agents. The symptoms of nerve-agent poisoning are difficult breathing, drooling,nausea, vomiting, convulsions, and sometimesdim vision. The use of atropine autoinjectorsand artificial respiration are first-aid measuresfor nerve-agent poisoning. If you have such
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symptoms, inject yourself with one injector inthe thigh. If symptoms persist, use another in-jector. The interval between injections is 15minutes. If you are unable to treat yourself, abuddy must do it for you. He will inject threeinjectors at once and administer artificialrespiration, if necessary. No more than threeatropine autoinjectors will be given. Seekmedical aid quickly.
Blister agents. The symptoms of blister-agent poisoning are burning sensations in theskin, eyes, and nose. The symptoms may beimmediate or delayed for several hours or days,depending on the type of agent used. If blisteragents come in contact with the eyes or skin,decontaminate the areas at once. Decontami-nate the eyes by flushing them repeatedly withplain water. Remove liquid blister agents fromthe skin by using the items of the M258A1 kit.If burns or blisters develop on the skin, coverthem with sterile gauze or a clean cloth to pre-vent infection. Seek medical aid quickly.
Blood agents. The symptoms of blood-agent poisoning are nausea, dizziness, throbbingheadache, skin/lips red or pink, convulsions,and coma. If those symptoms appear, hold twocrushed ampules of amyl nitrite to the victim’snose. If in a contaminated area and the victimis wearing the protective mask, insert thecrushed ampules inside the protective mask. Ifsymptoms persist, repeat the treatment, usingtwo crushed ampules about every 4 or 5 minutesuntil normal breathing returns or until eightampules have been used. Breathing may becomedifficult or stop. Seek medical aid quickly.
Choking agents. The symptoms of choking-agent poisoning are coughing, choking, tight-ness of the chest, nausea, headache, and water-ing of the eyes. If you have these symptoms,stay quiet and comfortable, but seek medicalaid quickly.
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CHEMICAL-AGENT DECONTAMINATIONOF SOLDIERS AND INDIVIDUAL
EQUIPMENTUse the M258A1 skin decontaminating kit
to decontaminate your skim individual weapons,and equipment. Instructions for the use of thekit are printed on its container. This kit is es-pecially made for skin decontamination however,you may use it to decontaminate some personalequipment such as your rifle, mask, and gloves.
The container for the M258A1 kit is aplastic waterproof case with a metal strap hookfor attaching to clothing or equipment. It con-tains three Decon 1 wipes and three Decon 2wipes, sealed in tear-away envelopes. EachDecon 1 wipe packet has a tab attached fornight identification and to assist in removalfrom the case.
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CHEMICAL-AGENT DECONTAMINATIONOF UNIT EQUIPMENT
Decontaminate key weapons with DS2decontaminating solution, soapy water, sol-vents, or slurry. After decontamination, dis-assemble weapons and wash, rinse, and oilthem to prevent corrosion. Decontaminateammunition with DS2 solution, wipe withgasoline-soaked rags, and then dry it. If DS2 isnot available, wash ammunition in cool, soapywater, then dry it thoroughly.
Decontaminate optical instruments byblotting them with rags, wiping with lenscleaning solvent, and then letting them dry.
Decontaminate communication equipmentby airing, weathering, or hot air (if available).
BIOLOGICAL-AGENTDECONTAMINATION
Decontaminate your body by showeringwith soap and hot water. Use germicidal soapif available. Clean your nails thoroughly andscrub the hairy parts of your body. Wash con-taminated clothing in hot, soapy water if itcannot be sent to a field laundry for decontami-nation. Cotton items may be boiled.
Wash vehicles with soapy water (preferably hot). If possible, steam-clean them usingdetergent.
Wash equipment in hot, soapy water andlet it air dry.
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CHAPTER 6
Combat Intelligence And Counterintelligence
GENERAL
Using the observation techniques discussed inchapter 4, you must collect and report informationabout the enemy, terrain, and weather. Thatinformation becomes combat intelligence after it isinterpreted. Your leaders need combat intelligenceto help them plan operations. Your life and the livesof your fellow soldiers could depend on reportingwhat you see, hear, and smell.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1SOURCES OF INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2WHAT TO REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2COUNTERINTELLIGENCEMEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
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You must also act to keep the enemy fromgaining information about US operations. Thataction, called counterintelligence, involves:
Denying the enemy information aboutUS plans, intentions, and. activities.
Detecting the enemy’s efforts to getinformation.
Deceiving the enemy as to US plansand intentions.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Commanders get information from manyagencies, but you are their best agency. You cancollect information from the following sources
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Prisoners of war (PW) are an imme-diate source of information. Turncaptured soldiers over to your leaderquickly. Also, tell him anything youlearn from them.
Captured documents may containvaluable information about present orfuture enemy operations. Give suchdocuments to your leader quickly.
Enemy activity (the things the enemyis doing) often indicates what he isgoing to do. Report everything yousee the enemy do. Some things thatmay not seem important to you maybe important to your commander.
Local civilians often have informationabout the enemy, terrain, and weatherin an area. Report any informationgained from civilians. However, youcannot be sure which side the civiliansare trying to help, so be careful whenacting on information obtained fromthem. Try to confirm that informationby some other means.
WHAT TO REPORT
Report all information about the enemy toyour leader quickly, accurately, and completely.Such reports should answer the questionsWHO? WHAT? WHERE? after “WHEN?”It is best to use the “SALUTE” format (size,activity, location, unit, time, and equipment)when reporting. To help you remember details,make notes and draw sketches.
Size. Report the number of soldiers and vehi-cles you saw. For example, report ‘‘ 10 enemyinfantrymen” (not “a rifle squad”) or ‘‘3 enemytanks” (not “an enemy tank platoon”).
Activity. Report what you saw the enemy doing.For example, “emplacing mines in the road.”
Location. Report where you saw the enemy. Ifyou have a map, try to give an eight-digit co-ordinate, such as “GL 874461.” If you do nothave a map, relate the location to some keyterrain, such as “on the Harm Road, 300 meterssouth of the Ken River Bridge.”
Unit. Report the enemy’s unit. If the unit isnot known, report any distinctive features,such as bumper markings on trucks, or typeof headgear. Some armies have distinctiveuniforms and headgear, or colored tabs on their
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uniforms, to identify types of units. A unit’saction may also indicate its type. The kind ofequipment observed may be peculiar to a certaintype of unit. For example, a BRDM may indi-cate a reconnaissance unit.
Time. Report the time you saw the enemyactivity, not the time you report it. Alwaysreport local or Zulu (Z) time.
Equipment. Report all of the equipment theenemy is wearing or using. If you do not recog-nize an item of equipment or a type of vehicle,sketch it and submit the sketch with the report.The following is an example of a SALUTEreport.
FM: 1st Plt, C Co, 2d Bn, 1/73 Inf.TO S2, 2d Bn, 1/73 Inf.
Combat OP sighted four enemy tanks movingwest along secondary road at grid coordinatesNB613397 at 241730Z. Tanks traveling atapproximately 5 kilometers per hour. Hatcheswere open and visible enemy personnel werewearing protective masks.
PRISONERS OF WAR ANDCAPTURED DOCUMENTS
PWs are a good source of information.They must be handled without breaking inter-national law and without losing a chance togain intelligence.
Treat PWs humanely. Do not harm them,either physically or mentally. The senior soldierpresent is responsible for their care. If PWscannot be evacuated in a reasonable time, givethem food, water, and first aid. Do not givethem cigarettes, candy, or other comfort items.PWs who receive favors or are mistreated arepoor interrogation subjects.
HANDLING PWs
In handling PWs, follow the five S’s:
1. Search PWs as soon as they are cap-tured. Take their weapons and papers,except identification papers and pro-tective masks. Give them a writtenreceipt for any personal property anddocuments taken. Tag documents andpersonal property to show which PWhad them.
When searching a PW, have one manguard him while another searches him.(A searcher must not get between a PWand the guard.) To search a PW, havehim spread-eagle against a tree or wall,or get into a pushup position with hisknees on the ground. Search him, hisequipment, his clothing.
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2. Segregate PWs into groups by sexand into subgroups such as enlistedpersonnel, civilians, and political figures.This keeps the leaders from promotingescape efforts. Keep the groups segre-gated as you move them to the rear.
3. Silence PWs and do not let them talkto each other. This keeps them fromplanning escape and cautioning eachother on security. Report anything aPW says or does.
4. Speed PWs to the rear. Turn themover to your leader. He will assemblethem and move them to the rear forquestioning by the S2.
5. Safeguard PWs when taking them tothe rear. Do not let anyone abuse them.Watch out for escape attempts. Do notlet PWs bunch up, spread out too far,or start diversions. Such conditionsmay create a chance for escape.
If a PW is wounded and cannot beevacuated through normal channels,turn him over to an aidman to be evacu-ated through medical channels.
Before evacuating a PW, attach a tagto him. You can make these tags your-self. The format for the tags is given inthe following illustration. The battalionS2 should be able to supply these tags.
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HANDLING CAPTURED DOCUMENTSAND EQUIPMENT
Enemy documents and equipment aregood sources of information. Documents maybe official (maps, orders, records, photos) orpersonal (letters or diaries).
If such items are not handled properly,the information in them may become lost oroutdated. Give them to your leader quickly.Tag each item using the form shown above.If the item was found on a PW, put that PW’sname on the tag.
COUNTERINTELLIGENCEMEASURES
The enemy must not get information aboutUS operations. This means that you and yourfellow soldiers must:
Practice camouflage principles andtechniques.
Practice noise and light discipline.
Practice field sanitation.
Use proper radiotelephone procedure.
Use the challenge and passwordproperly.
Not take personal letters or picturesinto combat areas.
Not keep diaries in combat areas.
Be careful when discussing militaryaffairs (the enemy may be listening).
Use only authorized codes.
Abide by the Code of Conduct (ifcaptured).
Report any soldier or civilian who isbelieved to be serving or sympatheticwith the enemy.
Report anyone who tries to get infor-mation about US operations.
Destroy all maps or important docu-ments if capture is imminent.
Not discuss military operations inpublic areas.
Discuss military operations only withthose persons having a need to knowthe information.
Remind fellow soldiers of their coun-terintelligence responsibilities.
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CHAPTER 7
Communications
GENERAL
Communications are exchanges of informationby two or more parties. The information must betransmitted and received/understood.
You must know how to communicate with yourleaders and fellow soldiers. You must be able to tell:
What you see.
What you are doing.
What you have done.
What you are going to do.
What you need.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1MEANS OF COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . 7-2RADIOTELEPHONE PROCEDURE . . . . . . . 7-4COMMUNICATIONS SECURITY. . . . . . . . . . 7-10RADIO EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11WIRE AND TELEPHONEEQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15
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MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
There are several means of communica-tions. Each has its own capabilities, advantages,and disadvantages. Those you can use aredescribed in this section.
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Radios are a frequently used means ofcommunications. Radios are particularly suitedfor use when you are on the move and need ameans of maintaining command and control.Small handheld or backpacked radios that com-
To put these radios to good use, you mustfirst look at some of the things that affect radiocommunications. To communicate with eachother, radios must have a common frequency.They must also be able to transmit and receivethe same type signal. Most infantry radios areFM (frequency modulated) and will not com-municate with AM (amplitude modulated)radios. Squelch settings on the radios mustalso be used correctly.
Factors that affect the range of radiomunicate for only short distances are found at equipment are weather, terrain, antenna, power,squad and platoon level. As the need grows to and the location of the radio. Trying to commu-talk over greater distances and to more units, nicate near man-made objects such as bridgesthe size and complexity of radios are increased. and buildings may also affect radio transmis-
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sions. Interference in the form of static oftenoccurs when you use radios near powerlines orelectrical generators. Interference may alsocome from other radio stations, bad weather,or enemy jamming.
Many of the things that may cause poorradio communications can be corrected by usingcommon sense. Such things as making sure thatyou are not trying to communicate from undera steel bridge or near generators and power-lines, using the best available antenna for yourneeds, and selecting the best site for your radiohelp insure more reliable communications. Youcan also reduce the effects of enemy jammingby employing antijamming techniques.
Radio is one of the least secure means ofcommunicating. Each time you talk over a radio,the sound of your voice travels in all directions.The enemy can listen to your radio transmis-sions while you are communicating with otherfriendly radio stations. You must always assumethat the enemy is listening to get informationabout you and your unit, or to locate your posi-tion to destroy you with artillery fire. Everyonewho uses radios must know the defensive tech-niques available to prevent the enemy fromgetting information.
VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS
The enemy’s ability to interfere with yourradio signals is causing more emphasis to beplaced on visual communications for commandand control. Visual signals include arm-and-hand signals, pyrotechnics, smoke, flashinglights, panel markers, and aircraft maneuvers.
The effectiveness of any visual signaldepends on a set of prearranged meanings. Youassign prearranged meanings to visual signalsto the soldier sending the signal and the soldierseeing the signal so both have the sameunderstanding of what that particular signal
means. Your commander will set prearrangedmeanings for pyrotechnics, smoke, andflashing lights. Generally, a listing of prear-ranged messages using these signals is con-tained in your unit SOP or communications-electronics operation instructions (CEOI).
Panel markers are a series of cloth panelsthat you spread on the ground to communicatewith aircraft. They are useful when you do nothave radio contact with friendly aircraft, whenground units and/or aircraft are on radio listen-ing silence, when your radio equipment hasbeen damaged or destroyed, or when enemyjamming makes radio communications difficultor impossible. When standard cloth panels arenot available, you can use field expedients suchas clothing, branches, rocks, or snow.
Panel codes, as well as arm-and-handsignals, have standard prearranged meanings.The prearranged meaning of arm-and-handsignals may be found in FM 21-60. Informationis usually taken from those publications andplaced in unit CEOIs and SOPs.
Visual signals have some shortcomingsthat limit their use. For example, visual signalscan be easily misunderstood. Some visualsignals are restricted during poor visibilitysuch as at night or in dense terrain. Of course,at other times, they can be intercepted by theenemy who may, in turn, use similar visualsignals to create confusion.
SOUND COMMUNICATIONS
Sound signals, like visual signals, dependupon a set of prearranged meanings. Soundsignals include the use of the voice, whistles,horns, weapons, and other noise-making devicesto transmit simple messages over short dis-tances. Also, like visual signals, sound signals
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are vulnerable to enemy interception and use.Battle noise can obviously reduce the effectiveuse of sound signals. They have their greatestapplication as command post warning alarms.The prearranged meanings for sound signals areusually established by local commanders, and alisting of such meanings is commonly found inunit SOPS and the CEOIs. Sound signals, likevisual signals, can be easily misunderstood.
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
Wire is another type of communicationsused in infantry units. Although installing awire network takes more time than installinga radio, wire lines are usually more secure thanradio. When you talk over wire lines, your voicetravels through the wire lines from one tele-phone to another and is generally not sentthrough the air. Wire lines will give better com-munications in most cases because they are lesssubject to interference from weather, terrain,and man-made obstacles. Wire lines also protectyou from enemy electronic warfare actionssuch as jamming.
Wire lines are subject to breakage byenemy artillery and air strikes and by friendlyforces who accidentally cut the lines whendriving over them with tracked and wheeledvehicles. It is important, therefore, to installwire lines properly to reduce the possibility ofbreakage. When laying wire lines, first considerthe tactical situation. In a fast-moving situa-tion, the use of wire may be impractical. In astatic situation, you have more time to installwire lines.
Consideration must be given to the enemy’sability to jam radios and to locate positionsthrough direction finding when you communi-cate by radio. If the enemy has displayed suchcapabilities, wire should be considered as analternative to radio. The terrain will also influ-ence use of wire communications. Wire laying
may be difficult in dense vegetation, in swampyareas, or in mountainous terrain. Rain, snow,and temperature extremes may also influencewire laying. Men and equipment to lay wirelines should be available.
MESSENGER COMMUNICATIONS
Unlike other infantry communications,messengers are a means of transmitting largemaps, documents, and bulk material, as well asoral or written messages. Message centers serveas a central point for receiving and distributingmessage-type information. They are located atbattalion or higher level headquarters. Messen-ger service may be limited, however, becausemessengers are subject to enemy action, requiremore time than radio or wire communications,and do not afford real time writer-to-readerexchanges.
RADIOTELEPHONEPROCEDURE
Radiotelephone procedure is a set proce-dure for using a radio or telephone. It speeds theexchange of messages and helps avoid errors.The rules listed below will help you use trans-mission times efficiently and avoid violationsof communications security.
1. Transmit clear, complete, and concisemessages. When possible, write them outbeforehand.
2. Speak clearly, slowly, and in naturalphrases. Enunciate each word. If a re-ceiving operator must write the message,allow time for him to do so.
3. Listen before transmitting, to avoidinterfering with other transmissions.
4. ALWAYS ASSUME THE ENEMYIS LISTENING.
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PHONETIC ALPHABET
To help identify spoken letters, a set ofeasily understood words has been selected.Those words help to avoid confusion. BRAVO,for example, is the phonetic word of the letterB, and DELTA is the phonetic word for theletter D. BRAVO and DELTA are less likely tobe confused in a radio message than B and D.Use the phonetic alphabet to:
Transmit isolated letters.
Transmit each letter of an abbrevia-tion.
Spell out unusual or difficult words.
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Example: The word MANEUVERmust be transmitted and can be pronounced.“MANEUVER – I SPELL - Mike-Alpha-November-Echo -Uniform-Victor- Echo-Romeo– MANEUVER.”
If you cannot pronounce the word, do notattempt to pronounce it. Instead, precede theword with the proword “I SPELL.”
Example The word EVACUATE mustbe transmitted and cannot be pronounced.“I SPELL - Echo-Victor-Alpha-Charlie-Uniform-Alpha-Tango-Echo.”
Transmit multiple digit numbers digit bydigit. Two exceptions to this are when trans-mitting exact multiples of thousands and whenidentifying a specific code group in a coded mes-sage. When calling for or adjusting field artilleryor mortar fire, it is necessary to transmit, whenapplicable, exact multiples of hundreds andthousands using the appropriate noun.
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PROWORDSCertain procedural words (prowords)
which have distinct meaning should be usedto shorten transmissions and avoid confusion.
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PROWORD EXPLANATION
CORRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An error has been made in this transmission.Transmission will continue with the last wordcorrectly transmitted.
An error has been made in this transmission(or message indicated). The correct version is
.
That which follows is a corrected version in answerto your request for verification.
FLASH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Flash precedence is reserved for alerts, warnings,or other emergency actions having immediatebearing on national, command, or area security(e.g., presidential use; announcement of an alert;opening of hostilitie; land, air, or sea catastro-phles; intelligence reports on matters leading toenemy attack; potential or actual nuclear accidentor incident; implementation of services unilateralemergency actions procedures).
FROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The originator of this massage is indicated by theaddress designator immediately following.
GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .This message contains the number of groups indi-cated by the numeral following.
I AUTHENTICATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The group that follows is the reply to your challengeto authenticate.
IMMEDIATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Immediate precedence is reserved for vital corn.munications that (1) have an immediate operationaleffect on tactical operations, (2) directly concernsafety or rescue operations, (3) affect the intelli-gence community operational role (e.g., initial vitalreports of damage due to enemy action; land, sea,or air reports that must be completed from vehiclesin motion such as operational mission aircraft;intelligence reports on vital actions in progress;natural disaster or widespread damage; emergencyweather reports having an immediate bearing onmission in progress; emergency use for circuitrestoration; use by tactical command posts forpassing immediate operational traffic).
I READ BACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The following is my response to your instructionsto read back.
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PROWORD EXPLANATION
I SAY AGAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I am repeating transmission or part indicated.
I SPELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I shall spell the next word phonetically.
MESSAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A message which requires recording is about tofollow. Transmitted immediately after the call. (Thisproword is not used on nets primarily employed forconveying messages. H is intended for use whenmessages are passed on tactical or reporting nets.)
MORE TO FOLLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Transmitting station has additional traffic for thereceiving station.
OUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This is the end of my transmission to you and noanswer is required.
OVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... This is the end of my transmission to you and aresponse is necessary. Go ahead: transmit.
PRIORITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Priority precedence is reserved for calls that re-quire prompt completion for national defense andsecurity, the successful conduct of war, or to safe-guard life or property, and do not require higherprecedence (e.g., reports of priority land, sea, or airmovement; administrative, intelligence, operationalor logistic activity calls requiring priority action;calls that would have serious impact on military,administrative, intelligence, operational, or logisticactivities if handled as a ROUTINE call). Normally,PRIORITY will be the highest precedence that maybe assigned to administrative matters for whichspeed of handling is of paramount importance.
RADIO CHECK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .What is my signal strength and readability. In otherwords, how do you read (hear) me?
READ BACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Repeat this entire transmission back to me exactlyas received.
RELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Transmit this message to all addressees immedi-ately following this proword.
ROGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I have received your last transmission satisfactorily,and loud and clear.
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PROWORD EXPLANATION
ROUTINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Routine precedence is reserved for all official com-munications that do not require flash, immediate,or priority precedence.
SAY AGAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Repeat your last transmission or the part indicated
SILENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cease transmissions on this net immediately.
(Repeated three or more times.) Silence will be maintained until lifted. (When anauthentication system is in force, the transmissionimposing silence is to be authenticated.)
SILENCE LIFTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......Silence is lifted. (When an authentication systemis in force, the transmission lifting silence is to beauthenticated.)
SPEAK SLOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .You are transmitting too fast. Slow down.
THIS IS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .This transmission is from the station whose desig-nation immediately follows.
TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .That which immediately follows is the time ordate-time group of the message.
TO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The addressees immediately following are ad-dressed for action.
UNKNOWN STATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .The identity of the station with whom I am attempt-ing to communicate is unknown.
WAIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I must pause for a few seconds.
WAIT-OUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. I must pause longer than a few seconds.
WILCOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I have received your signal, understand It, and willcomply. To be used only by the addressee. As themeaning of ROGER is included in that of WILCO,the two prowords are never used together.
COMMUNICATIONS SECURITYCommunications security keeps unauthor-
ized persons from gaining information of valuefrom radio and telephone transmissions. Itincludes:
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Using authentication to make surethat the other communicating stationis a friendly one.
Using only approved codes.
Designating periods when all radiosare turned off.
Restricting the use of radio transmit-ters and monitoring radio receivers.
Operating radios on low power.
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Enforcing net discipline and radio-telephone procedure (all stations mustuse authorized prosigns and prowords,and must transmit official traffic only).
Using radio sites with hills or othershields between them and the enemy.
Using directional antennas whenfeasible.
RADIO EQUIPMENT
soldier should be familiar with theAN/PRC-77 radio and the two types of squadradios. One type of squad radio is the AN/PRC-68 Small Unit Transceiver (SUT). The othercomes in two parts the AN/PRT-4 (transmitter)and the AN/PRR-9 (receiver).
To operate the AN/PRC-77 radio:
Install the battery.
Replace the battery compartment andclose both latches at the same time.
Select the antenna (plus antenna base)and tighten it down.
Connect the handset.
Select the frequency band.
Set the frequency using the tuningcontrol knobs.
Turn the function switch to ON.
Turn the volume control knob abouthalf a turn.
Depress the push-to-talk switch onthe handset to talk and release it tolisten.
Adjust the volume control to the de-sired level.
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To operate the AN/PRC-68 radio
Install the battery.
Set the channel position (O through 9)(your leader will tell you which channelto use).
Connect the handset.
Connect the antenna.
Turn the PWR OFF/ON/SQUELCHswitch to ON.
Turn the PWR OFF/ON/SQUELCHswitch to SQUELCH (this switch isspring-loaded and will return to ONwhen disengaged).
Turn the volume knob to adjust loud-ness of received signal.
Depress the push-to-talk switch onthe handset or the back of the radio totransmit and release it to listen.
NOTE: Handset is not a part of AN/ PRC-68 (H-189and H-250 handset).
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To operate the AN/PRR-9 radio
Insert the tubular BA-505/U batterythrough the battery clip and into themating connector of the receiver.
Clip the receiver to your helmet.
Loosen the antenna retaining screwand rotate the antenna upright (re-tighten retaining screw).
Set the receiver control.
For receiving with squelch, turn the re-ceiver control knob clockwise from its OFFposition. Set it to a comfortable listening level
when voice or tone is heard. If the control knobis turned clockwise to its last position, thesquelch is turned off (background noise willstart). To reactivate the squelch, turn the con-trol knob to OFF, then back about halfwaytoward ON.
For receiving without squelch, turn thereceiver control knob fully clockwise from itsOFF position. Turn it counterclockwise to acomfortable listening level. Do not use squelchwhen signals are weak or in terrain unfavorablefor good reception.
Wear the receiver either on your combatsuspenders or clipped to your pocket, belt, orhelmet. Use a lanyard to tie the receiver down.
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To operate the AN/PRT-4 radio:
Release both battery case clamps andremove the battery case.
Insert a BA-399/U battery into themating connector at the bottom oftransmitter.
Replace the battery case and securethe clamps.
Raise the collapsible antenna to itsfull height.
Set the upper selector switch in theCH-1 position for channel 1 or theCH-2 position for channel 2.
Set the TONE-VOICE switch.
For a tone signal, turn the tone-voiceswitch to the TONE position and hold it in thatposition for as long as the tone signal is needed.Release the switch at the end of that time.
For voice communications, turn the tone-voice switch to the VOICE position and hold itin that position while transmitting. Speak intothe microphone located above the channelselector switch. Release the tone-voice switchat the end of the transmission.
To permit transmissions in only one mode,position the override spring on either VOICEor TONE, depending on which is needed.
Wear the transmitter clipped to yourpocket, belt, or suspenders. To prevent loss ofthe transmitter, use a lanyard to tie it down.
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WIRE AND TELEPHONEEQUIPMENT
When in the defense, units normally com-municate by wire and messenger instead of byradio. Your leaders will often have you lay thewire and install and operate the field phones.
WIRE-LAYING TECHNIQUES
A surface line is field wire laid on theground. Lay surface lines loosely with plentyof slack. Slack makes installation and main-tenance easier. Surface lines take less time andfewer soldiers to install. When feasible, digsmall trenches for the wire to protect it fromshell fragments of artillery or mortar rounds.Conceal wire routes crossing open areas fromenemy observation. Tag all wire lines at switch-boards and at road, trail, and rail crossings toidentify the lines and make repair easier if aline is cut.
An overhead line is field wire laid abovethe ground. Lay overhead lines near commandposts, in assembly areas, and along roads whereheavy vehicular traffic may drive off the road.Also, lay them at road crossings where trenchescannot be dug, if culverts or bridges are notavailable. Those lines are the least likely to bedamaged by vehicles or weather.
The telephone set TA-1 is a sound-poweredphone that has both a visual and an audiblesignal. It has a range of 6.4 km using WD-1 wire.
To install the TA-1 telephone:Strip away half an inch of insulationfrom each strand of the WD-1 wire line.Depress the spring-loaded line bind-ing posts and insert one strand of thewire into each post.Adjust signal volume control knobto LOUD.Depress the generator lever severaltimes to call the other operator andlisten for buzzer sound.Turn the buzzer volume control knobuntil the wanted volume is obtained.Look at the visual indicator to see if itshows four white luminous markings.Depress the push-to-talk switch toreset the visual indicator.
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The telephone set TA-312 is a battery-powered phone. It has a range of 38 km usingWD-1 wire.
To install the TA-312 telephone:
Strip away one-half inch of insula-tion from each strand of the WD-1wire line.
Depress the spring-loaded line bind-ing posts and insert one strand of thewire into each post.
Adjust buzzer volume control knob toLOUD.
Turn the INT-EXT switch to INT.
Turn the circuit selector switch to LB.
Insert the two BA-30 batteries intothe battery compartment (one up andone down).
Seat the handset firmly in the retain-ing cradle.
Turn the handcrank rapidly a fewturns. Remove the handset from theretaining cradle and wait for the otheroperator to answer.
Depress the push-to-talk switch totalk. Release the push-to-talk switchto listen.
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REEL EQUIPMENT CE-11
The reel equipment CE -11 is a light-weight, portable unit used for laying and pickingup short wire lines. It has the following com-ponents:
Reeling machine, cable, band, RL-39,with an axle and crank, carryinghandles, and straps ST-34 and ST-35.
Telephone set TA-1/PT.
The RL-39 component mounts the reelcable DR-8 that will hold 400 metersof field wire WD-1/TT. The DR-8 andthe wire are separate items and ARENOT part of the CE-11 or the RL-39.
The major parts of the CE -11 may also beauthorized by TOE as separate items and notas a complete unit CE -11.
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CHAPTER 8
First Aid And Personal Hygiene
GENERAL
First aid is the care and treatment you give acasualty before medical personnel arrive. Personalhygiene is the steps you take to protect your ownhealth and that of others. Your personal-hygieneand first-aid skills could save your life or the life ofa buddy.
By knowing what to do, and by getting medicalhelp quickly, you may be able to save lives, preventpermanent disabilities, and prevent long periods ofhospitalization.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1LIFESAVING MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
OF FIRST AID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16DOs AND DON'Ts
PERSONAL HYGIENE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16
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The field first-aid packet issued to youshould be carried at all times for personal use.It contains one or two field first-aid dressings.Use the first-aid dressings on wounds. Whengiving first aid to a casualty, you should use thecasualty’s first-aid items. You may need yourown items later if you become injured. For moreinformation on first aid, see FM 21-11.
LIFESAVING MEASURES
When you or your buddy is wounded, firstaid must be given at once. The first step is toapply (as needed) the four life-saving measures.These measures are:
Clear the airway; cheek and restorebreathing and heartbeat.
Stop the bleeding.
Prevent shock.
Dress and bandage the wound.
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CLEAR THE AIRWAY; CHECK ANDRESTORE BREATHING AND HEARTBEAT
Clear the Airway. The lack of oxygen intakethrough breathing and lack of heartbeat leadsto death in a very few minutes.
When treating a casualty, first find outif he is breathing. If he is not breathing
Place him on his back and kneel besidehis head.
Clear his airway by removing any ob-struction in his mouth.
Place your hand (the hand nearest hisfeet) under his neck and put yourother hand on his forehead. Extend hisneck by lifting with the hand underthe neck and pushing down on theforehead. This also lifts the tongueaway from the back of the throat,opening the airway.
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Check for Breathing. After opening the airway,LOOK, LISTEN, and FEEL to find out if thecasualty is breathing. The following proceduresshould be used:
Put your ear near the casualty’s mouthand nose: hold this position for about5 seconds.
LOOK to see if the casualty’s chest isrising and falling.
LISTEN and FEEL for breathing.
Restore Breathing. IF THERE ARE NOSIGNS OF BREATHING, START MOUTH-TO-MOUTH RESUSCITATION AT ONCE.The following procedures should be used
Put a hand under the casualty’s neckto keep the head tilted far back.
Press down on his forehead with theother hand.
Move this hand and pinch his nostrilsbetween your thumb and index finger.
Open his mouth wide.
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Take a deep breath and place yourmouth over his, making an airtightseal with your lips.
Blow into his mouth.
Give four or five quick but full breathsto make sure his lungs are full.
Remove your mouth, turn your head,and LOOK, LISTEN, and FEEL forexhaled air.
Repeat this procedure once every 5seconds until the casualty exhales.
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If you feel strong resistance when you firstblow air into the casualty’s mouth, quicklyreposition his head and try again. If the airwayis still not clear, roll him onto his side. Hit himsharply between his shoulder blades with theheel of your hand to dislodge any foreign objects.If the casualty’s abdomen bulges (air goinginto stomach), apply gentle pressure on hisabdomen with one hand to force the air out.If this makes the casualty vomit, quickly turnhim onto his side, clean out his mouth, and con-tinue giving mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
Check for Heartbeat. When you find an un-conscious casualty, check to see if he has aheartbeat and if he is breathing. To check forheartbeat, use the following procedures:
Tilt the casualty’s head back.
Place your fingers on his throat.
Feel for the Adam’s apple.
Slide the fingers down from theAdam’s apple to the side of the throat.This will place the fingertips over anartery, where the pulse can be felt.
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Restore Heartbeat. You must start externalheart massage quickly, as permanent damage tothe brain may occur if it is deprived of oxygen-ated blood. Examples of times without oxygenand likelihood of brain damage are listed below:
External heart massage provides artificialcirculation by squeezing the heart between thebreastbone and the backbone, forcing bloodthrough the lungs, brain, and body.
To perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitationand external heart massage at the same time:
Kneel at the casualty’s side.
Blow four quick but full breaths intothe casualty (as described earlier) tofill the lungs with air (his head mustbe tilted back and his airway open).Locate the tip of the breastbone andmeasure two finger-widths up fromthat tip.
Place the heel of the other hand alongside the fingers. Then, put both handstogether and interlace the fingers.Push downward on the chest 15 timesat a rate of 80 counts per minute.
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Lean forward with the elbows locked.
That will compress the casualty’schest about 1½ to 2 inches. Then re-lease the pressure on the chest.
After each 15 compressions, shift posi-tions slightly and give him 2 quick,but full, breaths.
Continue this 15 to 2 ratio:
Until the casualty can breatheby himself and his pulse returns.
Until relieved by someone.
Until the casualty is dead.If two of you are present, one should give
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and the othershould give heart massage. In that case, theprocedure is slightly different. The soldiergiving the heart massage should change thenumber of compressions from 15 at a time to 5,keeping the 80-per-minute rate. The soldiergiving mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, shouldgive 2 breaths after each 5 compressions.
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STOP THE BLEEDING
If the casualty is breathing and his heartis beating, the next thing to do is to stop thebleeding of the wound. Before you stop thebleeding, you must find all wounds. Look for
both entry and exit points. This is to see thatnothing is overlooked, as a bullet usuallymakes a smaller wound where it enters thanwhere it exits.
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After finding all wounds, stop the bleedingby using the following procedure:
Without touching or trying to cleanthe wound, cut and lift the clothingaway from the wound to expose it. Donot touch the wound or try to removeobjects from it.
Put a field first-aid dressing on the
side of the dressing that goes onthe wound).
wound, trying not to contaminate thedressing or the wound. To put on thedressing:
Remove the dressing from itsplastic envelope and twist it tobreak the paper wrapper.
Place the dressing on the woundwithout letting it touch anything
Grasp the folded dressing withboth hands (do not touch the
else.
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Wrap the dressing around thewound and tie the ends securelywith a square knot. If possible,tie the knot directly over thewound.
If the bleeding continues after thedressing is secured on the wound,press the bandage for 5 to 10 minutes.
If more pressure is needed to stop thebleeding, put a thick pad or stone ontop of the dressing and tie the endsof the dressing over the pad or stone.This is called a pressure dressing.
If the wound is in an arm or leg andthe bleeding has not stopped, raise theinjured limb above the level of theheart. This helps to slow down or stopthe bleeding. Do not, however, raise alimb with a broken bone unless it isproperly splinted.
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If blood is spurting from the wound, wound until a pressure dressing can bethere is bleeding from an artery. To stop put on it. In some cases, you may haveit, press on the point of the body where to keep pressure on the pressure paintthe main artery supplying the wounded even after the drawing is put on. Thearea with blood is located This pres- best pressure points of the body to usesure should shut off or slow down the in stopping arterial bleeding are shownflow of blood from the heart to the in the following illustration.
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If the wound continues to bleed after 4 inches above the wound, not over it.you apply pressure to a pressure point Never loosen or remove a tourniquetand apply a pressure dressing, use a once it has been put on. If possible,tourniquet. This should be a LAST mark a “T” on the casualty’s fore-RESORT ONLY. Put the tourniquet head at the time the tourniquet is putbetween the wound and where the in- on. Then get the casualty to an aidjured limb joins the trunk. Put it 2 to station quickly.
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PREVENT SHOCK
Unless shock is prevented or treated,death may result, even though the injury wouldnot otherwise be fatal.
Shock may result from any injury, butis more likely to result from a severe injury.Warning signs of shock are restlessness, thirst,pale skin, and rapid heartbeat. A casualty inshock may be excited or appear calm and tired.He may be sweating when his skin feels cool
take small, fast breaths or gasps; stare blindlyinto space or become blotchy or bluish aroundhis mouth.
After giving the casualty the first twolifesaving measures, look for signs of shock.If the casualty is in shock or is about to go intoshock, treat him at once for shock. To treat forshock, proceed as follows:
Loosen the casualty’s clothing at theneck, waist, and wherever it restricts
and clammy. As his condition worsens, he may circulation.
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Reassure the casualty by being calm andself-confident. Assure him that he will be takencare of.
Place the casualty in a comfortable posi-tion. His position depends on his condition.If he is conscious, place him on his back withhis feet raised 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in). If he isunconscious, place him on his side or abdomenwith his head turned to the side. If he has ahead wound, raise his head higher than his body.If he has a wound of the face and/or neck, sethim up and lean him forward with his head downor in the position for an unconscious casualty.If he has a sucking chest wound, set him up orlay him down on the injured side. If he has anabdominal wound, lay him on his back with hishead turned to the side.
Keep the casualty warm. It may be neces-sary to place ponchos or blankets under andover him.
DRESS AND BANDAGETHE WOUND
The healing of wounds and recoverydepend a lot on how well you initially protectthe wound from contamination and infection.
A wound must be dressed and bandagedto protect it from further contamination, as wellas to stop the bleeding. Use the field first-aiddressing in the first-aid packet to dress’ andbandage a wound. A dressing is any sterilepad used to cover a wound. A bandage is anymaterial used to secure a dressing to a wound.The field first-aid dressing already has bandagesattached to it. Use the dressing to cover awound and the bandages to secure the dressingto it.
For information on how to dress and band-age different wounds, see chapter 6, FM 21-11.
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DOs AND DON’Ts OF FIRST AID
When giving first aid to a casualty, re-member the following:
8-16
DO act promptly but calmly.DO reassure the casualty and gentlyexamine him to determine the neededfirst aid.DO give lifesaving measures as re-quired.DON’T position a soldier on his backif he is unconscious or has a wound onhis face or neck.DON’T remove clothing from aninjured soldier by pulling or tearingit off.DON’T touch or try to clean dirtywounds, including burns.
DON’T remove dressings and band-ages once they have been put on awound.
DON’T loosen a tourniquet once ithas been applied.
DON’T move a casualty who has a frac-ture until it has been properly splinted,unless it is absolutely necessary.
DON’T give fluids by mouth to a casu-alty who is unconscious, nauseated,or vomiting, or who has an abdominalor neck wound.
DON’T permit the head of a casualtywith a head injury to be lower thanhis body.
DON’T try to push protruding intes-tines or brain tissue back into a wound.
DON’T put any medication on a burn.
DON’T administer first-aid measureswhich are unnecessary or beyond yourability.
DON’T fail to replace items usedfrom the first-aid case.
PERSONAL HYGIENE
Personal hygiene consists of practiceswhich safeguard your health and that of others.It is often thought of as being the same as per-sonal cleanliness. While cleanliness is important,it is only one part of healthy living. Personalhygiene is important to you because:
It protects against disease-causinggerms that are present in all environ-ments.
It keeps disease-causing germs fromspreading.
It promotes health among soldiers.
It improves morale.
PERSONAL CLEANLINESS
Skin. Wash your body frequently from head tofoot with soap and water. If no tub or shower isavailable, wash with a cloth and soapy water,paying particular attention to armpits, groinarea, face, ears, hands, and feet.
Hair. Keep your hair clean, neatly combed, andtrimmed. At least once a week, wash your hairand entire scalp with soap and water. Also,shave as often as the water supply and tacticalsituation permit. Do not share combs or shavingequipment with other soldiers.
Hands. Wash your hands with soap and waterafter any dirty work, after each visit to thelatrine, and before eating. Keep your fingernailsclosely trimmed and clean. Do not bite yourfingernails, pick your nose, or scratch your body.
Clothing and Sleeping Gear. Wash or exchangeclothing when it becomes dirty (situation per-mitting). Wash or exchange sleeping gear when
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it becomes dirty. If clothing and sleeping gearcannot be washed or exchanged, shake themand air them regularly in the sun. That greatlyreduces the number of germs on them.
CARE OF THE MOUTH AND TEETH
CARE OF THE FEETWash and dry your feet daily. Use foot
powder on your feet to help kill germs, reducefriction on the skin, and absorb perspiration.Socks should be changed daily. After crossing awet area, dry your feet, put on foot powder, andchange socks, as soon as the situation permits.
Regular and proper cleaning of the mouthand the teeth helps prevent tooth decay andgum disease. The most healthful oral hygieneis to clean your mouth and teeth thoroughlyand correctly after each meal with a toothbrushand toothpaste. If a toothbrush is not available,cut a twig from a tree and fray it on one end toserve as a toothbrush. If mouthwash is avail-able, use it to help kill germs in your mouth.To help remove food from between your teeth,use dental floss or toothpicks. Twigs can alsobe used for toothpicks.
FOOD AND DRINK
For proper development, strength, andsurvival, your body requires:
Proteins.
Fats and carbohydrates.
Minerals.
Vitamins.
Water.
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Issued rations have those essential foodsubstances in the right amounts and properbalance. So, eat primarily those rations. Whenfeasible, heat your meals. That will make themtaste better and will reduce the energy requiredto digest them. Do not overindulge in sweets,soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, and other non-issued rations. Those rarely have nutritionalvalue and are often harmful.
Drink water only from approved watersources or after it has been treated with water-purification tablets. To purify water from riversor streams:
Fill your canteen with water (be care-ful not to get trash or other objects inyour canteen).
Add one purification tablet per quartof clear water or two tablets per quartof cloudy or very cold water. (If youare out of tablets, use boiling waterthat has been boiled for 5 minutes.)
Replace the cap loosely.
Wait 5 minutes.
Shake the canteen well and allowsome of the water to leak out.
Tighten the cap.
Wait an additional 20 minutes beforedrinking the water.
EXERCISEExercise of the muscles and joints helps to
maintain physical fitness and good health.Without that, you may lack the physicalstamina and ability to fight. Physical fitnessincludes a healthy body, the capacity for skill-ful and sustained performance, the ability torecover from exertion rapidly, the desire tocomplete a designated task, and the confidenceto face any eventuality. Your own safety, health,and life may depend on your physical fitness.
There are lulls in combat when you willnot be active. During such lulls, exercise. Thathelps to keep the muscles and body functionsready for the next period of combat. It alsohelps pass the time in the lulls.
REST
Your body needs regular periods of rest torestore physical and mental vigor. When youare tired, your body functions are sluggish, andyour ability to react is slower than normal. Thatalso makes you more susceptible to sickness.For good health, 6 to 8 hours of uninterruptedsleep each day is desirable. As that is seldompossible in combat, use rest periods and off-dutytime to rest or sleep. Do not be ashamed to saythat you are tired or sleepy. Do not, however,sleep when on duty.
MENTAL HYGIENE
The way you think affects the way youact. If you know your job, you will probably actquickly and effectively. If you are uncertain ordoubtful of your ability to do your job, you mayhesitate and make wrong decisions. Positivethinking is a necessity. You must enter combatwith absolute confidence in your ability to doyour job.
Fear is a basic human emotion. It is both amental and physical state. Fear is not shamefulif it is controlled. It can even help you by makingyou more alert and more able to do your job.Fear makes the pupils of your eyes enlarge,which increases your field of vision so youcan detect movement more easily. Fear alsoincreases your rate of breathing and heartbeat.That increases your strength. Therefore, controlyour fear and use it to your advantage.
Do not let your imagination and fear runwild. Remember, you are not alone. You are partof a team. There are other soldiers nearby, eventhough they cannot always be seen. Everyonemust help each other and depend on each other.
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Worry undermines the body, dulls themind, and slows down thinking and learning.It adds to confusion, magnifies troubles, andcauses you to imagine things which really donot exist. If you are worried about something,talk to your leader about it. He may be able tohelp solve the problem.
You may have to fight in any part of theworld and in all types of terrain. Therefore,adjust your mind to accept conditions as theyare. If mentally prepared for it, you should beable to fight under almost any conditions.
RULES FOR AVOIDING ILLNESSIN THE FIELD
Don’t consume foods and beveragesfrom unauthorized sources.
Don’t soil the ground with urine orfeces. (Use a latrine or “cat-hole.”)
Keep your fingers and contaminatedobjects out of your mouth.
Wash your hands following any con-tamination, before eating or preparingfood, and before cleaning your mouthand teeth.
Wash all mess gear after each meal.
Clean your mouth and teeth at leastonce each day.
Avoid insect bites by wearing properclothing and using insect repellents.
Avoid getting wet or chilled unneces-sarily.
Don’t share personal items (canteens,pipes, toothbrushes, washcloths,towels, and shaving gear) with othersoldiers.
Don’t leave food scraps lying around.
Sleep when possible.
Exercise regularly.
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APPENDIX A
Mines
GENERAL
A unit may use mines during security, defen-sive, retrograde, and offensive operations in orderto reduce the enemy’s mobility. In those operations,leaders pick the places for the mines and their menemplace them and, when required, retrieve them (SeeTM 9–1345-203-12P).
The mines you will most commonly use are:
M14, Antipersonnel
M16Al, Antipersonnel
M18Al, Antipersonnel
M26, Antipersonnel
M15, Antitank
M21, Antitank
M24, Off-Route Antitank
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1ANTIPERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2ANTITANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-22
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ANTIPERSONNEL
M14, ANTIPERSONNEL MINE
This is a blast-type, high-explosive minewith a plastic body. A pressure of 9 to 15.8kg(20 to 35 lb) will detonate it.
To emplace an M14 mine:
Remove the mine from the packing boxand inspect it. If the mine is crackedor otherwise damaged, do not use it.
Use the M22 wrench from the pack-ing box to unscrew the white plasticshipping plug from the detonator wellin the bottom of the mine. Keep theshipping plug for possible future use.
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Inspect the firing pin’s position. If itextends into the detonator well. themine is unsafe to use.
Inspect the detonator well for foreignmatter. If foreign matter is present,carefully remove it by tapping themine against the palm of the hand.
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Dig a hole about 10 cm (4 in) in diam-eter and just deep enough (about 3.8em [1.5 in]) so that the pressure plate ofthe mine will extend above the ground.
Make sure the ground at the bottomof the hole is solid enough to supportthe mine when pressure is applied tothe pressure plate. If the ground is toosoft, place a block of wood or othersolid support in the bottom of the hole.
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To disarm and remove an M14 mine, re-verse the steps used to arm and emplace it.
Inspect the area around the mine tosee if the mine has been tampered with.If it has been, do not try to disarm it.Report the tampering to your leader.
Remove the soil from the mine withoutputting pressure on the mine.
Grasp the body of the mine with onehand and insert the safety clip withthe other.
With the safety clip in place, turn thepressure plate so that the arrow pointsto S (SAFE). That disarms the mine.Remove the mine from the hole.Turn the mine over and carefully re-move the detonator from the detonatorwell.Screw the plastic shipping plug intothe detonator well.Clean off the mine and put it in apacking box.
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M16Al, ANTIPERSONNEL MINE
This is a bounding, fragmentation minewith a metallic body. It can be set for pressuredetonation or set with a tripwire attached to arelease-pin ring. A pressure of 3.6 kg (8 lb) ormore against one or more of the three prongsof the fuze, or a pull of 1.3 kg (3 lb) or more onthe tripwire, will detonate the mine.
To emplace an M16Al mine:
Remove the mine from its packingbox and inspect it for damage. If themine is dented, cracked, or otherwisedamaged, do not use it.
Unscrew the shipping plug from thefuze well with the closed end of theM25 fuze wrench. Keep the shippingplug for future disarming of the mine,if required.
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Inspect the fuse well and flash tube ofthe mine for foreign matter. If foreignmatter is present, turn the mine upsidedown and gently tap its bottom to dis-lodge the matter.
Set the mine down and take a fuze outof the fuze box.
Inspect the fuze for damage and formissing safety pins. Make sure thatthe safety pins move freely in thesafety-pin holes. Also make sure that
the rubber gasket is around the fusebase.
With the open end of the wrench, makesure that the bushing adapter on thefuze well is tight.
Screw the fuze assembly into the fuzewell with the fuze wrench.
Dig a hold about 15 cm (6 in) deep and13 cm (5 in) in diameter.
Put the mine in the hole.
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A-8
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To disarm and remove an M16A1 mine,reverse the steps used to arm and emplace it.
Check the mine and the area around itto see if the mine has been tamperedwith.
If it has been, do not try to disarm it.
Report the tampering to your leader.
Uncover the top of the mine.
Insert the positive safety pin throughthe positive safety pin hole.
Insert the locking safety pin throughthe locking safety pin hole oppositethe release-pin ring.
Insert the interlocking safety pin be-tween the positive safety pin andlocking safety pin.
If tripwires are attached to the release-pin ring, cut all of them after thesafety pins have been inserted.
Remove the dirt from around the mineand then lift the mine out of the hole.
Unscrew and remove the fuze assembly.
Replace the plastic shipping plug inthe fuze well.
Replace the mine and fuze in the pack-ing box.
M18Al, ANTIPERSONNEL MINE(CLAYMORE)
This is a curved, rectangular mine con-taining C4 explosive and 700 steel balls. It canbe fired electrically or nonelectrically.
The Claymore projects 700 steel balls ina fan-shaped pattern about 2 meters (6.6 ft)high and 60 degrees wide to a range of 50 meters(165 ft). These balls are effective as far as 100meters (328 ft) and are dangerous up to 250meters (825 ft) forward of the mine.
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To emplace a Claymore for commanddetonation:
Remove the electrical firing wire, the Position the firing-device safety bailfiring device, and test set from the in the FIRE position and squeeze thebandoleer. Do not take the mine out firing-device handle with a firm, quickof the bandoleer. squeeze.
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A-12
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161-017 0 - 94 - 5
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To disarm and remove a Claymore, reversearming and emplacing procedure.
Make sure that the firing-device safetybail is in the SAFE position.
Disconnect the firing wire from thefiring device and replace the dustcovers.Move to the mine and unscrew andremove the shipping-plug primingadapter from it. Take the firing devicewith you.Remove the blasting cap from theshipping-plug priming adapter andthen screw the adapter back into thedetonator well.Put the blasting cap inside its card-board container, remove the firing wirefrom the stake, and reroll the firingwire.Pick up the mine and put it in thebandoleer.Remove the firing wire from the stakeat the firing position and put it in thebandoleer.
To emplace a Claymore with a tripwire:Emplace and aim the mine to coverthe desired kill zone.Put an anchor stake (1) about 1 meter(3.3 ft) to the rear of the mine andattach the firing wire to it, leavingabout 1.5 meters (5 ft) of slack. Do notinsert the blasting cap into the mineat this time.Unroll the firing wire to a point about20 meters (66 ft) to either the left orright front of the mine. Put an anchorstake (2) at that point.Attach a clothespin (or other impro-vised device) to stake (2) with its closedend pointing toward the kill zone. Theclothespin can be tied or nailed to thestake.Move across the kill zone and put inanother stake (3).Attach the trip wire to stake (3) andunroll the tripwire to stake (2).
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FM 21-75
Attach the end of the tripwire to a connection to the clothespin by cut-C-ration plastic spoon or some other ting one strand of the firing wire andnonconductor of electricity. Connect forming two bare wire loops that canthe tripwire and spoon before setting fit over the ends of the clothespin.up the mine. (Do that before setting up the mine.)Prepare the firing wire at stake (2) for
A-15
FM 21-75
Slide the loops over the ends of theclothespin and tighten them to fit inthe grooves of the clothespin.
Insert the tripwire spoon into the jawsof the clothespin. The tripwire shouldbe about ankle-high and not too tight.
Unroll the firing wire to a site to therear of the mine and put in anotheranchor stake (4).
Attach the firing wire to stake (4).
Move to the mine, insert the blastingcap into the detonating well, screw in
the shipping-plug priming adapter,and recheck the aim.
Move to stake (4) to attach the firingwire to the power source.
Cut the shorting plug and dust coverfrom the end of the firing wire and re-move about 2.54 cm (1 in) of insulationfrom each strand of the firing wire.
Twist the ends of the wires and attachthem to a power source (BA 206 orBA 4386 battery or any other powersource that produces at least 2 volts ofelectricity). The system is now ready.
To disarm and remove a Claymore with atripwire, reverse the steps used- to arm andinstall it.
A-16
Disconnect the firing wire from thepower.
Remove the blasting cap from the mineand place the cap in its protective cover.
Place the mine in the bandoleer.
Roll up the firing wire and recover theother items, going from stake (1) to(2), (2) to (3), and (3) to (4).
Put all of the accessories in the bando-leer and move back to your position.
FM 21-75
M26, ANTIPERSONNEL MINEThis is a small, bounding, fragmentation
mine. It can be set for either pressure or trip-wire activation. A pressure of 13 kg (28 lb) ontop of the mine, or a pull against the tripwirewill detonate it.
To emplace an M26 mine for pressuredetonation:
Dig a hole in the ground about 13 cm(5 in) deep and wide enough to acceptthe mine.
Remove a 2.5 cm (1 in) layer of dirt outto about 15 cm (6 in) from around themine to allow knuckle clearance neededwhen turning the arming handle.
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FM 21-75
NOTE: Leave the tripwire spool assemblyattached to the mine This helps to stabi-
Remove the arming handle from thetripwire spool by pulling it upward
lize the mine in the hole.
from the spool.
Close the spread ends of the arming-latch retaining pin (cotter pin) to aidits removal after the mine is emplaced.
Place the mine in the hole, with coverend up, so that the mine cover lugs ex-tend just slightly above ground level.
A-18
FM 21-75
Pack the dirt around the mine, leavingthe cover lugs exposed.
Remove the arming-latch retaining pinby pulling the ring straight up.
Attach the arming handle to the lugson the arming latch. Hold the minefirmly with the thumb and finger ofone hand to keep it from turning. Turnthe cover clockwise (about ¼ turn)until it stops.
The arrow on the mine cover should beslightly past the center of the red A(armed) position.
Camouflage the mine.
Remove the arming latch from the
To disarm and remove an M26 mine setfor pressure detonation, reverse the steps usedto arm and install the mine.
mine by pulling straight out on thearming handle. Keep the arming latchand arming handle for future use. Themine is now armed.
Carefully remove all camouflage fromaround the top of the mine.
If there is any sign of boobytrappingor tampering, do not try to disarm andremove the mine. Instead, destroy themine in place.
If there are no signs of boobytrappingor tampering, replace the arming latchby sliding it under the arming handlelugs from the side opposite the arrow.
Make sure that the middle prong ofthe arming latch engages the trip-lever cam.
Remove a 2.5 cm (1 in) layer of dirt outto about 15 cm (6 in) from the edge ofthe mine to allow knuckle clearance.
Attach the arming handle to the arm-ing latch.
Hold the mine with one hand and turnthe cover counterclockwise with yourother hand until it stops (about ¼turn).
The arrow on the cover should lineup with the S (SAFE) position on themine.
Remove the arming handle.
Insert the arming-latch retaining pinthrough the holes in the arming latchand mine body. (It may be necessaryto rotate the latch back about ½ cm[¼ in] to align the holes.)
Remove the mine from the hole.
Clear the mine and repackage it.
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FM 21-75
To emplace an M26 mine for tripwiredetonation:
Dig a hole in the ground about 13 cm(5 in) deep and wide enough for themine.
Remove a 2.5 cm (1 in) layer of dirt outto about 15 cm (6 in) from around themine to allow knuckle clearance neededwhen turning the arming handle.
Remove the tripwire spool assembly
by pulling it away from the mine body.
Remove the arming handle from thetripwire spool by pulling it upward.
Unscrew and remove the trip leverfrom the tripwire spool.
Remove one or more tripwires, asrequired, from the tripwire spool bypressing in on the plastic tripwireretainer(s) and lifting the tripwire(s)off the top of the spool.
Retain or replace any unused trip-wires on the spool.
Replace the tripwire spool assemblyon the mine. Leave the spool on themine to help stabilize it.
Close the spread ends of arming-latchretaining pin (cotter pin) to aid itsremoval after the mine is emplaced.
Place the mine in the hole with thecover end up, so that the mine coverlugs extend just slightly above groundlevel.Pack the dirt around the mine, leavingthe cover lugs exposed.Screw the trip lever about four turnsinto the trip-lever cam (in the top cen-ter of the mine cover) until it is tight.
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FM 21-75
To disarm and remove an M26 mineemplaced for tripwire detonation, reversethe steps used to arm and install the tripwiredetonation.
Cut the tape holding the coils of wire.
Attach the loop end(s) of the tripwire(s)to the loop of the trip lever.
Leaving some slack, attach the otherend of the tripwire(s) to a firm anchorstake(s).
Remove the arming-latch retaining pinby pulling the ring straight up.
Assemble the arming handle to thelugs on the arming latch. Hold themine body firmly with your thumb andfinger of one hand to keep the minefrom turning. Rotate the cover clock-wise (from S to A) until it stops (about¼ turn).
Camouflage the mine.
Remove the arming latch from themine by pulling straight out on thearming handle. Keep the arming latchand arming handle for future use. Themine is now armed.
Carefully remove all camouflage fromaround the mine.
If there is any evidence of boobytrap-ping or tampering, do not try to disarmand remove the mine. Take care not tomove the trip lever or press on themine cover.
Replace the arming latch. With thetwo raised arming handle lugs facingupward, slide the arming latch underthe six lugs of the mine cover from theside opposite the arrow. Make surethat the middle prong of the arminglatch engages the trip-lever cam.
Remove a layer of dirt about 2.5 cm(1 in) deep for a distance of about 15cm (6 in) from the edge of the mine toallow knuckle clearance for turningand removing the arming latch.
Attach the arming handle to the lugson the arming latch.
Hold the mine with one hand and turnthe mine cover counterclockwise withyour other hand until it stops (about ¼turn). The arrow on the cover shouldpoint to the S (SAFE) position on themine body.
Remove the arming handle from themine and keep it for future use.
Insert the arming-latch retaining pinthrough the holes in the arming latchand mine body. It may be necessary toturn the latch back (up to ½ cm [¼ in])to align the holes of the latch and body.
Remove the mine from the ground.Clean the mine and repackage it.
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FM 21-75
ANTITANKM15, ANTITANK MINE
This antitank mine has a cylindrical steelbody. It is pressure detonated. A force of 159to 340 kg (350 to 750 lb) on the pressure platewill detonate the mine.
To emplace an M15 mine:Remove the mine from its packing box.Using the M20 wrench, unscrew thearming plug by turning it counter-clockwise. Take it out of the mine.Inspect the fuze well for foreignmatter. Remove any found.
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FM 21-75
Make sure that the booster retainer isseated in the fuze well. If it is missing,replace the mine.
Put the mine down and pick up themetal fuze container.
Open the container with the keyattached to its bottom.
Remove the fuze from the container.
Make sure that the green end of the
detonator shows in the bottom of thefuze and that the safety clip is in placebetween the pressure plate and thebody of the fuze.
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FM 21-75
Remove the safety fork from betweenthe pressure plate and the body of thefuze. Keep the safety fork for future use.
Insert the fuze into the fuze well.Make sure that the fuze is seatedsecurely on top of the booster retainer.Put no-pressure on the pressure platewhen handling the fuze.
Check the clearance of the pressureplate of the fuze in the fuze well byusing the tab end of the M20 wrench.If the pressure plate is too high, thebutton on the plate will interfere withthe movement of the arming shutterin arming the mine. If the fuze doesnot fully seat, remove it and replaceit with another fuze.Pick up the arming plug M4 and turnthe setting knob to the SAFE posi-tion — if it is not already on SAFE.
A-24
FM 21-75
Dig a hole about 38 cm (15 in) in diam-eter and 15 cm (16 in) deep, with wallssloping 45 degrees.
Check the bottom of the hole to makesure that the ground is solid so thatthe mine will not sink into the ground.If it is not solid, insert a wooden boardor other support to give the mine afirm foundation.
Lay the mine in the hole so that thetop surface of the pressure plate isabout 3 cm (11/2 in) below ground level.Fill in the dirt around the mine andpat it down.Using the M20 wrench, arm the mineby turning the setting knob fromSAFE through DANGER to ARMED.Camouflage the mine.
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FM 21-75
To disarm and remove an M15 mine,reverse the steps used to arm and install it.
A-26
Carefully remove all camouflage fromaround the mine. Look for boobytrapsand other signs of tampering. If thereare signs of tampering or boobytraps,destroy the mine in place.
If there are no signs of tampering orboobytraps, Slowly turn the settingknob from ARMED through DANGERto SAFE. Use the M20 wrench.
Turn the arming plug counterclock-wise with the M20 wrench and removeit from the mine.
Remove the fuze from the fuze well.
Insert the safety fork under the pres-sure plate and place the fuze in asecure container.
Put the arming plug in the fuze well.
Remove the mine from the hole andput it in the packing box.
FM 21-75
M21, ANTITANK MINEThis antitank mine has a cylindrical steel
body. It is pressure detonated. A pressure of 1.7kg (3.75 lb) against the tilt rod (causing the rod totilt 20 degrees or more) will detonate the mine.When not using the tilt rod, a pressure of 131.5 kg(290 lb) on the pressure ring will detonate the mine.
To emplace an M21 mine:
Remove the mine and its componentsfrom the packing box.
Inspect the mine and components forserviceability. Check for cracks, dents,or other signs of damage. If a damageditem is found, replace it.
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FM 21-75
Make sure that the cotter pins of thefuze pull-ring assembly and the fuze clo-sure assembly are in place and secure.
Turn the mine bottom up and, with thescrewdriver end of the M26 wrench,remove the closing plug assembly byturning it counterclockwise.
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FM 21-75
Inspect the booster cavity for foreignmatter. Remove any found.
Insert the M120 booster (with thewasher side toward the fuze) into thebooster cavity.
With the M26 wrench, replace theclosing-plug assembly by turning it
clockwise until tight. The gasket ofthe closing-plug assembly should beagainst the booster.
Turn the mine bottom down.
With the M26 wrench, remove theshipping-plug assembly from the fuzehole of the mine.
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FM 21-75
Inspect the fuze hole. If foreign matter
With the closure end of the M26wrench, remove the closure assemblyfrom the M607 fuze. The gasket on thebottom of the fuze should stay in place.
A-30
FM 21-75
Screw the fuze hand-tight into thethreaded fuze hole of the mine chargecap. Set the mine down.
Dig a hole in the ground 30 cm (12 in)in diameter and 15 cm (6 in) deep.
Check the bottom of the hole to makesure that the ground is solid and hasa firm, flat foundation for the mineto rest on. If the ground is soft, themine may tilt and lose effectiveness.
In soft ground, place a board or otherflat object under the mine as a firmfoundation.
Place the mine in the hole.
Press the ground firmly against thesides of the mine, leaving the fuzeuncovered.
Screw the extension rod into thethreaded pressure ring of the fuze.
Make sure that the extension rod isvertical.
If the mine is being set for pressure detona-tion with the pressure rings, do not use theextension rod. Instead:
Remove the pull ring assembly bandand stop on the fuze. This arms themine.Keep the above items for future use, ifneeded, to disarm the fuze.
Camouflage the mine.
To disarm and remove an M21 mine, re-verse the steps used to arm and install it.
Check the area for boobytraps or anysigns of tampering. If there are booby-traps or signs of tampering, destroythe mine in place.If there are no boobytraps or signs oftampering, remove the camouflagematerial from around the mine.Reassemble the band, stop, and pull-ring assembly on the fuze so that thepressure ring is immobilized. When thecotter pin is in place, spread the endsso that it is not easily removable.Remove the extension rod and theextension-rod adapter, if present. Becareful not to damage them.Remove the dirt from around the mineand remove the mine from the hole.Remove the fuze from the mine and in-stall the closure assembly on the fuze.Install the shipping-plug assembly intothe fuze hole of the mine.Turn the mine bottom up and removethe closing-plug assembly.Remove the booster, then reinstall theclosing-plug assembly with the gaskettoward the booster cavity.Put the mine, fuze, and components intheir original container.
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FM 21-75
M24, OFF-ROUTE ANTITANK MINEThis is a remotely detonated mine system. TANK) rocket to be launched from an “off-
It is activated by vehicles running over a linear route” launch position. The launcher should beswitch (called a discriminator) which causes a between 3 and 30 meters (10 to 100 feet) from3.5-inch HEAT (HIGH EXPLOSIVE ANTI- the edge of the path.
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FM 21-75
APPENDIX B
Demolitions
GENERAL
There will be times when you have to use demo-litions for:
HOW TO PREPAREFIRING SYSTEMS
Information on the preparation and place-ment of demolition charges is in FM 5-25 and inGTA 5-10-27. This appendix covers the prepara-tion of firing systems that are basic to alldemolition work. There are two types of firingsystems – NONELECTRIC SYSTEM andELECTRIC SYSTEM.
Breaching minefield.
Breaching wire obstacles.
Clearing landing zones.
Blowing holes in walls of buildings.
Blowing down trees to create obstacles.
CONTENTS
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .B-1
HOW TO PREPAREFIRING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .B-1
B-1
FM 21-75
NONELECTRIC SYSTEM
To prepare a nonelectric firing system,take these steps:
STEP 1. Clear the cap well of a blockof TNT or push a hole about the sizeof a blasting cap (3 cm [1% in] deepand .65 cm [¼ in] in diameter) in ablock of C4 explosive.
STEP 2. To help prevent a misfire,cut and discard 15-cm (6-in) lengthof fuse from the free end of the timeblasting fuse. That part of the fusemay have absorbed some moisturefrom the air through the exposedpowder in the end of the fuse.
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FM 21-75
STEP 3. Determine what length offuse is needed. To do this, first computethe burning time of a 91.4-cm (3-ft) sec-tion of fuse. Divide this burning timeby 3 to find the burning time of 30.5 cm(1 ft) of fuse. Next, determine the timeit takes to reach a safe distance fromthe explosion. Now divide the time re-quired to reach that distance by theburn time of 30.5 cm (1 ft) of fuse. Thiswill give the number of centimeters(ft) of fuse needed.STEP 4. Inspect the nonelectric blast-ing cap to make sure it is clear offoreign matter.STEP 5. Gently slip the blasting capover the fuse so that the flash chargein the cap is in contact with the end ofthe time fuse. DO NOT FORCE THEFUSE INTO THE CAP.STEP 6. After seating the cap, crimpit 3.2 mm (1/8 in) from the open end ofthe cap. Hold it out and away fromyour body when crimping.
B-3
FM 21-75
STEP 7. When using TNT, insert theblasting cap into the cap well. Whenusing C4, place the cap into the holemade in the C4 and mold the C4 aroundthe cap. DO NOT FORCE THE CAPINTO-THE HOLE.
STEP 8. Insert the free end of the fuseinto an M60 fuse igniter and secure it inplace by screwing on the fuse holder cap.
B-4
FM 21-75
STEP 9. To fire the fuse igniter, re-move the safety pin, hold the barrel inone hand. Take up the slack, beforemaking the final strong pull. If the fuseigniter misfires, reset it by pushing theplunger all the way in. Then try to fireit as before. If it still misfires, replace it.
STEP 10. If a fuse igniter is not avail-
STEP 11. Then light the inserted matchhead with a burning match or strikethe inserted match head on a matchbox.
If the fuse burns but the explosive chargedoes not go off, there is a misfire. Wait 30minutes before trying to clear it. If the misfirecharge was not tamped (nothing packed aroundit), lay another charge of at least one block of
able, split the end of the fuse and place C4 or TNT beside it. If it was tamped, place atthe head of an unlighted match in the least two blocks of C4 or TNT beside it. Do notsplit. Make sure the match head is move the misfire charge. The detonation of thetouching the powder train. new charge should detonate the misfire charge.
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FM 21-75
ELECTRIC SYSTEM
To prepare an electric firing system, takethese steps:
STEP 1. After finding a safe firingposition and a place for the charge,lay out the firing wire from the chargeposition to the firing position. Beforeleaving the charge position, anchorthe firing wire to something. Alwayskeep the firing device with you. Donot leave it at the firing position.
STEP 2. Check the firing wire with thegalvanometers or circuit taster to makesure it does not have a short circuit ora break. This is best done with oneman at each end of the firing wire.
To check for a short, separate thetwo strands (the bare ends) of thefiring wire at the firing position.
B-6
FM 21-75
Have the other soldier do the samething with the other end of the wireat the charge position. At the firingposition, touch the bare ends of thetwo strands to the galvanometer/cir-cuit tester posts. The needle on thegalvanometers should not move, norshould the light on the circuit testercome on. If the needle does not moveor if the light does not come on, thewire has a break — replace it.If the wire has no short when tested,test it for a break. Have the soldierat the charge position twist thebare ends of the strands together.Then touch the two strands at thefiring position to the galvanometers/circuit tester posts. That shouldcause a wide deflection of the gal-vanometer needle or cause thecircuit tester light to come on. Ifthe galvanometers needle does notmove or if the light does not comeon, the wire has a break — replace it.
.
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FM 21-75
STEP 3. At the firing position, checkthe blasting cap with a galvanometersor circuit tester to make sure it doesnot have a short. Remove the shortcircuit shunt and touch one cap leadwire using the galvanometers, the needleshould make a wide deflection. If itdoes, the cap is good.
If the needle fails to move or onlymakes a slight deflection, replace
of C4 plastic explosive, push a hole init about the size of a blasting cap.
the cap.
STEP 5. Position the charge. Thensplice the lead wires of the cap to the
When using the circuit tester, thelight should come on when thehandle is squeezed. If it does not,replace the cap.
STEP 4. Move to the charge positionand, if the charge is a block of TNT,clear its cap well if the charge is a block
firing wire (pigtail knot).
B-8
FM 21-75
STEP 6. Insert the cap into the capwell of the TNT and secure it with thepriming adapter, or insert the cap intothe hole made in the C4 and mold theexplosive around the cap.
STEP 7. Move back to the firing posi-tion and check the wire circuit withthe galvanometers or circuit tester(same technique as described earlier).
If the circuit checked out and the blastingmachine does not set off the charge, there is amisfire.
If an untamped charge misfires, inves-tigate at once. If the charge is tamped, wait30 minutes before investigating, then takethese steps:
STEP 1. Check the firing wire connec-tion to the blasting machine to be surethat the contacts are good.
STEP 2. Make two or three moreattempts to fire the charge.
B - 9
FM 21-75
STEP 3. Try to fire it again usinganother blasting machine.
STEP 4. Disconnect the firing wirefrom the blasting machine and shunt(twist together) the ends of the wire.
STEP 5. Move to the charge positionto investigate. Take the blastingmachine with you.
STEP 6. Check the entire circuit, in-cluding the firing wire, for breaks andshort circuits.
STEP 7. Make no attempt to removethe primer or the charge.
STEP 8. If the fault has not beenfound, place a new primed chargebeside the misfire charge.
STEP 9. Disconnect the old blastingcap wires from the firing wire and shuntthe ends of the blasting cap wires.
STEP 10. Attach the new blasting capwires to the firing wire and fire the
new charge. This should also detonatethe misfire charge.
B-10
FM 21-75
APPENDIX C
Obstacles
GENERAL
In combat, enemy units use obstacles to stopor slow their opponent’s movement. Because ofthat, you may have to bypass or breach (make a gapthrough) those obstacles in order to continue yourmission.
Two basic obstacles used by the enemy areminefield and wire obstacles. This appendix givesguidance on breaching and crossing minefield andwire obstacles.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1HOW TO BREACH AND
CROSS A MINEFIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-2HOW TO BREACH AND
CROSS WIRE OBSTACLES . . . . . . . . . . . . C-5
C-l
FM 21-75
HOW TO BREACH AND CROSSA MINEFIELD
There are many ways to breach a mine-field. One way is to probe for and mark minesto clear a footpath through the minefield.
PROBING FOR MINES
Remove your helmet, load-carryingequipment (LCE), watch, rings, belt,dog tags, and anything else that mayhinder movement or fall off.
Leave your rifle and equipment withanother soldier in the team.
Get a wooden stick about 30 cm (12 in)long for a probe and sharpen one ofthe ends. Do not use a metal probe.
Place the unsharpened end of the probein the palm of one hand with yourfingers extended and your thumb hold-ing the probe.
Probe every 5 cm (2 in) across a l-meterfront. Push the probe gently into theground at an angle less than 45 degrees.
Kneel (or lie down) and feel upwardand forward with your free hand tofind tripwires and pressure prongsbefore starting to probe.
Put just enough pressure on the probeto sink it slowly into the ground. Ifthe probe does not go into the ground.
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FM 21-75
pick or chip the dirt away with theprobe and remove it by hand.
Stop probing when a solid object istouched.
Remove enough dirt from around the—object to find out what it is.
MARKING THE MINERemove enough dirt from around itto see what type of mine it is.Mark it and report its exact locationto your leader. There are several waysto mark a mine. How it is marked isnot as important as having everyoneunderstand the marking. A commonway to mark a mine is to tie a pieceof paper, cloth, or engineer tape to astake and put the stake in the groundby the mine.
C-3
161-017 0 - 94 - 6
FM 21-75
CROSSING THE MINEFIELD
Once a footpath has been probed and themines marked, a security team should cross theminefield to secure the far side. After the farside is secure, the rest of the unit should cross.
C-4
FM 21-75
HOW TO BREACH AND CROSSWIRE OBSTACLES
The enemy uses wire obstacles to separateinfantry from tanks and to slow or stop in-fantry. His wire obstacles are similar to ours.To breach them, you should use wire cuttersand bangalore torpedoes.
Breaching a wire obstacle may requirestealth; for example, when done by a patrol.It may not require stealth during an attack.Breaches requiring stealth are normally donewith wire cutters. Other breaches are normallydone with bangalore torpedoes and wire cutters.
CUTTING THE WIRE
To cut through a wire obstacle withstealth
Cut only the lower strands and leavethe top strand in place. That makes itless likely that the enemy will discoverthe gap.
Cut the wire near a picket. To reducethe noise of a cut, have another soldierwrap cloth around the wire and holdthe wire with both hands. Cut part ofthe way through the wire between theother soldier’s hands and have himbend the wire back and forth until itbreaks. If you are alone, wrap clotharound the wire near a picket, partiallycut the wire, and then bend and breakthe wire.
To breach an obstacle made of concertina:
Cut the wire and stake it back to keepthe breach open.
Stake the wire back far enough toallow room to crawl through or underthe obstacle.
C-5
FM 21-75
To
CROSSING THE WIRE
crawl under a wire obstacle:
Slide headfirst on your back.
Push forward with your heels.
Carry your weapon lengthwise on yourbody and steady it with one hand. Tokeep the wire from snagging on yourclothes and equipment, let it slidealong your weapon.
Feel ahead with your free hand to findthe next strand of wire and any tripwires or mines.
To cross over a wire obstacle:
Stay crouched down low.
Feel and look for tripwires and mines.
Grasp the first wire strand lightly, andcautiously lift one leg over the wire.
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FM 21-75
Lower your foot to the ground.
Lift your other foot over the wire andlower it to the ground.
Release the wire and feel for the nextstrand.
To speed up a crossing, put boardsor grass mats over the wire and crosson them.
USING A BANGALORE TORPEDO
A bangalore torpedo comes in a kit thathas 10 torpedo sections, 10 connecting sleeves,and 1 nose sleeve. Use only the number of tor-pedo sections and connecting sleeves needed.
All torpedo sections have a threaded capwell at each end so that they may be assembledin any order. Use the connecting sleeves to con-nect the torpedo sections together. To preventearly detonation of the entire bangalore torpedoif you hit a mine while pushing it through theobstacle, attach an improvised (wooden) torpedosection to its end. That section can be made outof any wooden pole or stick that is the size ofa real torpedo section. Attach the nose sleeveto the end of the wooden section.
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FM 21-75
After the bangalore torpedo has beenassembled and pushed through the obstacle,prime it with either an electric or nonelectricfiring system (app B).
Once the bangalore torpedo has been fired,use wire cutters to cut away any wire not cutby the explosion.
C-8
FM 21-75
APPENDIX D
Urban Areas
GENERAL
Successful combat operations in urban areasrequire skills that are unique to this type of fighting.This appendix discusses some of those skills. For amore detailed discussion, see FM 90-10-1.
HOW TO MOVE
skillsure
Movement in urban areas is a fundamentalthat you must master. To minimize expo-to enemy fire while moving:
Do not silhouette yourself, stay low,avoid open areas such as streets,alleys, and parks.
Select your next covered position be-fore moving.
Conceal your movements by usingsmoke, buildings, rubble, or foliage.
Move rapidly from one position toanother.
Do not mask your overwatching/covering fire when you move; and stayalert and ready.
CONTENTS
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D-1
HOW TO MOVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..D-1
HOW TO ENTERA BUILDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. D-7
HOW TO USEHAND GRENADES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..D-10
HOW TO USEFIGHTING POSITIONS . . . . . . . D-10
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HOW TO CROSS A WALL
Always cross a wall rapidly. But first, finda low spot to cross and visually reconnoiterthe other side of the wall to see if it is clear ofobstacles and the enemy. Next, quickly rollover the wall, keeping a low silhouette. Therapid movement and low silhouette keep theenemy from getting a good shot at you.
HOW TO MOVE AROUNDA CORNER
Before moving around a corner, check outthe area beyond it to see if it is clear of obstaclesand the enemy. Do not expose yourself whenchecking out that area. Lie flat on the groundand do not expose your weapon beyond the cor-ner. With your steel helmet on, look around thecorner at ground level only enough to see aroundit. Do not expose your head any more thannecessary. If there are no obstacles or enemypresent, stay low and move around the corner.
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HOW TO MOVE PAST A WINDOWWhen moving past a window on the first
floor of a building, stay below the window level.Take care not to silhouette yourself in the win-dow, and stay close to the side of the building.
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When moving past a window in a base-ment, use the same basic techniques used inpassing a window on the first floor. However,instead of staying below the window, step orjump over it without exposing your legs.
HOW TO MOVE PARALLEL TOA BUILDING
When you must move parallel to a building,use smoke for concealment and have someoneto overwatch your move. Stay close to the sideof the building. Use shadows if possible, andstay low. Move quickly from covered positionto covered position.
HOW TO CROSS OPEN AREAS
Whenever possible, you should avoid killzones such as streets, alleys, and parks. Theyare natural kill zones for enemy machine guns.When you must cross an open area, do it quickly.Use the shortest route across the area. Usesmoke to conceal your move and have someoneoverwatch you.
If you must go from point A to point C,as depicted in the illustration, do not movefrom point A straight to point C. This is thelongest route across the open area and givesthe enemy more time to track and hit you.
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Instead of going from point A straight Once on the other side of the open area,to point C, select a place (point B) to move to, move to point C using the techniques alreadyusing the shortest route across the open area. discussed.
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HOW TO MOVE IN A BUILDING
When moving in a building, do not sil-houette yourself in doors and windows. Movepast them as discussed for outside movement.
If forced to use a hallway, do not presenta large target to the enemy. Hug the wall andget out of the hallway quickly.
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HOW TO ENTER A BUILDING
When entering a building, take every pre-caution to get into it with minimum exposureto enemy fire and observation. Some basicrules are:
Select an entry point before moving.
Avoid windows and doors.
Use smoke for concealment.
Make new entry points by usingdemolitions or tank rounds.
Quickly follow the explosion of thehand grenade.
Have your buddy overwatch you asyou enter the building.
Enter at the highest level possible.
HIGH LEVEL ENTRIES
The preferred way to clear a building is toclear from the top down. That is why you shouldenter at the highest level possible. If a defendingenemy is forced down to the ground level, he
Throw a hand grenade through the may leave the building, thus exposing himselfentry point before entering. to the fires outside the building.
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If the enemy is forced up to the top floor,he may fight even harder than normal orescape over the roofs of other buildings.
You can use ropes, ladders, drain pipes,vines, helicopters, or the roofs and windows ofadjoining buildings to reach the top floor orroof of a building. In some cases, you can climbonto another soldier’s shoulders and pull your-self up. You can attach a grappling hook to oneend of a rope andwhere it can snagin place.
throw the hook to the roof,something to hold the rope
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LOW LEVEL ENTRIES
There will be times when you can’t enterfrom an upper level or the roof. In such cases,entry at the ground floor may be your only wayto get into the building. When making low levelentries, avoid entries through windows anddoors as much as possible. They are oftenbooby trapped and are probably covered byenemy fire.
When making low level entries, use demo-litions, artillery, tanks, antitank weapons,or similar means to make an entry point in awall. Before entering the entry point, throwa cooked-off hand grenade through the entrypoint to reinforce the effects of the first blast.
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HOW TO USE HANDGRENADES
When fighting in built-up areas, usehand grenades to clear rooms, hallways, andbuildings. Throw a hand grenade before enter-ing a door, window, room, hall, stairwell, orany other entry point. Before throwing a handgrenade, let it cook off for 2 seconds. Thatkeeps the enemy from throwing it back beforeit explodes.
To cook off a hand grenade remove yourthumb from the safety lever; allow the lever torotate out and away from the grenade; thencount one thousand one, one thousand two, andthrow it.
The best way to put a grenade into anupper-story opening is to use a grenade launcher.
When you throw a hand grenade into anopening, stay close to the building, using it forcover. Before you throw the hand grenade, selecta safe place to move to in case the hand grenadedoes not go into the opening or in case theenemy throws it back. Once you throw the handgrenade, take cover. After the hand grenadeexplodes, move into the building quickly.
HOW TO USE FIGHTINGPOSITIONS
Fighting positions in urban areas aredifferent from those in other types of terrain.They are not always prepared as discussed inchapter 2. In some cases, you must use hastyfighting positions which are no more than what-ever cover is available.
CORNERS OF BUILDINGSWhen using a corner of a building as a
fighting position, you must be able to fire fromeither shoulder. Fire from the shoulder that letsyou keep your body close to the wall of the build-ing and expose as little of yourself as possible.If possible, fire from the prone position.
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WALLS
When firing from behind a wall, fire aroundit if possible, not over it. Firing around it re-duces the chance of being seen by the enemy.Always stay low, close to the wall, and fire fromthe shoulder that lets you stay behind cover.
WINDOWSWhen using a window as a fighting posi-
tion, do not use a standing position, as it exposesmost of your body. Standing may also silhou-ette you against a light-colored interior wall ora window on the other side of the building. Donot let the muzzle of your rifle extend beyondthe window, as that may give away your posi-tion. The enemy may see the muzzle or theflash of the rifle.
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The best way to fire from a window is toget well back into the room. That prevents themuzzle or flash from being seen. Kneel toreduce exposure.
To improve the cover provided by a win-dow, barricade the window but leave a small holeto fire through. Also barricade other windowsaround your position. That keeps the enemyfrom knowing which windows are being used forfighting positions. Use boards from the interiorwalls of the building or any other material tobarricade the window. The barricade materialshould be put on in an irregular pattern so thatthe enemy cannot determine which window isbeing used.
Place sandbags below and on the sides ofthe window to reinforce it and to add cover.Remove all the glass in the window to preventinjury from flying glass.
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PEAKS OF ROOFSA peak of a roof can provide a vantage
point and cover for a fighting position. It isespecially good for a sniper position. Whenfiring from a rooftop, stay low and do not sil-houette yourself.
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A chimney, smokestack, or any otherstructure extending from a roof can provide abase behind which you can prepare a position.If possible, remove some of the roofing materialso that you can stand inside the building ona beam or platform with only your head andshoulders above the roof. Use sandbags to pro-vide extra cover.
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If there are no structures extending froma roof, prepare the position from underneaththe roof and on the enemy side. Remove enoughof the roofing material to let you see and coveryour sector through it. Use sandbags to addcover. Stand back from the opening and donot let the muzzle or flash of your rifle showthrough the hole. The only thing that should benoticeable to the enemy is the missing roofingmaterial.
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LOOPHOLES
A loophole blown or cut in a wall providescover for a fighting position. Using loopholesreduces the number of windows that have to beused. Cut or blow several loopholes in a wall sothe enemy cannot tell which one you are using.When using a loophole, stay back from it. Donot let the muzzle or flash of your rifle showthrough it.
To reinforce a loophole and add cover, putsandbags around it. If you will be firing from aprone position on the second floor, put sand-bags on the floor to lie on. That will protectyou from explosions on the first floor. Use atable with sandbags on it or some other sturdystructure to provide overhead cover. That willprotect you from falling debris.
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APPENDIX E
Tracking
GENERAL
In all operations, you must be alert for signs ofenemy activity. Such signs can often alert you to anenemy’s presence and give your unit time to preparefor contact. The ability to track an enemy after hehas broken contact also helps you regain contactwith him.
TRACKER QUALITIES Tracking is a precise art. You need a lotof practice to achieve and keep a high level
Visual tracking is following the path of of tracking skill. You should be familiar withmen or animals by the signs they leave, pri- the general techniques of tracking to enable youmarily on the ground or vegetation. Scent to detect the presence of a hidden enemy and totracking is following men or animals by their follow him, to find and avoid mines or booby-smell. traps, and to give early warning of ambush.
CONTENTSGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1 LITTERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-8TRACKER QUALITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1 CAMOUFLAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-8FUNDAMENTALS OF TRACKING . . . . . . . . . . . E-2 INTERPRETATION/IMMEDIATE
USE INTELLIGENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-8DISPLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-2 TRACKING TEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-9STAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-6 TRACKER DOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-10WEATHERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-7 COUNTERTRACKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-10
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With common sense and a degree of exper-ience, you can track another person. However,you must develop the following traits andqualities:
Be patient.
Be able to move slowly and quietly,yet steadily, while detecting and inter-preting signs.
Avoid fast movement that may causeyou to overlook signs, lose the trail,or blunder into an enemy unit.
Be persistent and have the skill anddesire to continue the mission eventhough signs are scarce or weather orterrain is unfavorable.
Be determined and persistent whentrying to find a trail that you have lost.
Be observant and try to see thingsthat are not obvious at first glance.
Use your senses of smell and hearingto supplement your sight.
Develop a feel for things that do notlook right. It may help you regaina lost trail or discover additionalsigns.
Know the enemy, his habits, equip-ment, and capability.
FUNDAMENTALS OFTRACKING
When tracking an enemy, you should builda picture of him in your mind. Ask yourselfsuch questions as: How many persons am Ifollowing? How well are they trained? How arethey equipped? Are they healthy? How is theirmorale? Do they know they are being followed?
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To find the answer to such questions, useall available signs. A sign can be anything thatshows you that a certain act took place at aparticular place and time. For instance, a foot-print tells a tracker that at a certain time aperson walked on that spot.
The six fundamentals of tracking are:
Displacement.
Staining.
Weathering.
Littering.
Camouflaging.
Interpretation and/or immediate useintelligence.
Any sign that you find can be identifiedas one or more of the first five fundamentals.In the sixth fundamental, you combine thefirst five and use all of them to form a pictureof the enemy.
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement takes place when somethingis moved from its original position. An exampleis a footprint in soft, moist ground. The footof the person that left the print displaced thesoil, leaving an indentation in the ground. Bystudying the print, you can determine manyfacts. For example, a print that was left bya barefoot person or a person with worn orfrayed footgear indicates that he may havepoor equipment.
HOW TO ANALYZE FOOTPRINTS
Footprints show the following:
The direction and rate of movementof a party.
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The number of persons in a party. a heavy load is probably being carried by theperson who left the prints.
Whether or not heavy loads are car-ried. You can also determine a person’s sex by
studying the size and position of the footprints.The sex of the members of a party. Women generally tend to be pigeon-toed,
while men usually walk with their feet pointedWhether the members of a party know straight ahead or slightly to the outside.they are being followed. Women’s prints are usually smaller than men’s,
and their strides are usually shorter.If the footprints are deep and the pace
is long, the party is moving rapidly. Very long If a party knows that it is being followed,strides and deep prints, with toe prints deeper it may attempt to hide its tracks. Personsthan heel prints, indicate that the party is walking backward have a short, irregular stride.running. If the prints are deep, short, and widely The prints have an unusually deep toe. The soilspaced, with signs of scuffing or shuffling, will be kicked in the direction of movement.
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The last person walking in a group usuallyleaves the clearest footprints. Therefore, usehis prints as the key set. Cut a stick the lengthof each key print and notch the stick to show theprint width at the widest part of the sole. Studythe angle of the key prints to determine thedirection of march. Look for an identifying markor feature on the prints, such as a worn or frayedpart of the footwear. If the trail becomes vagueor obliterated, or if the trail being followedmerges with another, use the stick to help iden-tify the key prints. That will help you stay onthe trail of the group being followed.
Use the box method to count the numberof persons in the group. There are two ways touse the box method — the stride as a unit ofmeasure method and the 36-inch box method.
The stride as a unit of measure method isthe most accurate of the two. Up to 18 personscan be counted using this method. Use it whenthe key prints can be determined. To use thismethod, identify a key print on a trail and drawa line from its heel across the trail. Then moveforward to the key print of the opposite footand draw a line through its instep. This shouldform a box with the edges of the trail formingtwo sides, and the drawn lines forming theother two sides. Next, count every print orpartial print inside the box to determine the
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number of persons. Any person walking nor-mally would have stepped in the box at leastone time. Count the key prints as one.
To use the 36-inch box method, mark offa 30- to 36-inch cross section of a trail, countthe prints in the box, then divide by two todetermine the number of persons that used thetrail. (Your M16 rifle is 39 inches long and maybe used as a measuring device.)
OTHER SIGNS OF DISPLACEMENT
Footprints are only one example of dis-placement. Displacement occurs when any-thing is moved from its original position. Otherexamples are such things as foliage, moss, vines,sticks, or rocks that are moved from their origi-nal places; dew droplets brushed from leaves;stones and sticks that are turned over andshow a different color underneath; and grass orother vegetation that is bent or broken in thedirection of movement.
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Bits of cloth may be torn from a uniform flushed from their natural habitats. You mayand left on thorns, snags, or the ground, and hear the cries of birds that are excited by strangedirt from boots may make marks on the ground. movements. The movement of tall grass or
brush on a windless day indicates that some-Another example of displacement is the thing is moving the vegetation from its original
movement of wild animals and birds that are position.
When you clear a trail by either breakingor cutting your way through heavy vegetation,you displace the vegetation. Displacementsigns can be made while you stop to rest withheavy loads. The prints made by the equipmentyou carry can help to identify its type. Whenloads are set down at a rest halt or campsite,grass and twigs may be crushed. A sleepingman may also flatten the vegetation.
In most areas, there will be insects. Anychanges in the normal life of these insects maybe a sign that someone has recently passedthrough the area. Bees that are stirred up, andholes that are covered by someone moving overthem, or spider webs that are torn down aregood clues.
If a person uses a stream to cover his trail,algae and water plants may be displaced in
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slippery footing or in places where he walkscarelessly. Rocks may be displaced from theiroriginal position, or turned over to show alighter or darker color on their opposite side.A person entering or leaving a stream maycreate slide marks, wet banks, or footprints, orhe may scuff bark off roots or sticks. Normally,a person or animal will seek the path of leastresistance. Therefore, when you search a streamfor exit signs, look for open places on the banksor other places where it would be easy to leavethe stream.
STAININGA good example of staining is the mark left
by blood from a bleeding wound. Bloodstainsoften will be in the form of drops left by awounded person. Blood signs are found on theground and smeared on leaves or twigs.
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You can determine the location of a woundon a man being followed by studying the blood-stains. If the blood seems to be dripping stead-ily, it probably came from a wound on his trunk.A wound in the lungs will deposit bloodstainsthat are pink, bubbly, frothy. A bloodstaindeposited from a head wound will appear heavy,wet, and slimy, like gelatin. Abdominal woundsoften mix blood with digestive juices so thatthe deposit will have an odor. The stains will belight in color.
Staining can also occur when a personwalks over grass, stones, and shrubs with muddyboots. Thus, staining and displacement togethermay give evidence of movement and indicatethe direction taken. Crushed leaves may stainrocky ground that is too hard for footprints.
Roots, stones, and vines may be stainedby crushed leaves or berries when walked on.Yellow stains in snow may be urine marks leftby personnel in the area.
In some cases, it may be hard to determinethe difference between staining and displace-ment. Both terms can be applied to some signs.For example, water that has been muddied mayindicate recent movement. The mud has beendisplaced and it is staining the water. Stonesin streams may be stained by mud from boots.Algae can be displaced from stones in streamsand can stain other stones or bark.
Water in footprints in swampy groundmay be muddy if the tracks are recent. In time,however, the mud will settle and the water willclear. The clarity of the water can be used to esti-mate the age of the prints. Normally, the mudwill clear in 1 hour. That will vary with terrain.
WEATHERING
Weather may either aid or hinder track-ing. It affects signs in ways that help determinehow old they are, but wind, snow, rain, andsunlight can also obliterate signs completely.
By studying the effects of weather onsigns, you can determine the age of the sign.For example, when bloodstains are fresh, theymay be bright red. Air and sunlight will changethe appearance of blood first to a deep ruby-redcolor, and then to a dark brown crust when themoisture evaporates. Scuff marks on trees orbushes darken with time. Sap oozes from freshcuts on trees but it hardens when exposed tothe air.
FOOTPRINTS
Footprints are greatly affected by weather.When a foot displaces soft, moist soil to form aprint, the moisture holds the edges of the printintact and sharp. As sunlight and air dry theedges of the print, small particles that wereheld in place by the moisture fall into the print,making the edges appear rounded. Study thisprocess carefully to estimate the age of a print.If particles are just beginning to fall into a print,it is probably fresh. If the edges of the print aredried and crusty, the prints are probably atleast an hour old. The effects of weather willvary with the terrain, so this information isfurnished as a guide only.
A light rain may round out the edges ofa print. Try to remember when the last rainoccurred in order to put prints into a propertime frame. A heavy rain may erase all signs.
Wind also affects prints. Besides dryingout a print, the wind may blow litter, sticks,or leaves into it. Try to remember the windactivity in order to help determine the age of aprint. For example, you may think, “It is calmnow, but the wind blew hard an hour ago. Theseprints have litter blown into them, so theymust be over an hour old.” You must be sure,however, that the litter was blown into theprints, and was not crushed into them whenthe prints were made.
Trails leaving streams may appear to beweathered by rain because of water running
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into the footprints from wet clothing or equip-ment. This is particularly true if a party leavesa stream in a file. From this formation, eachperson drips water into the prints. A wet trailslowly fading into a dry trail indicates that thetrail is fresh.
WIND, SOUNDS, AND ODORS
Wind affects sounds and odors. If the windis blowing from the direction of a trail you arefollowing, sounds and odors are carried to you.If the wind is blowing in the same direction asthe trail you are following, you must be cautiousas the wind will carry your sounds toward theenemy. To find the wind direction, drop a hand-ful of dry dirt or grass from shoulder height.
To help you decide where a sound is comingfrom, cup your hands behind your ears andslowly turn. When the sound is loudest, youare probably facing the origin of sound. Whenmoving, try to keep the wind in your face.
SUN
You must also consider the effects of thesun. It is hard to look or aim directly into thesun. If possible, keep the sun at your back.
LITTERING
Poorly trained units may leave trails oflitter as they move. Gum or candy wrappers,ration cans, cigarette butts, remains of fires, orhuman feces are unmistakable signs of recentmovement.
Weather affects litter. Rain may flattenor wash litter away, or turn paper into pulp.Winds may blow litter away from its originallocation. Ration cans exposed to weather willrust. They first rust at the exposed edge wherethey were opened. Rust then moves in towardthe center. Use your memory to determine theage of litter. The last rain or strong wind can bethe basis of a time frame.
CAMOUFLAGE
If a party knows that you are tracking it,it will probably use camouflage to conceal itsmovement and to slow and confuse you. Doingso, however, will slow it down. Walking back-ward, brushing out trails, and moving overrocky ground or through streams are examplesof camouflage that can be used to confuse you.
The party may move on hard surfaced,frequently traveled roads or try to merge withtraveling civilians. Examine such routes withextreme care, because a well-defined approachthat leads to the enemy will probably be mined,ambushed, or covered by snipers.
The party may try to avoid leaving atrail. Its members may wrap rags around theirboots, or wear soft-soled shoes to make theedges of their footprints rounder and less dis-tinct. The party may exit a stream in column orline to reduce the chance of leaving a well-defined exit.
If the party walks backward to leave aconfusing trail, the footprints will be deepenedat the toe, and the soil will be scuffed or draggedin the direction of movement.
If a trail leads across rocky or hard ground,try to work around that ground to pick up theexit trail. This process works in streams aswell. On rocky ground, moss or lichens growingon the stones could be displaced by even themost careful evader. If you lose the trail, returnto the last visible sign. From there, head in thedirection of the party’s movement. Move inever-widening circles until you find some signsto follow.
INTERPRETATION/IMMEDIATEUSE INTELLIGENCE
When reporting, do not report your inter-pretations as facts. Report that you have seen
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signs of certain things, not that those thingsactually exist.
Report all information quickly. The term“immediate use intelligence” includes infor-mation of the enemy that can be put to use atonce to gain surprise, to keep the enemy offbalance, or to keep him from escaping an area.A commander has many sources of intelligence.He puts the information from those sourcestogether to help determine where an enemy is,what he may be planning, and where he maybe going.
Information you report gives your leaderdefinite information on which he can act atonce. For example, you may report that yourleader is 30 minutes behind an enemy unit, thatthe enemy is moving north, and that he is nowat a certain place. That gives your leader infor-mation on which he can act at once. He couldthen have you keep on tracking and moveanother unit to attack the enemy. If a trail is
found that has signs of recent enemy activity,your leader can set up an ambush on it.
TRACKING TEAMS
Your unit may form tracking teams. Thelead team of a moving unit can be a trackingteam, or a separate unit may be a tracking team.There are many ways to organize such teams,and they can be any size. There should, however,be a leader, one or more trackers, and securityfor the trackers. A typical organization has threetrackers, three security men, and a team leaderwith a radiotelephone operator (RATELO).
When a team is moving, the best trackershould be in the lead, followed by his security.The two other trackers should be on the flanks,each one followed and overmatched by hissecurity. The leader should be where he canbest control the team. The RATELO should bewith the leader.
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TRACKER DOGS
Tracker dogs may be used to help trackan enemy. Tracker dogs are trained and usedby their handlers. A dog tracks human scentand the scent of disturbed vegetation causedby man’s passing.
Tracker dogs should be used with trackerteams. The team can track visually, and the dogand handler can follow. If the team loses thesigns, then the dog can take over. A dog cantrack faster than a man tracks, and a dog cantrack at night.
A tracker dog is trained not to bark andgive away the team. It is also trained to avoidbaits, cover odors, and deodorants used tothrow it off the track.
COUNTERTRACKING
In addition to knowing how to track, youmust know how to counter an enemy tracker’sefforts to track you. Some countertrackingtechniques are discussed in the followingparagraphs:
While moving from close terrain toopen terrain, walk past a big tree(30 cm [12 in] in diameter or larger)toward the open area for three to fivepaces. Then walk backward to the for-ward side of the tree and make a90-degree change of direction, passingthe tree on its forward side. Step care-fully and leave as little sign as possible.If this is not the direction that youwant to go, change direction againabout 50 meters away using the sametechnique. The purpose of this is todraw the enemy tracker into the openarea where it is harder for him to track.That also exposes him and causes himto search the wrong area.
When approaching a trail (about 100meters from it), change your directionof movement and approach it at a
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45-degree angle. When arriving at thetrail, move along it for about 20 to 30meters. Leave several signs of yourpresence. Then walk backward alongthe trail to the point where you joinedit. At that point, cross the trail andleave no sign of your leaving it. Thenmove about 100 meters at an angle of45 degrees, but this time on the otherside of the trail and in the reverse ofyour approach. When changing direc-tion back to your original line of march,the big tree technique can be used. Thepurpose of this technique is to drawthe enemy tracker along the easiertrail. You have, by changing directionbefore reaching the trail, indicated thatthe trail is your new line of march.
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To leave a false trail and to get an on hard ground. Use this techniqueenemy tracker to look in the wrong when leaving a stream. To furtherdirection, walk backward over soft confuse the enemy tracker, use thisground. Continue this deception for technique several times before actuallv—about 20 to 30 meters or until you are
.leaving the stream.
When moving toward a stream, change initial direction. Changing directiondirection about 100 meters before before entering the stream may con-reaching the stream and approach fuse the enemy tracker. When heit at a 45-degree angle. Enter the enters the stream, he should followstream and proceed down it for at the false trail until the trail is lost.least 20 to 30 meters. Then move back That will put him well away fromupstream and leave the stream in your you.
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When your direction of movementparallels a stream, use the stream todeceive an enemy tracker. Some tac-tics that will help elude a tracker areas follows:
Stay in the stream for 100 to 200meters.
Stay in the center of the streamand in deep water.
Watch for rocks or roots near thebanks that are not covered withmoss or vegetation and leave thestream at that point.
Walk out backward on soft ground.
Walk up a small, vegetation-coveredtributary and exit from it.
When being tracked by an enemytracker, the- best bet is to either tryto outdistance him or to double backand ambush him.
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APPENDIX F
Survival, Evasion, Resistance, And Escape
GENERAL
Continuous operations and fast-moving battlesincrease your chances of becoming temporarily sepa-rated from your unit. Whether you are separatedfrom a small patrol or a large unit, your mission afterbeing separated is to rejoin your unit.
This appendix provides techniques to help youfind your way back to your unit. For a more detaileddiscussion, see FM 21-76.
SURVIVAL
Survival is the action of staying alive inthe field with limited resources. You must tryto survive when you become separated fromyour unit, are evading the enemy, or during thetime you are a prisoner. Survival requires aknowledge of how to live off the land and takecare of yourself.
CONTENTS
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
SURVIVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-2
SECURITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-4
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EVASION
Evasion is the action you take to stayout of the hands of the enemy when separatedfrom your unit and in an enemy area. There areseveral courses of action you may take to avoidcapture and rejoin your unit.
You may stay in your current position andwait for friendly troops to find you. This maybe a good course of action if you are sure thatfriendly units will continue to operate in thearea, and if there are a lot of enemy units inthis area.
You may break out to a friendly area. Thismay be a good course of action if you knowwhere a friendly area is, and if the enemy iswidely dispersed.
You may move farther into enemy territoryto temporarily conduct guerrilla-type opera-tions. This is a short-term course of action tobe taken only when other courses of action arenot feasible. This may be a good course of actionwhen the enemy area is known to be lightlyheld, or when there is a good chance of linkingup with friendly guerrillas.
You may combine two or more of these.For example, you may stay in your currentposition until the enemy moves out of the areaand then break out to a friendly area.
There may be times when you will have tokill, stun, or capture an enemy soldier withoutalerting other enemy in the area. At suchtimes, a rifle or pistol makes too much noise,and you will use a silent weapon. Some silentweapons are:
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The bayonet.
The garotte (a choke wire or cord withhandles).
Improvised clubs.
In day or night, the successful use of silentweapons requires great skill and stealthymovement.
RESISTANCE
The Code of Conduct is an expression ofthe ideals and principles which traditionallyhave guided and strengthened American fight-ing men and the United States. It prescribes themanner in which every soldier of the UnitedStates armed forces must conduct himself whencaptured or when faced with the possibilityof capture.
You should never surrender of your ownfree will. Likewise, a leader should never sur-render the soldiers under his command whilethey still have the means to resist.
If captured, you must continue to resistin every way you can. Some rules to follow are:
Make every effort to escape and tohelp others escape.
Do not accept special favors from theenemy.
Do not give your word not to escape.
Do nothing that will harm a fellowprisoner.
Give no information except name,rank, social security number, and dateof birth.
Do not answer any questions otherthan those concerning your name,rank, social security number, and dateof birth.
ESCAPE
Escape is the action you take to get away
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from the enemy if you are captured. The besttime for you to escape is right after you arecaptured. You will probably be in your bestphysical condition at that time. Prison rationsare usually barely enough to sustain life, cer-tainly not enough to build up a reserve ofenergy. The physical treatment, medical care,and rations of prison life quickly cause physicalweakness, night blindness, and loss of coordina-tion and reasoning power.
The following are other reasons for makingan early escape:
Friendly fire or air strikes may causeenough confusion and disorder to pro-tide a chance of escape.
The first guards you have probablywill not be as well trained in handlingprisoners as guards farther back.
Some of the first guards may be walk-ing wounded who are distracted bytheir own condition.
You know something about the areawhere you are captured and may knowthe locations of nearby friendly units.
The way you escape depends on whatyou can think of to fit the situation.
The only general rules are to escapeearly and escape when the enemy isdistracted.
Once you have escaped, it may not beeasy to contact friendly troops — even whenyou know where they are. You should contact afriendly unit as you would if you were a memberof a lost patrol. You should time your move-ment so that you pass through enemy units atnight and arrive at a friendly unit at dawn. Agood way to make contact is to find a ditch or
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shallow hole to hide in where you have coverfrom both friendly and enemy fire. At dawn,you should attract the attention of the friendlyunit by waving a white cloth, shouting, showinga panel, or some other way. This should alertthe friendly unit and prepare it to accept you.After the unit has been alerted, you shouldshout who you are, what your situation is, andask for permission to move toward the unit.
SECURITY
In combat, you must always think ofsecurity. You must do everything possible forthe security of yourself and your unit.
The following are some basic things to dofor security:
Be awake and alert.
Stay dressed and ready for action.
Keep your equipment packed when itis not being used.
Keep your equipment and weapon ingood operating condition.
Use camouflage.
Move around only when necessary.Stay as quiet as possible.
Look and listen for enemy activity inyour sector.
Use lights only when necessary.
Do not write information about anoperation on your map.
Do not take notes or papers about anoperation into combat.
Do not take personal items intocombat.
Do not leave trash lying about.
Tie or tape down equipment to keep itfrom rattling.
Use challenge and password.
Do not give military information tostrangers.
Remember the Code of Conduct.
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APPENDIX G
Weapons And Fire Control
GENERAL
You must know how to fire your weapon andhow to control your fire. This appendix covers thecharacteristics of the weapons you will be using anddiscusses characteristics of fire and methods of firecontrol.
CONTENTS
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1
WEAPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2
CHARACTERISTICSOF FIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-11
FIRE DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-17
COVERING THETARGET AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-18
FIRE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-19
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WEAPONS
M1911A1 PISTOL
This pistol fires caliber .45 rounds. It isa semiautomatic, recoil-operated magazine-fedhandgun. It fires one round each time the trig-ger is pulled. Its magazine holds seven rounds.The top round is stripped from the magazineand chambered by the forward movement ofthe slide. When the last round in the magazinehas been fired, the slide stays to the rear.
M16A1 RIFLEThis rifle fires 5.56-mm rounds. It is
magazine-fed and gas-operated. It can shooteither semiautomatic or automatic fire throughthe use of a selector lever. The most stablefiring positions (those which allow the mostaccurate fire) are the prone supported or stand-ing supported for semiautomatic fire and theprone bipod supported for automatic fire.
M60 MACHINE GUNThis gun fires 7.62-mm rounds. It is belt-
fed, gas-operated, and automatic. It has anattached bipod and a separate tripod mount.The prone position, using the M122 tripodand the traversing and elevating mechanism,allows the most accurate fire. Some vehicularmounts, such as the pedestal mount on theM151 ¼-ton vehicle, are available for this gun.When the gunner is standing, the gun may befired from the hip, underarm, or shoulder firingposition.
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40-MM GRENADE LAUNCHER, M203This grenade launcher (GL) is attached to
an M16A1 rifle. The rifle has already been dis-cussed. The GL is a single-shot, breech-loaded,pump-action weapon. It fires a variety ofrounds. It can be used to suppress targets indefilade. The GL can be used to suppress ordisable armored vehicles, except tanks. ItsHEDP round can penetrate concrete, timber,sandbagged weapon positions, and some build-ings. Other rounds can be used to illuminate andsignal. The most stable firing positions are thestanding supported and the prone supported.
M433 High-Explosive Dual Purpose (HEDP)Round. This round can penetrate 5 cm (2 in)of armorplate, 30 cm (12 in) of pine logs, 40 cm(16 in) of concrete blocks, or 50 cm (20 in) ofsandbags at ranges up to 400 meters. It has a5-meter casualty radius against exposed troops.
M651 CS Round. This chemical round is usedto drive the enemy from bunkers or enclosedpositions in built-up areas.
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M583 White Star Parachute/M661 Green StarParachute/M662 Red Star Parachute Rounds.These are used to signal and illuminate. Onecan be placed 300 meters forward of a squad toilluminate an area 200 meters in diameter for40 seconds.
M585 White Star Cluster/M663 Green StarCluster/M664 Red Star Cluster Rounds. They areused to signal.
NOTE:THE GREEN STAR CLUSTER MAY
APPEAR WHITE IN BRIGHT SUNLIGHT.
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M713 Red Ground Smoke/M715 Green Smoke/M716 Yellow Smoke Rounds. These are used tomark locations, not for screening.
LIGHT ANTITANK WEAPON (LAW)This is a shoulder-fired, short-range anti-
tank weapon. The most stable firing positions
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for firing LAWs are the standing supported,prone, and prone supported.
The M72A2 LAW consists of a 66-mmHEAT (high explosive antitank) rocket in adisposable fiberglass and aluminum launchertube. Its light weight and its ability to pene-trate more than 30 cm (12 in) of armor makeit useful against enemy armor, bunkers, andother hard targets out to a range of 200 meters.
The four methods of engagement witha LAW are single, sequence, pair, and volleyfiring. The two best methods of engagement arevolley firing and pair firing.
Single firing. In single firing, you fire at atarget with only one LAW. This method is usedonly at ranges of 50 meters or less. Beyond thatrange, single firing is ineffective, as the chanceof a first-round hit is low.
Sequence firing. In sequence firing, you pre-pare several launchers for firing. After firingthe first LAW, note its impact. If you get a hit,continue to fire, using the same sight picture,until the target is destroyed. If the first round isa miss, adjust the range and lead of succeedingrounds until you get a hit. Then continue to fireuntil the target is destroyed.
Pair firing. In pair firing, you and anothergunner prepare two or more LAWs each, andfire at a target one at a time. You swap infor-mation when firing at the target. The gunnerseeing a target identifies it and gives the esti-mated range and lead he will use (for example,TANK, 150 METERS, FAST TARGET), thenfires. If the first gunner misses, the secondgunner quickly announces a revised estimate ofrange and lead (as appropriate) and fires. Bothgunners continue exchanging range and leadinformation until one gets a hit. Once the rangeand lead are determined, gunners fire at the tar-get until it is destroyed. Pair firing is preferred
over sequence firing, as it lets the gunners gethits fasten the gunner firing the second roundcan be ready to fire as soon as the first roundimpacts. In sequence firing, you must getanother LAW, establish a sight picture, andfire. Pair firing also has the advantage of havingtwo gunners track the target at one time.
Volley firing. In volley firing, you and one ormore other gunners fire at once. Before firing,each gunner prepares one or more LAWs Gun-ners fire on command or on signal until thetarget is destroyed for example, TANK, 100METERS, SLOW TARGET, VOLLEY FIRE,READY, AIM, FIRE. Volley fire is used onlywhen the range to the target and the lead havebeen determined. Range can be determinedby map, by pacing, or by the results of pairfiring after a target has been hit. The volleymethod is best because more rounds are fired ata target at one time. That increases the chanceof a hit.
M202A1, MULTISHOT ROCKET LAUNCHER66-MM (FLASH)
This is a lightweight, four-tube, 66-mmrocket launcher (RL). Aim and fire it from theright shoulder in the standing, kneeling, orprone position. It can fire a single rocket or upto four rockets semiautomatically at a rate ofone rocket per second. It is reloaded with a newclip of four rockets. The brilliant splash of thebursting incendiary warhead makes it a goodweapon to suppress enemy rocket gunners.When it impacts near enemy vehicles, it willmake them button up. The most stable positionfor firing the FLASH is the standing supportedposition. When you fire it from a fighting posi-tion, there are two limitations. First, overheadcover can limit the elevation of the RL andtherefore the range. Second, when elevatingthe RL, you must make sure that the rear of thelauncher is outside the hole so that its backblastis not deflected on you.
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M47 DRAGON MEDIUM ANTITANKWEAPON
This is a wire-guided missile system. It isman-portable and shoulder-fired. The Dragonactually rests on your shoulder and the frontbipod legs. It has two major components, thetracker and the round, The round (the expend-able part of the system) has two major parts,the launcher and the missile. These are pack-aged together for handling and shipping. Thelauncher is both the handling and carrying con-tainer and the tube from which the missile isfired. The tracker is the reusable part of thesystem. It is designed for fast, easy detachmentfrom the round.
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To fire the Dragon, look through the sightin the tracker, put the crosshairs on the target,and fire. Keep the crosshairs on the targetthroughout the missile’s flight. The missile iscontinuously guided along your line-of -sight.The tracker detects deviations from the line-of-sight and sends corrections to the missile bya wire link.
CALIBER .50 MACHINE GUN
This gun is belt-fed and recoil-operated.You can fire a single shot and automatic fromthe M3 tripod mount or the M63 antiaircraftmount. Fire bursts of 9 to 15 rounds to hitground targets from a stationary position. Tofire at aircraft, use a continuous burst, ratherthan several short bursts. While firing on themove, “walk” long bursts into the target. Youcan suppress enemy antitank guided missile(ATGM) gunners, vehicles, and troops witha heavy volume of fire from the caliber .50machine gun until a friendly maneuver elementcan destroy or bypass the enemy.
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M67 90-MM RECOILLESS RIFLE (RCLR)
This RCLR is a breech-loaded, single-shot, man-portable, crew-served weapon. Youcan use it in both antitank and antipersonnelroles. You can fire it from the ground, using thebipod or the monopod, or from the shoulder.The most stable firing position is the proneposition.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRETRAJECTORY
This is the path of a projectile from aweapon to the point of impact.
At ranges out to 300 meters, the trajectoryof rifle fire is almost flat. For greater ranges,
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you must raise the rifle muzzle, thus raisingthe height of the trajectory.
The GL has a high trajectory that is differ-ent from that of a rifle. The GL muzzle velocityis slow when compared to that of a rifle, but itis fast enough to have a flat trajectory out to150 meters. For targets at greater ranges (150to 350 meters), you must hold the GL about 20degrees above the horizontal. This results ina higher trajectory and increases the time offlight of the grenade to its target. Because thetrajectory is high and the time of flight long atranges beyond 150 meters, winds may blow thegrenade off course. As a grenadier, you mustcompensate for this.
DANGER SPACE
This is the space between a weapon andits target where the trajectory does not riseabove the average height of a standing man(1.8 meters). It includes the beaten zone.
DEAD SPACE
Any area within a weapon’s sector thatcannot be hit by fire from that weapon is deadspace.
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CONE OF FIRE
This is the cone-shaped pattern formedby the paths of rounds in a group or burst.The paths of the rounds differ and form a conebecause of gun vibration, wind changes, andvariations in ammunition.
BEATEN ZONE
The area on the ground where the roundsin a cone of fire fall is the beaten zone.
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CASUALTY RADIUSThis is the area around a projectile’s point
of impact in which soldiers could be killed orinjured by either the concussion or fragmenta-tion of the projectile.
CLASSES OF FIREFire is classified with respect to the ground
and the target.
Fire with respect to the ground is:
Grazing fire when most of the roundsdo not rise above 1 meter from theground.
Plunging fire when the path of therounds is higher than a standing manexcept in its beaten zone. Plunging fireis attained when firing at long ranges,when firing from high ground to lowground, and when firing into a hillside.
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Fire with respect to the target is:
Frontal fire when the rounds are fireddirectly at the front of the target.
Flanking fire when the rounds arefired at the flank of the target.
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Oblique fire when the long axis of thebeaten zone is oblique to the long axisof the target.
Enfilade fire when the long axis of thebeaten zone is the same as the longaxis of the target. It can be eitherfrontal, flanking, or oblique. It is thebest type of fire with respect to thetarget because it makes the best use ofthe beaten zone.
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SUPPRESSIVE FIRE
Fire directed at the enemy to keep himfrom seeing, tracking, or firing at the target issuppressive fire. It can be direct or indirectfire. Smoke placed on the enemy to keep himfrom seeing targets is also suppressive fire.
FIRE DISTRIBUTION
When firing at an enemy position, yourleader will distribute his unit’s fire to cover theposition. There are two ways to distribute fireon a target — point fire and area fire.
METHODS OF DISTRIBUTIONPoint Fire. This is fire directed at one point; forexample, an entire team firing at one bunker.
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Area Fire. This is fire directed to cover an areaboth laterally and in depth. If your leader wantsfire on a woodline, he may first fire tracers tomark its center. Then, he may have the men onhis left fire to the left of the tracers and thoseon his right fire to the right of the tracers. Thisis the best and quickest way to hit all parts ofan area target.
In area fire, you will fire at likely enemypositions rather than a general area. Fire firstat that part of the target relative to your posi-tion in the team. Then distribute your fire overan area a few meters to the right and left ofyour first shot.
COVERING THE TARGET AREA
AUTOMATIC RIFLEMAN
The part of the target which you, as anautomatic rifleman, can hit depends on yourposition and the range to the target. When possi-ble, you cover the entire target. When firingautomatic fire, you tend to fire high; so fire lowat first and then work up to the target.
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MACHINE GUNNERAs a machine gunner, fire into the part of
the target assigned to you by your leader.
DRAGON GUNNERAs a Dragon gunner, fire into the part of
the target assigned to you by your leader. Fireonly at targets such as armored vehicles andkey weapons. If there are no Dragon targets,fire your rifle.
GRENADIERAs a grenadier, fire your first grenade into
the center of the target. Then distribute yourshots over the remaining target area.
FIRE CONTROL
WAYS TO COMMUNICATE FIRECONTROL
Your leader will control your fire. The noiseand confusion of battle will limit the use ofsome methods of control, so he will use the wayor combination of ways that does the job.Sound. This includes both voice and devicessuch as whistles and horns. Sound signals aregood only for short distances. Their range andreliability y are reduced by battle noise, weather,terrain, and vegetation. Voice communicationsmay come directly from your leader to you orthey may be passed from soldier to soldier.Prearranged fire. In prearranged fire, yourleader tells you to start firing once the enemyreaches a certain point or terrain feature. Whenusing prearranged fire, you do not have to waitfor an order to start firing.Prearranged signals. In this method, your leadergives a prearranged signal when he wants youto start firing. This can be either a visual signalor a sound signal. Start firing immediatelywhen you get the signal.Soldier-initiated fire. This is used when there isno time to wait for orders from your leader.
Standing operating procedures (SOP). Thesecan reduce the number of oral orders neededto control fire. SOPs must be known and under-stood by all members of the unit. Three SOPsare the search-fire-check SOP, the return-fireSOP, and the rate-of-fire SOP. A procedure forgiving fire commands for direct fire weaponsshould also be SOP.
The search-fire-check SOP, follows thesesteps:
Step 1Search your assigned sectors for enemytargets.
Step 2Fire at any targets (appropriate foryour weapon) seen in your sectors.
Step 3
While firing in your sectors, visuallycheck with– your leader for specificorders.
The return-fire SOP tells each soldier ina unit what to do in case the unit makes un-expected contact with the enemy (in an ambush,for example). These instructions will vary fromunit to unit and from position to position withinthose units.
The rate-of-fire SOP tells each soldierhow fast to fire at the enemy. The rate of firevaries among weapons, but the principle is tofire at a maximum rate when first engaginga target and then slow the rate to a point thatwill keep the target suppressed. That helpskeep weapons from running out of ammunitiontoo fast.
FIRE COMMANDS
To help identify a target for a direct fireweapon and to control that weapon’s fire, aleader may give a fire command to that weapon.
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A fire command has the following sixparts:
Alert.Direction.Target Description.Range.Method of Fire.Command to Fire.
Alert. This gets your attention. The leader mayalert you by calling your name or unit designa-tion, by giving some type of visual or soundsignal, by personal contact, or by any otherpractical way.
Direction. This tells you which way to look tosee the target. The following are ways to givethe direction to the target:
Your leader may point to a target withhis arm or rifle. This will give you thegeneral direction of the target.
Your leader may fire tracer ammunitionat a target to quickly and accuratelyidentify it. However, before firing, heshould show you the general direction.
Your leader may designate certain fea-tures as TRPs before contact is madewith the enemy. Each TRP will havea number to identify it. He may give atarget’s direction in relationship toa TRP. For example FROM TRP 13,RIGHT 50. That means that the targetis 50 meters to the right of TRP 13.
Target Description. This tells you what thetarget is. Your leader should describe it briefly,but accurately. For example MACHINE GUNPOSITION IN THE WOODLINE.
Range. This tells you how far away the targetis. The range is given in meters.
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Method of Fire. This tells you who is to fire. Itmay also tell you how much ammunition tofire. For example, your leader may want onlythe grenadier to fire at a target. He may alsowant him to fire only three rounds. For ex-ample, he would say: GRENADIER, THREEROUNDS.Command to Fire. This tells you when to fire.It may be an oral command, or a sound or visualsignal. If your leader wants to control theexact moment of fire, he may say AT MYCOMMAND, (then pause until he is ready)FIRE. If he wants your fire to start upon com-pletion of the fire command, he will simply sayFIRE (without pausing).
Visual signals are the most common meansof giving fire commands. Arm-and-hand signals,personal examples, and pyrotechnics are someof the things your leader may use for visualsignals.
Your leader may use arm-and-hand signalsto give fire commands when you can see him.
He may use flares and smoke grenades tomark targets in most conditions of visibility.
Your leader may use his weapon to fire ona target as a signal; you fire when he fires.Watch your leader and do as he does. He mayuse tracers to point out targets.
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APPENDIX H
Held Expedient Antiarmor Devices
GENERAL
There are many weapons that you can use todestroy a tank or an armored personnel carrier. Theweapons most frequently used are LAWs, Dragons,TOWs, mines, and high-explosive dual-purpose(HEDP) rounds of the M203 grenade launcher. Theremay be times, however, when you will not have theseweapons available. In such cases, you may have touse field expedient devices. This appendix describessome appropriate devices.
HOW TO MAKE EXPEDIENTDEVICES
In order to construct some of these de-vices, you must know how to prime chargeselectrically and nonelectrically. (app B).
FLAME DEVICES
These devices are used to obscure thevision of a vehicle’s crew and to set the vehicleafire. The burning vehicle creates smoke andheat that will asphyxiate and burn the crew ifthey do not abandon the vehicle.
CONTENTS
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
HOW TO MAKEEXPEDIENT DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
WEAK POINTS OFARMORED VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-7
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Molotov cocktail. This is made with a breakablecontainer, a gas and oil mixture, and a clothwick. To construct it, fill the container (usuallya bottle) with the gas and oil mixture, and theninsert the cloth wick into the container. Thewick must extend both into the mixture and outof the container. Light the wick before throwingthe Molotov cocktail. When the container hitsa vehicle and breaks, the mixture will ignite,burning both the vehicle and the personnelaround it.
Eagle fireball. This is made with an ammunitioncan, a gas and oil mixture, a white phosphorousgrenade wrapped with detonating cord, tape,a nonelectric blasting cap, a fuse igniter, anda grapnel (or rope with bent nails). To constructan eagle fireball, fill the ammunition can withthe gas and oil mixture. Wrap the grenade withdetonating cord and attach a nonelectric firingsystem (app B) to the end of the detonatingcord. Place the grenade inside the can with
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the time fuse extending out of it. Make a slot inthe can’s lid for the time fuse to pass throughwhen the lid is closed. If available, attach arope with bent nails or a grapnel to the can.When you throw the can onto a vehicle, the bentnails or the grapnel will help hold the can onthe vehicle. Before throwing the can, fire thefuse igniter.
Eagle cocktail. This is made of a plastic or rub-berized bag (a waterproof bag, a sandbag linedwith a poncho, or a battery case placed insidea sandbag), a gas and oil mixture, a smokegrenade, a thermite grenade, tape, string, andcommunications wire or cord. To construct aneagle cocktail, fill the bag with the gas and oilmixture. Seal the bag by twisting its end andthen taping or tying it. Attach the thermite andsmoke grenades to the bag using tape, string,or communications wire. When attaching thegrenades, do not bind the safety levers onthe grenades. Tie a piece of string or cord to
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the safety pins of the grenades. Before throw-ing the eagle cocktail, pull the safety pins inboth grenades.
EXPLOSIVE DEVICES
Place such devices at vulnerable pointsto destroy components of tanks and armoredpersonnel carriers.
Towed charge. This is made of rope or commu-nications wire, mines or blocks of explosives,electrical blasting caps, tape, and electrical firingwire. To construct a towed charge, link a seriesof armed antitank mines together with rope orcommunications wire. If mines are not available,use about 25 to 50 pounds of explosives attachedon a board (sled charge). Anchor one end of therope on one side of a road and run its otherend across the road to a safe position fromwhich the charge may be pulled onto the road.Attach an electric firing system (app B) to eachmine (or to the explosive on the sled charge)and connect those systems to the firing wire.Tape the firing wire to the rope running to theposition from which the charge is pulled ontothe road. At that position, conduct a circuit
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check (app B) and then connect the firing wireto a blasting machine. Just before a vehiclereaches the site of the towed charge, pull thecharge onto the road so that it will be run overby the vehicle. When the vehicle is over it, firethe charge.
Pole charge. This is made of explosives (TNT orC4), nonelectric blasting caps, time fuse, deto-nating cord, tape, string or wire, fuse igniters,and a pole that is long enough for the mission.Prime the desired amount of explosives withtwo nonelectric firing systems, and attach theexplosives to a board or some other flat material.The amount of explosives you use depends onthe target to be destroyed. Tie or tape theboard with the explosives to the pole. The timefuse should only be about 6 inches long. Beforeputting a pole charge on a target, fire the fuseigniters. Some good places to put a pole charge
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on a vehicle are under the turret, over the enginecompartment, in the suspension system, and inthe main gun tube (if the charge is made smallenough to fit in the tube).
Satchel charge. This is made of explosives(TNT or C4), nonelectric blasting caps, timefuse, detonating cord, tape, fuse igniters, andsome type of satchel. The satchel can be anempty sandbag, or demolitions bag, or someother material. To construct a satchel charge,fill the satchel with the amount of explosivesneeded for the mission. Prime the explosiveswith two nonelectric firing systems. Use onlyabout 6 inches of time fuse. Seal the satchelwith string, rope, or tape, and leave the timefuse and fuse igniter hanging out of the satchel.Before throwing a satchel charge onto a target,fire the fuse igniters.
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WEAK POINTS OF ARMOREDVEHICLES
To use expedient devices successfully, youmust know where the weak points of armoredvehicles are. Some of the common weak pointsof armored vehicles are as follows:
The suspension system.
The fuel tanks (especially the externaltanks).
The ammunition storage compart-ments.
The engine compartment.
The turret ring.
The armor on the sides, top, and rear(normally not as thick as that on thefront).
NOTE: THE LOCATION OF SOME POINTSMAY VARY FROM VEHICLE TO VEHICLE.
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If a vehicle is “buttoned up” and you compartment, at any external fuel tanks, or athave no antiarmor weapons, fire your rifle at the hatches. That will not destroy the vehicle,the vision blocks, at any optical equipment but may hinder its ability to fight.mounted outside the vehicle, into the engine
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APPENDIX I
Range Cards
GENERAL
A range card is a rough sketch of the terrainaround a weapon position. In the defense, you preparea range card for the squad automatic weapon, theM60 and caliber .50 machine guns, and the Dragon,TOW, 106-mm RCLR, 90-mm RCLR, and LAW anti-armor weapons systems.
RANGE CARD DATAA range card depicts the following:
Sectors of fire.
A final protective line (FPL) or princi-pal direction of fire (PDF).
Targets and ranges to them.
Prominent terrain features.
Weapons symbols.
Marginal data.
Range cards for antiarmor weapons usetarget reference points (TRP) instead of FPLand PDF.
CONTENTS
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
RANGE CARD DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
PREPARATION OF AN M60MACHINE GUN RANGE CARD . . . . . . . . . I-3
RANGE CARD FOR THECALIBER .50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-10
ANTIARMOR RANGECARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-10
I-1
FM 21-75
SECTORS OF FIRE
Each gun is given a primary and a second-ary sector of fire. Fire into your secondary sectorof fire only if there are no targets in your pri-mary sector, or if ordered to fire there. Yourgun’s primary sector includes an FPL, a PDF,or a TRP.
FINAL PROTECTIVE LINE
Where terrain allows, your leader assignsan FPL to your weapon. The FPL is a line onwhich you shoot grazing fire across your unit’sfront.
The FPL will be assigned to you only ifyour leader determines there is a good distanceof grazing fire. If there is, the FPL will thendictate the location of the primary sector. TheFPL will become the primary sector limit (rightor left) closest to friendly troops. When notfiring at other targets, you will lay your gun onthe FPL or PDF.
DEAD SPACE
Dead space is an area that direct fireweapons cannot hit. The area behind housesand hills or within orchards, for example, isdead space.
PRINCIPAL DIRECTION OF FIRE
When the terrain does not lend itself to anFPL, your leader will assign a PDF instead.The direction should be toward a gully or downa ditch that leads into your position. The gun ispositioned to fire directly down this approachrather than across the platoon’s front.
TARGETS
Your leader may also designate locationswithin your sector of fire where targets are mostlikely to appear. These locations should be notedon your range card.
I-2
TARGET REFERENCE POINTSTarget reference points are natural or
manmade features within your sector that canbe used for quick location of targets. Targetreference points are used primarily for con-trolling DIRECT FIRE weapons only; however,TRP should appear on the company target list.
MAXIMUM ENGAGEMENT LINEThe maximum engagement line is a line
beyond which you cannot engage a target. Thisline may be closer than the maximum engage-ment range of your weapon. Both the terrainand the maximum engagement range of yourweapon will determine the path of the maximumengagement line. This line is used for antiarmorrange cards.
FM 21-75
PREPARATION OF ANM60 MACHINE GUN RANGE CARD
Range cards are prepared immediatelyupon arrival in your position. To prepare anM60 machine gun range card:
Orient the card so that both the pri-mary and secondary sectors of fire (ifassigned) can fit on it.
Draw a rough sketch of the terrain tothe front of your position. Include anyprominent natural and manmade fea-tures which could be likely targets.
Draw your position at the bottom ofthe sketch. Do not put in the weaponsymbol at this time.
Fill in the marginal data to include:
Gun number (or squad).
Unit (only platoon and company).Date.
Magnetic north arrow.
I-3
FM 21-75
Use the lensatic compass to determinemagnetic north and sketch in the mag-netic north arrow on the card with itsbase starting at the top of the marginaldata section.
Determine the location of your gunposition in relation to a prominent ter-rain feature, such as a hilltop, roadjunction or building. If no featureexists, place the eight-digit map co-ordinates of your position near thepoint where you determined your gunposition to be. If there is a prominentterrain feature within 1,000 meters ofthe gun, use that feature. Do not sketchin the gun symbol at this time.
Using your compass, determine theazimuth in mils from the terrain fea-ture to the gun position. (Compute theback azimuth from the gun to thefeature by adding or subtracting 3,200mils.)
Determine the distance between thegun and the feature by pacing or froma map.
Sketch in the terrain feature on thecard in the lower left or right hand cor-ner (whichever is closest to its actualdirection on the ground) and identify it.
Connect the sketch of the position andthe terrain feature with a barbed linefrom the feature to the gun.
Write in the distance in meters (abovethe barbed line).
Write in the azimuth in mils from thefeature to the gun (below the barbedline).
PRIMARY SECTOR WITH AN FPL
To add an FPL to your range card:
I-4
FM 21-75
Sketch in the limits of the primary sec-tor of fire as assigned by your leader.
Sketch in the FPL on your sectorlimit as assigned.
Determine dead space on the FPL byhaving your buddy walk the FPL.Watch him walk down the line andmark spaces which cannot be grazed.
Sketch dead space by showing a breakin the symbol for an FPL, and write inthe range to the beginning and end ofthe dead space.
Label all targets in your primary sec-tor in order of priority. The FPL isnumber one.
I-5
FM 21-75
PRIMARY SECTOR WITH A PDFTo prepare your range card when
assigned a PDF instead of an FPL:
Sketch in the limits of the primarysector of fire as assigned by your leader(sector should not exceed 875 mils,the maximum traverse of the tripod-mounted M60).
Sketch in the symbol for an automaticweapon oriented on the most dan-gerous target within your sector (asdesignated by your leader). The PDF
will be target number one in your sec-tor. All other targets will be numberedin priority.
Sketch in your secondary sector of fire(as assigned) and label targets withinthe secondary sector with the range inmeters from your gun to each target.Use the bipod when it is necessaryto fire into your secondary sector.The secondary sector is drawn usinga broken line. Sketch in aiming stakes,if used.
I-6
FM 21-75
DATA SECTION OF M60 RANGE CARDThe data section of the range card lists data section of the card can be placed on the
the data necessary to engage targets identified reverse side or below the sketch if there is room.in the sketch. The sketch does not have to be Draw a data section block (if you do not haveto scale, but the data must be accurate. The a printed card), with the following items:
I-7
FM 21-75
To prepare the data section of the M60range card:
Center the traversing handwheel.Lay the gun for direction.When assigned an FPL, lock the tra-versing slide on the extreme left orright of the bar, depending on whichside of your primary sector the FPLis on.Align the barrel on the FPL by movingthe tripod legs. (Do not enter a direc-tion in the data section for the FPL.)When assigned a PDF, align your gunon the primary sector by traversingthe slide to one side and then move thetripod to align the barrel on your sectorlimit. Align on the PDF by traversingthe slide until your gun is aimed atthe center of the target.Fix the tripod legs in place by diggingin or sandbagging them. The tripod,once emplaced for fire into the pri-mary sector, should not be moved.
I-8
FM 21-75
To read the direction to each target:
Lay your gun on the center of thetarget.
Read the direction directly off thetraversing bar at the left edge of thetraversing bar slide.
Enter the reading under the directioncolumn of your range card data section.
A reading of left or right is determined bythe direction of your barrel (just the oppositeof the slide).
To read elevation for your targets:Lay your gun on the base of the targetby rotating the elevating handwheel.Read the number (to include a plus orminus sign, except for “0” ) above thefirst visible line on the elevating scale.The sketch reads –50.Read the number on the elevatinghandwheel that is in line with the in-dicator.The sketch reads 3.Enter this reading under the ELEVA-TION column of your range card datasection, separating the two numberswith a slash (/). Always enter the read-
ing from the upper elevating bar first.(The sketch reads –50/3.)
Enter range to each target under theappropriate column in the data section.
Enter the description of each target underthe appropriate column in the data section.
REMARKS COLUMNFill in the remarks column for each target
as needed:Enter the width and depth (in mils) oflinear targets. The —4 in the illustra-tion indicates that by depressing yourbarrel 4 mils the strike of your roundswill go down to ground level alongthe FPL.When entering the width of the target,be sure to give the width in mils andexpress it as two values. For instance,the illustration shows that targetnumber 3 has a width of 15 mils. Thesecond value, L7, means that once thegun is laid on your target, traversing 7mile to the LEFT will lay the gun onthe left edge of the target.Enter aiming stake if one is used forthe target.No data for the secondary sector willbe determined since your gun will befired in the bipod role.
I-9
FM 21-75
RANGE CARD FOR THECALIBER .50
The only differences between an M60 anda caliber .50 range card are as follows:
The machine gun symbol is different.
There are 800 mils of traverse with thecaliber .50 compared to 875 mils withthe M60.
Maximum grazing fire with the caliber.50 is 1,000 meters compared to 600meters with the M60.
The caliber .50 machine gun has asecondary sector of fire; but it mustbe marked by aiming stakes since thecaliber .50 machine gun has no bipod.
ANTIARMOR RANGE CARD
The purpose of an antiarmor range card isto show a sketch of the terrain that a weaponhas been assigned to cover by fire. Range cardsfor 90-mm RCLR, 106-mm RCLR, Dragon, andTOW are all prepared the same. By using a rangecard, you can quickly and accurately determinethe information needed to engage targets inyour assigned sector. Before you prepare arange card, your leader will show you where toposition your weapon so you can best cover yourassigned sector of fire. He will then, again,point out the terrain you are to cover. He willdo this by assigning you a sector of fire or byassigning left or right limits indicated by eitherterrain features or azimuths. If necessary, hemay also assign you more than one sector offire and will designate the sectors as primaryand secondary.
PREPARATION OF THE RANGE CARD
Once you have all the necessary informa-tion, you can begin preparing your range card,depending upon the priority of other jobs you
I-10
FM 21-75
must perform (such as preparing and camou-flaging your firing position). If you are assignedalternate or supplementary firing positions, arange card is required for them also.
PROCEDURES
In the lower center of your range card,indicate your firing position by drawing thesymbol for your assigned weapon. Also indicatethe direction of magnetic north (not a require-ment for a LAW).
Draw and label your sector sketch. Drawroads, bridges, buildings, streams, hills, andwoods. Be as accurate as you can.
I-11
FM 21-75
Show the location to your firing positions the azimuth and distance from the terrainby drawing an arrow from a nearby recognizable feature to your firing position. (This is not aterrain feature and assign it number one. Add requirement for a LAW.)
Now draw your sector. This is an enclosed line and indicates the maximum range thatline that outlines your sector of fire. The maxi- targets may be engaged.mum engagement line is a segment of the sector
I-12
FM 21-75
Draw in the dead space in your sector. Be you cannot hit. Remember, your sector of firesure to indicate by an enclosed line those areas can be any shape and size.
Next, draw in the range and azimuths to in your sector. (Azimuth is not a requirementexpected target engagement locations and TRPs for a LAW.)
I-13
FM 21-75
Write in marginal data. Marginal datamust include the following:
Type position (primary, supplemen-tary, or alternate).
Unit designation (to company only).
Date/Time group.
Your range card is finished. The rangecard you construct for your sector of fire maynot look exactly like those shown in this manual.Remember, however, the basic information andmethod of construction for all antiarmor rangecards are the same.
Prepare your range card in two copies,Keep one copy at the weapon and send the otherto your leader.
1-14
FM 21-75
AMammoARATGM
CBCEOI
cm
EMP
FMFPLft
GL
HEDPht
in
kgkm
LAWLCE
GLOSSARY
Acronyms And Abbreviations
Aamplitude modulationammunitionautomatic rifleantitank guided missile
cchemical-biologicalcommunications-electronicsoperation instructionscentimeter
Eelectromagnetic pulse
Ffrequency modulationfinal protective linefoot/feet
Ggrenade launcher
Hhigh explosive dual purposeheight
Iinch
Kkilogramkilometer
Llight antitank weaponload-carrying equipment
mmgminMOPPMOS
NBC
OPoz
PDFPWpwr
RCLRrdRL
SOPSUT
TNT
TRP
US
wt
Mmetermachine gunminutemission-oriented protective posturemilitary occupational specialty
Nnuclear, biological, and chemical
Oobservation postounce
Pprincipal direction of fireprisoner of warpower
Rrecoilless rifleroundrocket launcher
sstanding operating proceduresmall unit leader
Tchemical composition similar todynamitetarget reference point
UUnited States
Wweight
GLOSSARY-1
FM 21-75
R e f e r e n c e s
REQUIRED PUBLICATIONSRequired publications are sources which users must read in order to understand or to comply
with FM 21-75.
NONE
RELATED PUBLICATIONSRelated publications are sources of additional information. Users do not have to read them
in order to understand FM 21-75.
FM 3-12
FM 5-25
FM 21-11
FM 21-40
FM 21-60
FM 21-76FM 23-9
FM 23-11
FM 23-31
FM 23-35
FM 23-65
FM 23-67
FM 90-10-1
FIELD MANUAL (FM)Operational Aspects of Radiological Defense
Explosives and DemolitionsFirst Aid for Soldiers
NBC (Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical) Defense
Visual Signals
Survival, Evasion, and EscapeM16A1 Rifle and Rifle Marksmanship
90-mm Recoilless Rifle, M6740-mm Grenade Launchers M203 and M79
Pistols and Revolvers
Browning Machinegun, Caliber .50 HB, M2
Machinegun, 7.62-mm, M60
An Infantryman’s Guide to Urban Combat
TECHNICAL MANUAL (TM)TM 9-1345-203-128P Operator’s and Organizational Maintenance Manual Land Mines
GRAPHIC TRAINING AID (GTA)GTA 5-10-27 Mine Card
REFERENCE-1
FM 21-75
INDEX-1
FM 21-75
INDEX-2
FM 21-75
INDEX-3
FM 21-75
INDEX-4
FM 21-75
INDEX-5
FM 21-75
INDEX-6
FM 21-75
INDEX-7
FM 21-75
INDEX-8
FM 21-75
3 AUGUST 1984
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
JOHN A. WICKHAM, JR.General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
ROBERT M. JOYCEMajor General, United States Army
The Adjutant General
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, ARNG, and USAR: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 A. Require-ments for Combat Training of the Individual Soldier and Patrolling (Qty rqr block no. 174).
Additional copies may be requisitioned from the US Army Adjutant General Publications Center,2800 Eastern Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21220.
★ U.S. Government Printing Office: 1994 – 342-421/81779
PIN: 007201-000