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A tous ceux qui crevèrent d’ennui au collège ou qu’on fit pleurer dans la famille; qui, pendant leur enfance, furent tyrannisés par leurs maîtres ou rossés par leurs parents. Je dédie ce livre.1

—Jules Vallès, L’enfant (1879)

A diminutive being, crawling through life on four limbs; infancy as described, summarily though incompletely, by the enigma of the Sphinx, a simple yet imperfect link in the chain of human exis-tence… a perception that would endure for centuries, even millen-nia (almost two). There are notable exceptions, such as Xenophon’s The Cyropaedia, the first part of which is as much a first image of a prince as it is the portrait of a child, though one with an adult’s wis-dom. Socrates and Plato were interested in educating young adults, not infants; and the Gallo-Roman tombstones at the Museum of Sens (France) show no trace of this stage of life: What? Only artisans, judges and couples died?

Nor would the Middle Ages pay them much attention, though one catches an occasional glimpse of Death dancing with a toddler lifted from its cradle, as in the fresco by La Ferté Loupière (Yonne-France); in paintings, even the Jesus child has an old man’s face. But with the 12th and 13th centuries a new spirit emerged; we see the

1 “To all those who died of boredom at school, or who were brought to tears by the family; to all those who were bullied or beaten by their teachers or parents, I dedicate this book”.

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birth of schools in the shadow of cathedrals, then the first universi-ties, though in reality they attended pre-adolescents –according to today’s classification– not true children, much less infants. Similarly, the crusades of children or “young pastors” (pastoureaux) in the 13th-to-15th centuries was but marginally related to those age groups, de-spite their undoubted historical protagonism.

The Renaissance was concerned, above all, with the individual; his different moments, exigencies, needs, virtues and defects, so it was important to pay attention to the crucial formative stage of childhood, to get to know children so as to better mold them. Here, as on other topics, Erasmus opens the way to the “civilizing process”, as Norbert Elias would later call it, in his De civilitate morum puerili-um (On the Urbanity of Children’s Manners), an oft-reprinted work (30 times in the author’s lifetime), a reflection of the new interest in infancy. Gradually, even in iconography, half of humanity began to be taken into account by the other half.

Yet with a certain timidity. In the western world, Spanish culture was the first –almost only– to make a child the principal hero of an opus, in Lazarillo de Tormes (1554). Ingenuity is born of children: at the outset, the narrator writes, “it seemed that in that instant I awoke from the simplicity in which, as a child, I slept”. There are other memorable examples –Rinconete and Cortadillo in the Novelas ejemplares– but they were adolescent boys emerging from infancy. Seville is the common fatherland of Ingenuity so naturally, Murillo, its painter, offers the first real portraits of free children, playing dice or eating fruit, without all the paraphernalia that adorned the por-traits of the offspring of the elite.

But the picaresque paints attitudes and actions, little interested in psychology or of the soul. What, in the end, do we learn of Lazarillo as a thinking being?; only his perception of the hostile world around him. Similarly, infant, toddler, child, and boy are convenient terms for the same thing, though imprecise, like that age group’s still unde-fined sexual status, for up to age seven, boys and girls are dressed identically. Only later are they decked out as miniature versions of adults marked ‘male’ or ‘female’. If a deceased newborn finds itself abandoned in an undefined limbo, his surviving brother is in a social

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limbo. A philosopher like Descartes thinks that the child that every adult carries inside must be killed for the adult to achieve every de-sired rational faculty.

Fortunately, not everyone thinks alike, so the Enlightenment proffered infancy its first true opportunities, as well as its attention: breastfeeding is recommended instead of its mercenary alternative –the wet nurse– and some ladies of the Court lead by example. Re-calling Erasmus’ proposals, a system of open education was advocat-ed, one devoted to exploring the potentialities of the child, in contrast to the disciplinary pedagogy of Jesuit colleges. Jean-Jacques Rous-seau’s Emile ou de l’éducation (1762) was a ‘bestseller’ of the time.

Progress, surely, though Rousseau had few scruples about placing his own children in a hospice. Still lacking was an integral representa-tion of the child, autonomous, unmutilated, unbesmirched by the adult model. Paradoxically, that image emerged in later centuries, the Steel Age, if you will. The 19th century’s Industrial Revolution was particularly cruel on the unprotected; i.e., children. Writers reacted by denouncing those realities through the most luminous and coher-ent figures of infancy that literature has to offer: Oliver Twist and Gavroche. Since then it has become possible to write an autobiogra-phy, in novel form, devoted exclusively to infant rebellion, like L’Enfant by Jules Vallès, himself a rebel (communard in 1871): things that today seem stale, repeated to the point of boredom, were not perceived so in 1879.

The barbarity of the 20th century also weighed heavily and tragi-cally on children. Among its legacies: the parades of Hitler’s Youth (among others); the photograph of the Polish (and Jewish) child, hands raised amid a throng of Nazi soldiers; the Diary of Anne Frank… Nor can we forget the child-soldiers of Africa’s civil wars in our own century, the 21st.2 It is in this context of inhumanity, but with the resurgence of a spirit of family and the years of the ‘baby boom’, that the West rediscovers childhood. Significantly, the first

2 There is ample literature on this topic. One of the most recent books is: Luca Jour-dan, Generazione kalashnikov. Un antropólogo dentro de la Guerra in Congo, Bari, Editori Lagterza, 2010, 229 pp.

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historian to approach this topic is a “Sunday afternoon historian”, as Philippe Ariès pictures himself.3 Since then, studies have multiplied in disciplines like demography and social and cultural history. The history of education is separate, a field long tended by historiogra-phy, characterized by multiple entrances and postures, varied sourc-es, a long association with prestigious institutions, schools, universities, and celebrated pedagogues.4

One could argue that many topic areas have been precipitating through contemporary Mexican historiography,5 especially for the first half of the 20th century, as we shall see here. But historians are not alone in these terrains, for sociologists, pedagogues and other anthropologists have marked out their own hunting territories, like gender studies or research on youth groups;6 developments that raise issues of border-crossings: where does childhood end and adoles-cence begin –unless the two are confounded, as Elena Jackson Albar-rán suggests herein– yesterday, today, for male beings, for females…? So let us open the drawer and turn our attention to this intriguing collection of articles with their –essentially– cultural focus that proves revealing of both the autonomy and integration of childhood into society “as a whole”.7 Undeniably there are filters, so one essen-tial task is to try to measure those adult filters (“the invisible hand”, as Norma Ramos Escobar puts it), so as to “neutralize” them (ideal-ly). Hence, as these three essays show, it is necessary to conserve the traces that children have left in archives, like those of the Depart-ment of Public Education (sep).

After reading Susan Sosenski, we may well ask just how impor-tant it is to found toy museums, which are multiplying rapidly, espe-cially in Europe. Are they mere glorifications of consumer society? I

3 L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime, 1960.4 See the recent Historia minima ilustrada. La educación en México, Mexico, El Cole-

gio de México, 2011.5 For example, Historia Mexicana recently published (no. 245, July-September

2012) an article by Sergio Moreno Juárez, “La infancia mexicana en los dos centenarios de la Independencia nacional (ciudad de México, 1910 y 1921)”.

6 The journal Alteridades has just edited a thematic issue on the young, though we have not been able to access it.

7 We thank Susana Sosenski for coordinating this Section.

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must confess that though I did play with my nephews’ toy trains, I never (mea culpa) played with my daughters’ dolls. But my greatest failing was probably that I offered trains to the former and dolls to the latter, and not the other way around…, History shall judge me.

I will not bade farewell to the children without a last look back at the cover and its three charming infants (the esthetic and mythologi-cal reference here is not fortuitous) captured in 1919 by the North American photographer Horne in El Paso. I am not sure what it was that fascinated me when I first saw that photograph in a catalogue: perhaps the cultural references that brought to mind the cliché of the three charms, the water fountain-pitcher with all its vital ambiguity?; or the attitudes of the three girls that we can relate to all humanity facing –it makes no difference– life or death: surprise, acceptance, rejection?; or the mystery that surrounds the whole setting and how it came to be: was it a casual encounter, or did Horne mount his ob-ject, contrasting the artifice of composition with the naturalness of his subjects?; and what of the later life of those ghosts (which is what they are for us), and the complex impression that this simple piece of paper has, with time, come to represent for us? May each spectator (a la Roland Barthes) begin her/his own dialogue.

The next article presents a document from the Franciscan Ar-chives in Celaya, Guanajuato; an encounter with the Church at a time when this institution was dashing its head against an adverse world, one plagued by contradictions in the fateful year of 1820, the first of the restored Cadiz Constitution. May the reader be fore-warned that patience is required to endure the peninsular language (gachupinismo), antiquated forms and particularly convoluted rheto-ric. But perseverance pays off as an image of the delicately tangled and extremely incommodious situation that the good fathers and prelates of the Franciscan Order confronted comes to light. I admit that even I had to read the text twice before I could –I think– begin to understand it. This was due in part, no doubt, to my own short-comings, but also to the fact that the Temple guardians (beginning with “Fernando el Grande, monarch of the world, protector of the Church”) found themselves obliged to defend precisely what for them was most abominable: liberalism. And the words stuck in their

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throats; so much, in fact, that it is by no means clear to whom the message was directed: to liberal sheep long strayed from the flock, as María Elena Ruiz Marín believes?; or to reactionaries still in the fold at the time, but with a blind faith the might lead them to forget loy-alty, as I think? History has other cases, and 1821 was not far off: loyalty measured in terms of one’s own interests, then and now.

In this issue, the “note and debate” that follow concern history. We asked a specialist, Aliocha Maldavski, to present an especially suggestive historical source that would allow us to broaden our knowledge of the history of missions in the Indies, one little studied on this side of the Atlantic. The source is a collection of over 14,000 indipetae letters penned by European Jesuits to implore the General of the Order to allow them to seek martyrdom in one of the Indies (preferably China, the Philippines, or Japan). My presentation may seem provocative and caricatured; I recognize this and leave each reader to reap what she/he may from the article.8

I shall limit myself to recounting the history of one Jesuit, Fran-cisco Marcelo Mastrillo, perhaps an extreme case of this system, but one that exemplifies it. Many of Mastrillo’s fellows wrote several indipetae letters to the General, but never received the reward they so yearned to obtain.9 Though Mastrillo may not have written a single letter, he soon found himself en route to his new destiny. Like many others, he was a devoted follower of San Francisco Xavier, the Apos-tle of the Indies. Indeed, while lying with a grave head wound in Naples in 1634 he was visited on four occasions by that recently canonized figure; miraculously, he was cured in an event that, logi-cally, attracted wide attention. Soon, permission arrived for him to set sail. Mastrillo was careful to nurture his ascent, so while in Ma-

8 The bibliography at the end is most useful. We would emphasize two works, one of which appears there, while the other is more recent. Pierre-Antoine Fabre and Bernard Vincent, coords., Missions religieuses modernes “notre lieu est le monde”, Rome, Ecole fran-çaise de Rome, 2007, 410 pp.; Charlotte de Castelnau-L’Estoile, Marie-Lucie Copete, Aliocha Maldavsky, Ines G. Zupanov, coords., Mission d’évangélisation et circulation des saviors, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle, Madrid, Casa de Velázquez, 2011, 522 pp.

9 In total, 14,067 letters by 5,157 Jesuits are available, an average of almost 3 per aspirant; Anna Rita Capoccia, “Le destin des Indipetae au-delà du XVIe siècle”, in Pierre-Antoine Fabre and Bernard Vincent, coords., Missions religieuses modernes, p. 91.

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drid that year he had his story printed. Afterwards, during his almost worldwide travels, he always took care to hand out copies of his booklet, while raising a banner emblazoned with the image of Fran-cisco Xavier everywhere he went. In 1637, in Mindanao (southern Philippines) he was given the opportunity to carry it at the front of a Spanish army that was about to undertake a (failed) expedition against the Muslims: it galvanized the soldiers, revealing him for what he was: a “divine” warrior disguised as a mystic in search of sacrifice, surrounded by miracles, a true protagonist. Finally, in 1637, came the offer he had so longed for: the chance to disembark on the coast of Japan. His detention shortly thereafter coincided with “a great earthquake”. At his trial he stated that he was an “am-bassador sent by the glorious P.S. Francisco Xavier for his greater glory”, and proceeded “to recount the miracle of his prodigious cure” to the Japanese judges. He hoped to cure the Emperor with pills made from relics of that saint. On October 14 1637 he received a severe punishment that lasted several days, at the end of which, “his blissful soul soared off towards the heavens”.10

Here we have the extreme expression of the aspirations docu-mented in the letters, but not all ended in this way, for others termi-nated with much less glory: perhaps due to family pressures, or possibly overcome with fear in the face of the unknown, some candi-dates repented, backed down from their petition once the General’s authorization had been granted. Others destined to the Far East sim-ply ‘forgot’ to go on once they reached the shores of New Spain and remained there drinking rich chocolate and increasing the profitabil-ity of the Society’s businesses.

Thirst for recognition, unto martyrdom. But other thirsts are more vital… and deadly, like the thirst for water, the vital liquid par excellence. Such is the history of San Miguel de Horcasitas narrated by Esther Padilla Calderón against the background of mid-20th cen-tury Sonora. Land and water management, so essential for rural communities, and governed by traditional structures that support

10 Breve relación del martirio del Padre Francisco Marcelo Mastrillo de la compañía de Jesús, martirizado en Nagasaqui […], n.d., s.l., 8 pages.

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the rights of established groups, lead to complex, often conflictive, situations at various levels: institutionalized authority (municipal presidency) versus power emerging from the Revolution (commis-sioner of the ejido); small-scale, legitimate property owners versus ejidatarios only recently arisen from their proletarian condition and, perhaps because of that, with connections to the large local land-owner (himself new on the scene?).

Complexity, of course, but one that boils down to a simple di-lemma: who irrigates first and, therefore, who will be deprived of water at the end? Will the law of gravity, apparently of neutral logic, be obeyed, though it favors the ejidatarios… or will the law of senior-ity of possession reign to favor the small, private owners? Nor can it be forgotten that this is post-revolutionary Mexico where all things are in flux, where the commissioner of the ejido has been coopted by a family or clan and its clients who own machinery, and wells and who, therefore, can take advantage of state-sponsored investments in hydraulic matters.

Tremendous depredation and monopolization; perhaps some so-cioeconomic fate that could be called universal, like capitalism as feudalism’s successor? I am not sure, but it is present in the logic of a land (continent) conquered, dominated and destroyed by an imperi-alism both political and ecological, ruthless, whose sequelae still exist today under the guise of legality or legitimacy, of solidarity, of a mor-al economy never been completely lost.

But water management is not just an asphyxiating corset. Through initiative and cohesion a small community can find a via-ble solution. In the El Porvenir ejido discussed below, 23 ejidatarios shelled out four million pesos to install a drip-irrigation system: it paid for itself with the first harvest. Of course, that copious flow of money soon led to other confrontations or, at the very least, mistrust.

At one point the article presents a witness speaking of a period of severe water shortage: “Really, no drought? There goes Fontes with his truck loaded with wheat, there goes Tapia with his truck full of wheat […] Because at that time they had opened the wells”. At that moment, in that corner of the earth, what is now a grand truth was revealed: the wheat, soya [or] meat that today some export and oth-

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ers import is the modern form in which water circulates over plane-tary distances, far beyond any canal or aqueduct, part of the great confrontation that is being prepared and is spreading over our blue Earth. What’s more, calculations show that one kilogram of wheat requires between 120 and 500 liters of water… a huge amount, but a kilo of meat demands ten or twenty times more! So, at whatever cost, for perhaps the third or fourth time since the Neolithic Revolu-tion, we must make changes to our diet; though each earlier change has been negative in terms of physiological stress. It is important that our grandchildren understand this.

The article by Gabriel Torres offers another opportunity to play with changes of scale, from the coast of Jalisco to the smoking battle-fields of Iraq or Afghanistan, through the metaphor of the Hummer, an artifact of war, devouring monster, but of a consummate fragility. Having said this, there is another reality, one more historical. It is not the neo-imperialist armies as such that patrol the streets and trails of Latin American countries in their Bushian Hummers, but members of national bourgeoisies, much more difficult to eradicate than a Hummer. And they occupied their place on the scale for centuries. Unfortunately, the springtimes of people have been even more ephemeral than the mode of the Hummer: 1848, 1936, 1967-1968, 2011-2012… Each century, every 40 years: where is the accumulat-ed energy of which Gabriel Torres speaks, does it follow the path of the theoreticians? Perhaps, once again, it is with our grandchildren: after all, the region of study is called El Porvenir [trans.: The Future].

But changes of scale also prepare surprises: so when we return from the “imperial” scale of the Hummer to that of the ejidos on the coast of Jalisco in times of Echeverría, we are told that the ejidatarios purchased a truck to better move their followers. It probably also served to carry “invaders” to what would be the future lands of the locality of El Porvenir, armed with machetes, axes and augers. The genes of a certain politics never die, not even among groups of het-erogeneous and recent origin (the article mentions migrants from several states).

When all is said and done, from the starting point of childhood we have traversed, in huge strides, the roads of Humanity, with sacri-

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fice, the struggle for vital resources, and even the (regenerating?) tragic death of a youngster from El Porvenir, as the reader will see. Bleak? Well, we still have our grandchildren. The important thing is to know how to reach out to them, understand them: killing the adult in ourselves will not suffice. The road to that archipelago is long: as Jean de la Varende wrote, “childhood is a voyage forgotten”.

English translation by Paul C. Kersey Johnson

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Résumés

A la recherche de la voix des héritiers de la Révolution. Une analyse des documents produits par les enfants, 1921-1940Elena Jackson Albarrán, Université de Miami (Ohio)L’objet de cet article est d’identifier et de décrire quelques aspects asso-ciés à l’utilisation de documents historiques produits par les enfants pendant la post Révolution au Mexique. L’histoire de l’enfance a tou-jours été soumise à l’interprétation des adultes, et généralement ce que nous savons de leur passé nous vient à travers des documents provenant d’institutions de bienfaisance, des agences gouvernementales, des maîtres et des parents. Néanmoins, dans les premières décennies du XXe siècle, les programmes révolutionnaires et les nouveaux apports technologiques de la communication de masse ont ouvert plus d’es-paces à la participation sociale et civique des enfants. Dans ce contexte politique et culturel, les enfants ont laissé leurs traces documentaires. Pour écrire une histoire de l’enfance, il est impératif d’y intégrer les documents qu’ils ont produits pour éclairer leur rôle comme agents historiques.(Enfance, productions culturelles enfantines, sep, post Révolution, ins-titutions)

Enfants rédacteurs et illustrateurs de journaux. Une ap-proche des productions scolaires dans l’école du Nouveau León de la post Révolution.Norma Ramos Escobar, seer/upn-241Le but de cet article est d’analyser le rôle des enfants comme des sujets capables d’autonomie (agencia) et de participation dans les procédures scolaires quotidiennes. En particulier celle d’explorer les formes selon lesquelles ils perçoivent l’école, comment ils la vivent et la représentent. Cela à partir de trois journaux scolaires: Zoolomecatl (1926-1928), El lápiz infantil (1928) et La flecha certera (1929). Ces sources nous per-mettront de réfléchir à propos des productions scolaires, d’observer la

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façon dont les enfants participent comme constructeurs et promoteurs de discours qui favorisent une identité liée au Nouveau León, et le procédé par lequel ceux-ci se croisent et se superposent aux projets de l’école nationaliste post révolutionnaire.(Enfance, journaux scolaires, représentations, identité, post Révolu-tion).

Productions culturelles destinées à l’enfance mexicaine; les jouets (1950-1960)Susana Sosenski, iih-unamCet article traite de la relation entre l’enfance mexicaine du milieu du XXe siècle et le monde de la consommation au Mexique, plus spécifi-quement celui des jouets. A partir de l’examen de la publicité dans la presse mexicaine et des recommandations de divers guides sur l’atten-tion portée aux enfants, nous mettons en évidence quatre aspects-clés afin de comprendre les discours qui ont circulé autour des jouets pour enfants: d’une part le jouet comme producteur de bonheur et de joie enfantines, de l’autre le plastique comme matériau qui a redéfini les usages et l’importance des jouets, par ailleurs les discours de divers spé-cialistes autour du jouet belliqueux, enfin l’utilisation du jouet comme transmetteur de discours sur la différence de genres.(Consommation, enfance, jouets, post guerre, publicité)

Demander les Indes. Les lettres indipetae des jésuites euro-péens, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle, essai historiographiqueAliocha Maldavsky, Universidad Paris Ouest Nanterre La DéfenseCet article présente une synthèse historiographique à propos des lettres indipetae conservées aux Archives romaines de la Compagnie de Jésus. L’étude de ces lettres, écrites par des jésuites européens –très souvent jeunes– au général de la Compagnie, et demandant à être envoyés en mission dans les Indes, orientales ou occidentales, permet de dégager trois axes de recherche. D’abord l’étude de l’administration euro-péenne de la vocation missionnaire au sein de l’ordre de saint Ignace, sans que nous puissions disposer encore d’une vision globale. Par ailleurs, à travers ces documents, personnels et stéréotypés à la fois, se fait jour l’intériorisation de la spiritualité ignacienne, tout comme le

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degré de connaissance des réalités américaines et asiatiques dans les collèges européens. Enfin, combinées avec d’autres sources elles consti-tuent un moyen intéressant d’approcher les relations entre la société européenne et les missions d’Outre-Mer. (Indipetae, vocation, mission, jésuites, historiographie)

Facteurs internes et externes d’une confrontation locale pour le contrôle de l’eau dans un contexte d’aridité. San Mi-guel de Horcasitas, Sonora, dans la première moitié du XXe e siècle.Esther Padilla Calderón, El Colegio de SonoraLorsque l’ejido de Horcasitas vit le jour, la distribution de l’eau changea, devant être partagée entre celui-ci et la petite propriété, ce qui produisit des confrontations qui s’accentuèrent lorsque apparut dans cette région semi-aride ce que l’on appela «la grande sécheresse». Dans ce contexte réapparurent de vieux antagonismes à l’intérieur de l’ejido, il se produi-sit des ruptures significatives, et le manque d’eau s’installa. Les confron-tations intervinrent avec la polarisation sociale, aboutirent à l’expulsion d’un groupe nombreux de membres de l’ejido (ejidatarios). (Eau, contrôle, sécheresse, confrontation, disette)

La «hummérisation», désordre local, diversité culturelle et domination polycentrique dans le milieu rural mexicainGabriel Torres, Ciesas-OccidenteCet article identifie les modes de comportement du système de domi-nation global/local spécifique dans ses résultats sur le milieu rural mexicain. Les formes de «domination néo impérialiste » sont analysées depuis le local et se révisent de façon critique en termes économiques, politiques, informatiques et sociaux. Cette perspective se concrétise avec l’usage de la métaphore de la «hummérisation», qui souligne l’am-bivalence du pouvoir néo impérialiste. Cette ambivalence est analogue à celle des véhicules hummer, d’un intérêt social fugace à cause du ca-ractère dispendieux du carburant nécessaire.

L’analyse ethnographique se centre sur une étude de cas située sur la côte de Jalisco, observée à partir de deux approches différentes. L’une ponctuelle à partir d’entrevues et d’observations indirectes à propos

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d’un phénomène extraordinaire: la mort étrange d’une jeune mère de 26 ans brûlée vive dans sa maison. L’autre est de caractère historique et structurel, utilise la mémoire personnelle de l’auteur qui tire profit de notes prises en diverses époques, recueillies depuis sa condition de té-moin de la vie communautaire locale et avec une vision élargie vers le régional/national qui ouvre la perspective de continuité à travers les quatre dernières décennies.(Hummérisation, domination polycentrique, diversité culturelle)

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Abstracts

In Search of the Voice of the Heirs of the Revolution. An Analysis of Documents Composed by Children, 1921-1940Elena Jackson Albarrán, Miami University of Ohio The aim of this article is to identify and describe some advantages and problems involved in the use of historical documents produced by children during Mexico’s post-revolutionary period. The history of children has always been subject to interpretations by adults and, gen-erally speaking, what we know of their past comes down to us through records generated by social assistance institutions, government agen-cies, teachers and family members. However, in the early decades of the 20th century, programs stemming from the revolution and technologi-cal advances in the mass media opened new spaces for social and civic participation by children; a political and cultural context in which they left their mark in documental form. The goal of writing the history of childhood obliges us to integrate records produced by children in order to elucidate their role as historical agents. Keywords: childhood, infants’ cultural products, sep, post-revolution, agency

Children Who Wrote and Illustrated Newspapers. An Ap-proach to Scholastic Production in Post-revolutionary Schools in Nuevo LeónNorma Ramos Escobar, seer/upn-241This essay analyzes the role of girls and boys as subjects capable of agen-cy and participation in everyday school processes. Specifically, it ex-plores how they understood the school and lived and represented it as reflected in narrations and illustrations they elaborated for three school newspapers: Zoolomecatl (1926-1928), El Lápiz Infantil (“The Child’s Pencil”, 1928) and La Flecha Certera (“The Well-Aimed Arrow”, 1929). These sources lead us to reflect on scholastic products in an attempt to perceive how those children participated as builders and promoters of discourses that fomented a regional identity in the Mexican state of

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Nuevo León, and how those discourses intersected with, or were super-imposed upon, the projects of the post-revolutionary nationalist school.Keywords: childhood, scholastic periods, representations, identity, post-revolution

Cultural Productions for Mexican Children: Toys (1950-1960)Susana Sosenski, iih-unamThis text examines the relationship between the universe of childhood in Mexico in the mid-20th century and the world of consumption there by focusing specifically on the subject of toys. Based on an analysis of advertisements in the Mexican press and recommendations found in various ‘childcare guides’, the analysis identifies four aspects that are key to understanding the discourses that circulated around toys designed for children: on the one hand, toys as providers of infantile happiness and diversion, and, on the other, plastic as the material that redefined the uses and importance of toys, the discourses of several specialists on war toys, and the use of toys as transmitters of gender discourses.Keywords: consumption, infancy, toys, postwar, publicity

Eager for The Indies. indipetae Letters by European Jesuits, 16th-18th Centuries: A Historiographical Essay Aliocha Maldavsky, Universidad Paris Ouest Nanterre La DéfenseThis article presents a historiographical synthesis of the indipetae let-ters held in the Archives of the Society of Jesus in Rome. The study of these letters, which were written to the General of the Society of Jesus by Jesuits in Europe –often young ones– eager to be sent to the mis-sions in the Indies (East or West), reveals three main lines of research. First, it allows us to examine the European administration of the mis-sionary vocation at the very seat of St. Ignatius’ order, though without providing a global vision. Second, these personal, stereotyped docu-ments open a window onto the interiorization of Jesuit spirituality and the extent of knowledge of American and Asian realities that existed in European colleges. Finally, together with other sources, it constitutes an interesting approach for analyzing the relation between European society and overseas missions Keywords: indipetae, vocation, mission, Jesuits, historiography

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Internal and External Factors in a Local Confrontation over the Social Control of Water in Arid Conditions. San Miguel de Horcasitas, Sonora, in the First Half of the 20th CenturyEsther Padilla Calderón, El Colegio de SonoraWith the establishment of the Horcasitas ejido water distribution was modified, as this resource had to be distributed among ejidatarios and small landowners. This generated confrontations that were accentuat-ed when the so-called “grand drought” descended upon this semi-arid region. In that setting, longstanding antagonisms within the ejido were rekindled, important ruptures emerged, and a condition of water scar-city was constructed. Confrontations led to processes of social polariza-tion that resulted in the expulsion of a large group of ejidatarios.Keywords: water, control, drought, confrontation, scarcity

“Hummerization”: Local “disorder”, Cultural Diversity and Polycentric Domination in the Mexican CountrysideGabriel Torres, Ciesas-OccidenteThis article identifies certain behavioral patterns characteristic of the regime of global/local domination, specifically with regards to their effects on the Mexican countryside. Forms of structurally-oriented, “neo-imperialist domination” are examined from the local perspec-tive and evaluated critically in economic, political, techno-informatic and social terms; a vision captured concretely in the use of the meta-phor of “hummerization”, which emphasizes the ambivalence of neo-imperial power. This ambivalence is analogous to that which emerged with the introduction of the gas-guzzling vehicle, the Hummer, whose social impact was but fleeting because of its wasteful consump-tion of gasoline.

The ethnographic analysis centers on a case study of a locality on the coast of the state of Jalisco, seen from distinct perspectives. One situational focus develops through interviews and indirect observations of an extraordinary event: the mysterious death of a young, 26-year-old mother who was burned alive in her own home. The second approach is of a more historical-structural nature that brings to bear some of the author’s own memories, extracted from notes written at different mo-ments and gathered from his position as a witness to local community

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life, but then extended out towards a regional/national vision that opens up perspectives on tracing the history of the past four decades. Keywords: Hummerization, polycentric domination, cultural diversity

English translation by Paul C. Kersey Johnson

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Los autores

Elena Jackson Albarrán es investigadora y profesora de Historia y de Estudios Latinoamericanos en Miami University de Ohio, Estados Unidos. Recibió su doctorado en Historia Latinoamericana en el año 2008 en la Universidad de Arizona, con una segunda área de enfoque en Historia del Arte. Su investigación abarca la formación de la iden-tidad mexicana en el siglo veinte desde la perspectiva de los niños, con un énfasis en la cultura popular y las fuentes históricas produci-das por los niños. Es co-coordinadora del libro Nuevas miradas a la historia de la infancia en América Latina: entre prácticas y representacio-nes, a publicarse por el iih-unam (2012). Sus investigaciones sobre las culturas populares infantiles han sido publicadas en las revistas The Americas y Studies in Latin American Popular Culture. Su libro sobre la participación infantil en la construcción de la identidad na-cional del México revolucionario será publicado por la University of Nebraska Press.

Norma Ramos Escobar. Doctora en humanidades con acentuación en Historia por la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Maestra en Historia por El Colegio de San Luis, A.C. y Licenciada en Historia por la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad Autóno-ma de Nuevo León. Ha participado como becaria en proyectos con fi-nanciamiento Conacyt. Entre sus líneas de investigación se encuen-tran: Historia de la Educación y Género siglos xix y xx, Historia de la niñez en la educación pública y Cultura Escolar. Ha participado en diferentes congresos nacionales e internacionales relacionados con la historia de la educación e investigación educativa. Docente de la licen-ciatura en Historia y Antropología en la uaslp. Profesora-investigadora de la Universidad Pedagógica Nacional 241 y del Departamento de Investigación Educativa del seer. Cuenta con diez publicaciones entre libros, capítulos de libro, artículos en revistas y reseñas. Nivel 1 del sni. Contacto: amronramos75@gmail.com

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Susana Sosenski. Doctora en Historia por El Colegio de México. In-vestigadora del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la unam y miembro del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (Nivel I). Su línea de investigación versa sobre la historia sociocultural de la infancia en el siglo xx. Obtuvo el Premio a la Mejor tesis doctoral de Humanidades otorgado por la Academia Mexicana de Ciencias (2008) y el Premio al mejor artículo del siglo xx (2006) otorgado por el Comité Mexicano de Ciencias Históricas. Ha impartido cursos en la unam y en la uam-i. Es autora de diversos artículos académicos, libros de texto y de divulga-ción. Su último libro es Niños en acción. El trabajo infantil en la ciudad de México (1920-1934), México, El Colegio de México, 2010 y se en-cuentra en prensa el libro del cual es co-coordinadora: Nuevas miradas a la historia de la infancia en América Latina: entre prácticas y representa-ciones, que será publicado por el Instituto de Investigaciones Históri-cas, unam.

Aliocha Maldavsky es “maître de conférences” en historia moderna y de Hispanoamérica en la Universidad Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défen-se, miembro de laboratorio francés mascipo (Mondes Américains, So-ciétés, Circulations, Pouvoirs, XVe-XXIe siècle), del ifea (Institut Français d’études andines) y del iuf (Institut Universitaire de France). Sus investigaciones sobre las misiones jesuitas en los Andes y las voca-ciones europeas por la misión en los siglos xvi y xvii buscan contribuir a una historia social y transatlántica de las misiones católicas de evange-lización. Actualmente, investiga temas relacionados con el papel de los laicos en la evangelización de América y el rol de la religión en los me-canismos de distinción dentro de las sociedades hispanoamericanas. Publicación: Aliocha Maldavsky, Vocaciones inciertas. Misión y misione-ros en la provincia jesuita del Perú en los siglos xvi y xvii, Madrid, csic, Colección Universos Americanos, 2012.

Esther Padilla. Doctora en Ciencias Sociales por El Colegio de So-nora, con especialidad en Historia Regional. Experiencia en investiga-ción relacionada con los usos del agua y con procesos de confrontación en México, en los contextos porfirista, revolucionario y posrevolucio-nario. He participado en congresos de carácter nacional e internacional

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y he publicado en revistas indizadas. Desde 2009 soy profesor-investi-gador en El Colegio de Sonora, donde imparto dos seminarios de in-vestigación. Recientemente concluí un proyecto con financiamiento sobre la compañía Richardson y sus usuarios en el Valle del Yaqui. Du-rante el periodo 2000-2004 participé en el Proyecto “Private Invol-vement Water and Sanitation Services”, prinwass (por sus siglas en inglés), que se desarrolló en México dentro de la Facultad Latinoameri-cana de Ciencias Sociales (flacso). De 1993 a 2000 estuve adscrita a la Subcoordinación de Participación Social del Instituto Mexicano de Tec-nología del Agua (imta). En 1991 y 1992 fui consultor nacional de la fao, en proyectos relacionados con el programa de modernización hi-droagrícola del campo mexicano.

Luis Gabriel Torres González. Profesor Investigador del Ciesas Occidente. Línea de investigación: Estudios de Medio Ambiente y So-ciedad, Agua, Desarrollo Rural y Política Social. Experiencias de inves-tigación: coordinador del proyecto Sinergias con Oportunidades (Siete estudios de caso en 10 estados del país) (2006). Estudio de Talleres in-tersectoriales y consulta ciudadana para el Programa de Ordenamiento Ecológico Territorial de Zapopan (2008). Coordinador del estudio so-bre la participación social y Consulta pública del programa municipal de Desarrollo Urbano, Ordenamiento Territorial y Atlas de Riesgo del Municipio de Tlajomulco de Zúñiga, Jalisco (2009). Coordinador del Programa de Ordenamiento Ecológico Local del Municipio de Ocot-lán Jalisco (2011) y Coordinador del Programa de Ordenamiento Eco-lógico Local del Municipio de Poncitlán Jalisco (2012). Es autor de 35 publicaciones además de 4 libros. Ha impartido 30 cursos y seminarios en diversas temáticas desde Metodología, Debates Contemporáneos, Relaciones de Poder, Política Ecológica y Calentamiento Global en los programas de Maestría y doctorado del Ciesas, El Colegio de Mi-choacán y en diversas licenciaturas de la Universidad de Guadalajara y de Colima. Ha dirigido 11 tesis doctorales, 10 de maestría y 5 de licen-ciatura en diversas disciplinas sociales (Historia, Antropología, Socio-logía y Biología).

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Normas de presentación de colaboraciones

Relaciones. Estudios de Historia y Sociedad publica trabajos inéditos: artículos, ensayos, presentación de documentos y reseñas, que contribuyen a una com-prensión renovada de México y sus realidades en los contextos de su forma-ción. Abriendo ventanas comparativas, la revista hace hincapié en las relaciones de los temas mesoamericanos, novohispanos y mexicanos con res-pecto al resto de América, Europa u otras partes del mundo. Relaciones man-tiene dos ejes fundamentales, uno teórico-metodológico y el otro temático. Mediante el primero se privilegia mantener las conexiones multidisciplinarias que permiten comprender, desde diversos ángulos, los complejos procesos sociales e históricos. El otro subraya la relación entre las tradiciones o moder-nidades políticas y culturales, de variados ámbitos, que se imbrican y forman parte del proceso de formación social de los universos pasados y presentes.

Los documentos deberán ser inéditos. El envío o entrega de un trabajo a esta revista compromete a su autor a no someterlo simultáneamente a la con-sideración de otras publicaciones. Los trabajos entregados serán versiones definitivas.

Los trabajos se entregarán en disco compacto en formato Microsoft® Word, acompañados por una copia impresa, o enviados por correo electrónico a relacion@colmich.edu.mx. Las colaboraciones enviadas por correo postal se dirigirán a: Revista Relaciones. El Colegio de Michoacán, Calle Martínez de Navarrete #505, Fraccionamiento Las Fuentes, C.P. 59690, Zamora, Mi-choacán, MÉXICO.

Deberán indicarse, en hoja aparte, los siguientes datos del autor: nombre completo, grado universitario máximo, institución donde labora, cargo actual que desempeña, número telefónico, dirección postal, dirección electrónica, CVU-Conacyt (si se tiene). En el caso de coautoría, deberán indicarse los datos del coautor. No se aceptan trabajos colectivos de más de tres autores.

Los autores podrán sugerir los nombres de tres dictaminadores, indicando sus datos de adscripción institucional, especialidades académicas y direcciones electrónicas, para tener referencia de la posible audiencia del trabajo.

Los artículos publicados en Relaciones serán difundidos y distribuidos por todos los medios impresos o electrónicos que la dirección de la revista juzgue convenientes.

Artículos. Las colaboraciones para las secciones temática y general de Rela-ciones serán evaluadas por la dirección de la revista para verificar que se ajus-ten a las presentes normas. De ser así, serán enviadas a dos dictaminadores

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anónimos cuyo arbitraje favorable es requisito indispensable para la publica-ción del trabajo.

Los artículos no excederán el número de 25 cuartillas (60,000 caracteres con espacios), la bibliografía y las gráficas no se toman en cuenta en este requi-sito. Se recomienda la fuente Times New Roman, interlineado de 1.5, texto corrido, 12 puntos para todo el material incluso las notas, sin macros ni viñe-tas de adorno, sin hacer énfasis con fuentes tipográficas, y uso de cursivas sólo para voces extranjeras y publicaciones.

Las notas deben ir a pie de página con la referencia completa del material citado y nombre completo de los autores.

Los cuadros, mapas, imágenes y fotos se aceptarán en originales o copias digitales de alta resolución, archivos de preferencia en 300 dpi, apaisados en relación con el formato de la revista, no se aceptan éstos en color, sólo medios tonos o escala de grises, y se concentrarán en archivo aparte. Se incluirán los títulos, pie de foto, créditos, fuentes y permisos correspondientes (si fuera el caso). En el texto principal se mencionará su ubicación.

Los artículos iniciarán con un resumen de 70 a 75 palabras e incluirán 4 o 5 palabras claves.

La bibliografía irá al final del artículo en este orden: autor (apellidos, nom-bre completo, no iniciales), obra (en cursiva), lugar de edición, editorial, año. Ejemplos: a) Taussig, Michael, Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man. A Study in Terror and Healing, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1987; b) Alarcón, Rafael, “La formación de una diáspora: migrantes de Chavinda en California” en Gustavo López Castro, coord., Diáspora michoacana, Zamora, El Colegio de Michoacán, Gobierno del Estado de Michoacán, Unidos Mi-choacán, 2003, pp. 289-306.

Una vez emitidas las evaluaciones de los árbitros consultados, será del co-nocimiento de los autores el acta de dictamen, y tendrán un plazo no mayor de dos meses para entregar la versión final del artículo con las correcciones pertinentes. La dirección de la revista verificara la versión final con base en los dictámenes y comunicará a los autores la información del número de la revista en el que será publicado su trabajo.

Documentos. Las colaboraciones para la sección de Documentos serán traba-jos de transcripción, paleografía, traducción y restauración de fuentes prima-rias o secundarias, relevantes para el estudio de procesos de historia y sociedad. Los trabajos tendrán una introducción con aparato crítico del presentador del documento que no excederá de 12 cuartillas. Los trabajos serán seleccionadas por la dirección y el Consejo Editorial de la revista en función de su calidad, contribución y pertinencia temática.

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Reseñas. Las reseñas serán revisiones críticas de libros recientes (últimos cinco años), relacionados con investigaciones de las ciencias sociales y humanas. Deberán señalar las aportaciones y limitaciones de la obra reseñada, así como su vinculación con la literatura previamente publicada sobre el tema que se aborda. La extensión máxima es de cinco cuartillas a doble espacio.

Invitación

Relaciones. Estudios de Historia y Sociedad, hace una atenta invitación a las editoriales y casas de estudios para que envíen sus publicaciones a nuestra dirección postal. La revista se compromete a buscar reseñistas y a publicar la reseña en la sección correspondiente a la

brevedad posible.

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Ilustraciones de este número

Página 15: Niños, Foto de Ricardo Barthelemy, Fondo Ricardo Bar-thelemy, Biblioteca “Luis González” de El Colegio de Michoacán.Página 127: Claustro del Convento Franciscano de Celaya, foto de Rafael Castañeda García, gracias a la cortesía del Archivo Histórico de la Provincia Franciscana de Michoacán, Celaya, Gto.Página 145: Mártir jesuita, san Francisco Blanco.Página 183: Compuerta, foto de Reynaldo Rico Ávila.Página 263: Alhóndiga de Charcas, Archivo fotográfico de la Biblio-teca “Ricardo B. Anaya”, de la Acción Católica de San Luis Potosí.

Relaciones. Estudios de Historia y Sociedad número 132, otoño 2012, se terminó de imprimir en el mes de octubre de 2012 en los talle-

res de Impresión y Diseño. La edición consta de 750 ejemplares.