Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 1

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)

Korean name

Hangul 임진왜란 / 정유재란

Hanja 壬辰倭亂 / 丁酉再亂

RevisedRomanization

Imjin waeran / Jeong(-)yu jaeran

McCune-Reischauer Imjin waeran / Chŏng'yu chaeran

Japanese name

Kanji 文禄の役 / 慶長の役

Hepburn Bunroku no Eki / Keichō no Eki

Chinese name

TraditionalChinese

萬曆朝鮮戰爭

SimplifiedChinese

万历朝鲜战争

Hanyu Pinyin Wànlì Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng

The two Japanese invasions of Korea took place from 1592 to 1598. Toyotomi Hideyoshi led the newly unifiedJapan into the first invasion (1592–1593) with the professed goal of conquering Korea, the Jurchens, Ming DynastyChina and India.[1] The second invasion (1594–1596) was aimed rather solely as a retaliatory offensive against theKoreans.[1] The invasions are also known as Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, the Seven Year War (in reference toits span), the Imjin War (Hangul: 임진왜란, Hanja: 壬辰倭亂 - lit. Japanese Invasion of the Imjin Year), inreference to the "Imjin (壬辰)" year of the sexagenary cycle in Korean,[2] and Bunroku Keichō no eki (Nihongo:ぶんろく・けいちょうのえき, Kanji: 文禄・慶長の役).

NameThe first invasion (1592–1593) is literally called the "Japanese (倭 |wae|) Disturbance(亂 |ran|) of Imjin" (1592being an imjin year in the sexagenary cycle) in Korean. Meanwhile, the war is called Bunroku no eki in Japanese(Bunroku referring to the Japanese era under the Emperor Go-Yōzei, spanning the period from 1592 to 1596). Thesecond invasion (1597–1598) is called the "Second War of Jeong-yu" and "Keichō no eki", respectively. In Japanese,the war was also called "Kara iri" (唐入り, literally "entry to China") in Edo period (17–19C) because Japan'sultimate purpose was the conquest of Ming China although the armies of Toyotomi Hideyoshi were confined to theKorean Peninsula for the duration of the war. In Chinese, the wars are referred to as the "Wanli Korean Campaign",after then reigning Chinese emperor, or the "Renchen War to Defend the Nation" (壬辰衛國戰爭), where renchen(壬辰) is the Chinese reading of imjin.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 2

OverviewInitially, the Japanese forces saw overwhelming success on land and repeated defeat at sea due to the skill of theKorean Admiral Yi Sun-sin. The Japanese forces came to suffer heavily as their communication and supply lineswere disrupted. The Korean navy starved the Japanese forces by successfully intercepting the Japanese supply fleetson the western waters of the peninsula, to which most major rivers of the Korean peninsula flow. Ming China underthe Wanli Emperor brought about a military and diplomatic intervention to the conflict, which China understood as achallenge to its tributary system.[3] The war stalled for five years during which the three countries tried to negotiate apeaceful compromise; however, Japan invaded Korea a second time in 1597. The war concluded with the navalbattle at Noryang. All of the Japanese forces in Korea had retreated by the 12th lunar month of 1598 and returned toJapan after the devastating defeat dealt by the Chinese and Korean navies.

EffectsKorea suffered the loss of a portion of its population and faced financial difficulties.In addition to the human losses, Korea suffered tremendous cultural, economic, and infrastructural damage,including a large reduction in the amount of arable land,[2] destruction and confiscation of significant artworks,artifacts, and historical documents, and abductions of artisans and technicians. During this, the main palacesGyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung were burned down so the palace Deoksugung was used astemporary palace.[4] The heavy financial burden placed on China by this war, as well as two other wars in the south,adversely affected its military capabilities and partly contributed to the fall of the Ming Dynasty and the rise of theQing Dynasty.[5] However, the sinocentric tributary system that Ming had defended was restored by Qing, and thenormal trade relations between Korea and Japan later continued.[6]

Background

Korea and China before the warIn 1392, the Korean General Yi Seong-gye led a successful coup to take political power from King U of the GoryeoDynasty by using military force. His followers forced Yi to take the crown, thus founding Joseon.[7] In search of ajustification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime received recognition from China andintegration into its tributary system within the context of the Mandate of Heaven.[8] Under Ashikaga Yoshimitsu'sreign during the late 15th century, Japan, too, gained a seat in the tributary system (lost by 1547, see hai jin).[9] [10]

Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a big brother, Korea the middle brother, and Japan theyounger brother.[11]

Unlike the situation over one thousand years earlier when Chinese dynasties had an antagonistic relationship with thelargest of the Korean polities (Goguryeo), Ming China had close trading and diplomatic relations with the JoseonDynasty, which also enjoyed continuous trade relations with Japan.[12]

The two dynasties, Ming and Joseon, shared much in common: both emerged during the fourteenth century at the fallof Mongolian rule, embraced Confucian ideals in society, and faced similar external threats (the Jurchen raiders andthe Wokou pirates).[13] Internally, both China and Korea were troubled with fights among competing politicalfactions, which would significantly influence decisions made by the Koreans prior to the war, and those made duringthe war by the Chinese.[14] [15] Dependence on each other for trade and also having common enemies resulted inKorea and Ming China having a friendly relationship.The Wanli Emperor succeeded to the Ming dynasty in the year 1572 at the age of 9; for the first 10 years of his reign the Ming was largely run by his teacher and guardian, Zhang Juzheng; who pushed through a series of reforms that revitalized the declining dynasty and made major breakthroughs several of the key issues that had plagued the Ming, including its financial problems. Zhang also made strong progress against the Mongols of the north, and promoted

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 3

military generals based on their merits, such as Li Chengliang and Qi Jiguang.Although after Zhang Juzheng's passing in 1582, the Ming court slowly began to reverse some of his reforms and theWanli Emperor himself increasingly became disillusioned and uninterested with daily politics, the Ming was ineffect still at a relatively revitalized stage during the 1590s.The Ming saw a string of conflicts during this period. Aside from their endless struggle against the Mongolians, theywere also dealing with a military rebellion in Ningxia just before the war broke out, along with a border war with theBurmese Taungoo dynasty that coincided with the Imjin war, their conflicts with the Woko pirates a couple decadesearlier also gave them significant experience against the Japanese style of warfare.

Hideyoshi and his preparationsBy the last decade of the 16th century, Hideyoshi as daimyō had unified all of Japan in a brief period of peace. SinceHideyoshi came to hold power in the absence of a legitimate Minamoto lineage necessary for the Imperial Shoguncommission, he sought for military power to legitimize his rule and to decrease his dependence on the Imperialfamily.[16] It is said that Hideyoshi planned an invasion of China to fulfill the dreams of his late lord OdaNobunaga,[17] and to mitigate the possible threat of civil disorder or rebellion posed by the large number of samuraiand soldiers in unified Japan.[18] But it is quite possible that Hideyoshi might have set a more realistic goal ofsubjugating the smaller neighbouring states (i.e. Ryukyus, Luzon, Taiwan, and Korea), and treating the larger ormore distant countries as trading partners, as [16] all throughout the invasion of Korea, Hideyoshi sought for legaltally trade with China[16] Hideyoshi's need for military supremacy as a justification for his rule which lackedShogunal background could, on an international level, translate into a Japanocentric order with Japan's neighbouringcountries below Japan.[16] Historian Kenneth M. Swope mentions a rumor circulating at the time that Hideyoshicould have been a Chinese who fled to Japan from the law, and therefore sought revenge against China.[19]

The defeat of the Odawara-based Hōjō clan in 1590[20] finally brought about the second unification of Japan,[21] andHideyoshi began preparing for the next war. Beginning in March 1591, the Kyūshū daimyō and their labor forcesconstructed a castle at Nagoya (in modern-day Karatsu) as the center for the mobilization of the invasion forces.[22]

Hideyoshi planned for a possible war with Korea long before completing the unification of Japan, and madepreparations on many fronts. As early 1578, Hideyoshi, then battling under Nobunaga against Mōri Terumoto forcontrol of the Chūgoku region of Japan, informed Terumoto of Nobunaga's plan to conquer China.[23] In 1592Hideyoshi sent a letter to the Philippines demanding tribute from the governor general and stating that Japan hadalready received tribute from Korea (which was a misunderstanding, as explained below) and the Ryukyus.[24]

As for the military preparations, the construction of as many as 2,000 ships may have begun as early as 1586.[25] Toestimate the strength of the Korean military, Hideyoshi sent an assault force of 26 ships to the southern coast ofKorea in 1587.[26] On the diplomatic front, Hideyoshi began to establish friendly relations with China long beforecompleting the unification of Japan and helped to police the trade routes against the wakō.[27]

Diplomatic dealings between Japan and Korea

In 1587, Hideyoshi sent his first envoy Yutani Yasuhiro,[28] [29] [30] to Korea, which was during the rule of KingSeonjo[31] to re-establish diplomatic relations between Korea and Japan (broken since the Japanese pirate raid in1555),[32] which Hideyoshi hoped to use as a foundation to induce the Yi Court to join Japan in a war againstChina.[33] Yasuhiro, with his warrior background and an attitude disdainful of the Korean officials and their customs,failed to receive the promise of future ambassadorial missions from Korea.[34]

Around May 1589, Hideyoshi's second embassy, consisting of Sō Yoshitoshi (or Yoshitomo),[35] [36] YanagawaShigenobu[37] [38] and Buddhist monk Genso[39] reached Korea and secured the promise of a Korean embassy toJapan in exchange for the Korean rebels which had taken refuge in Japan.[34]

In fact, in 1587 Hideyoshi had ordered Sō Yoshishige,[29] [40] the adopted father of Yoshitoshi and the daimyō of Tsushima, to offer Joseon the ultimatum of submitting to Japan and participating in the conquest of China, or war

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 4

with Japan. However, as Tsushima enjoyed a special trading position as the single checkpoint to Korea for allJapanese ships and had permission from Korea to trade with as many as 50 of its own vessels,[41] the Sō familydelayed the talks for nearly two years.[35] Even when Hideyoshi renewed his order, Sō Yoshitoshi reduced the visitto the Yi Court to a campaign to better relations between the two countries. Near the end of the ambassadorialmission, Yoshitoshi presented King Seonjo a brace of peafowl and matchlock guns - the first advanced fire-arms tocome to Korea.[42] Yu Seong-ryong, a high-ranking scholar official, suggested that the military put the arquebus intoproduction and use, but the Yi Court failed to cooperate.[43] This lack of interest and underestimation of the power ofthe arquebus eventually led to the decimation of the Korean army early in the war.On April 1590, the Korean ambassadors including Hwang Yun-gil, Kim Saung-il and others[44] left for Kyoto, wherethey waited for two months while Hideyoshi was finishing his campaign against the Odawara and the Hōjō clans.[45]

Upon his return, they exchanged ceremonial gifts with and delivered King Seonjo's letter to Hideyoshi.[45] Hideyoshiassumed that the Koreans had come to pay homage as a tributary to Japan, but the Koreans still refused. For thisreason the ambassadors were not given the formal treatment that was due in handling diplomatic matters; at last, theKorean ambassadors asked that Hideyoshi write a reply to the Korean king, for which they waited 20 days at the portof Sakai.[46] The letter, redrafted as requested by the ambassadors on the ground that it was too discourteous, invitedKorea to submit to Japan and join the war against China.[42] Upon the ambassadors' return, the Yi Court held seriousdiscussions concerning Japan's invitation;[47] while Hwang Yun-gil reported to the Yi Court conflicting estimates ofJapanese military strength and intentions and pressed that a war was coming, Kim Saung-il claimed that Hideyoshi'ssaying was nothing but a bluff. Moreover, most of the estimates considered the Japanese to be incompetent. Some,including King Seonjo, argued that Ming should be informed about the dealings with Japan, as failure to do so couldmake Ming suspect Korea's allegiance, but the Yi Court finally concluded to wait further until the appropriate courseof action became definite.[48]

Hideyoshi initiated his diplomacy with Korea. The Joseon Court approached Japan as a country inferior to Koreaaccordingly within the Chinese tributary system, and it evaluated Hideyoshi's invasions to be no better than thecommon wakō, Japanese pirate raids.[49] The Yi Court handed to Shigenobu[37] and Genso, Hideyoshi's thirdembassy, King Seonjo's letter rebuking Hideyoshi for challenging the Chinese tributary system; Hideyoshi repliedwith a disrespectful letter, but, since it was not presented in person as expected by custom, the Yi Court ignoredit.[50] After the denial of his second request, Hideyoshi launched his armies against Korea in 1592. There wereinternal oppositions to the invasion within Japan's government; among them, Tokugawa Ieyasu, Konishi Yukinagaand Sō Yoshitoshi who tried to arbitrate between Hideyoshi and the Joseon court.

Military capabilities

Hwacha were developed by Koreans and couldshoot up to 200 arrows at one time.

The two major security threats to Korea and China at the time were theJurchens, who raided along the northern borders, and the wakō(Japanese pirates), who pillaged the coastal villages and trade ships.[51]

[52]

In response to the threats, the Koreans developed a powerful navy,constructed a thorough defense line of fortresses along the TumenRiver, and took control of the island of Tsushima.[53] This defensivestance within an environment of relative peace pushed the Koreans todepend on a heavy artillery of fortresses and warships. With thetransmission of gunpowder and firearms technology from China duringthe Goryeo Dynasty, Korea improved upon the original Chinesedesigns of firearms and

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 5

Many of the castles in Korea were strong mountainfortresses like this one, Namhansanseong. Other stonefortresses, however, were of poor quality and structure.

developed advanced cannons which were used with great effect atsea. Even though China was the main source of new militarytechnologies in Asia, Korea excelled in both cannonmanufacturing and shipbuilding in this age.[54]

Japan, on the other hand, had been in a state of civil war for over acentury, which had the result of turning the Japanese society into avery warlike society. When traders from Portugal arrived in Japanand introduced Arquebuses and Muskets, the Japanese warlordswere quick to adapt to this innovative weapon, giving them a largeadvantage over the Korean armies. This strategic difference inweapons development and implementation contributed to thein-war Japanese dominance on land, and the Korean dominance atsea.[55]

As Japan had been at war since the mid-15th century, Hideyoshi had half a million battle-hardened soldiers at hisdisposal[56] to form the most professional army in Asia for the invasion of Korea.[57] While Japan's chaotic state hadleft the Koreans with a very low estimate of Japan as a military threat,[57] a new sense of unity among the differentpolitical factions in Japan, and the "Sword Hunt" in 1588, (the confiscation of all weapons from the peasants)indicated otherwise.[58] Along with the hunt came "The Separation Edict" in 1591, which effectively put an end to allJapanese wakō piracy by prohibiting the daimyōs from supporting the pirates within their fiefs.[58] Ironically enough,the Koreans believed that Hideyoshi's invasion would be just an extension of the previous pirate raids that had beenrepelled before.[59] As for the military situation in Joseon, the Korean scholar official Yu Seong-ryong observed,"not one in a hundred [Korean generals] knew the methods of drilling soldiers":[60] rise in ranks depended far moreon social connections than military knowledge.[61] Korean soldiers were disorganized, ill-trained andill-equipped,[61] and they were used mostly in construction projects such as building castle walls.[62]

Problems with Joseon Defense Policies

Japanese arquebuses of the Edo era. These types offirearms were used by Japanese soldiers during

Hideyoshi's invasions.

There were several defects with the organization of the Joseon-eraKorean military.[63] An example was a defense policy that localofficers could not individually respond to a foreign invasionoutside of their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general,appointed by the king's court, arrived with a newly mobilizedarmy.[63] This arrangement was highly inefficient in that thenearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile bordercommander arrived on the scene and took control.[63] Secondly, asthe appointed general often came from an outside region, he waslikely to be unfamiliar with the natural environment, the availabletechnology and manpower of the invaded region.[63] Finally, as amain army was never maintained, new and ill-trained recruitsconscripted during war constituted a significant part of the

army.[63] The Yi Court managed to carry out some reforms, but even they were problematic. For example, themilitary training center established in 1589 in the Gyeongsang province recruited mostly only too young or too oldsoldiers (as able men targeted by the policy had higher priorities such as farming and other economic activities),augmented by some adventure-seeking aristocrats and slaves buying their freedom.[63]

The dominant form of the Korean fortresses was the "Sanseong", or the mountain fortress,[64] which consisted of a stone wall that continued around a mountain in a serpentine fashion.[57] These walls were poorly designed with little

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 6

use of towers and cross-fire positions (usually seen in European fortifications) and were mostly low in height.[57] Itwas a wartime policy for everyone to evacuate to one of these nearby fortresses and for those who failed to do so tobe assumed to be collaborators with the enemy; however, the policy never held any great effect because thefortresses were out of reach for most refugees.[57]

Troop strength

Hideyoshi mobilized his army at the Nagoya Castle on Kyūshū (present-day Karatsu), newly built for the solepurpose of housing the invasion forces and the reserves.[65] The first invasion consisted of nine divisions totaling158,800 men, of which the last two of 21,500 were stationed as reserves in Tsushima and Iki respectively.[66]

On the other hand, Joseon maintained only a few military units and no field army, and its defense depended heavilyon the mobilization of the citizen soldiers in case of emergency.[62] During the first invasion, Joseon deployed a totalof 84,500 regular troops throughout, assisted by 22,000 non-regular volunteers.[67] Aid from the Chinese during thewar could not have made up for the difference in numbers since they never maintained more than 60,000 troops inKorea at any point of the war,[68] while the Japanese used a total of 500,000 troops throughout the entire war.[56]

Weapons

Joseon cannons such as this one were extensively usedin the Joseon navy.

Large iron-tipped wooden missile fired from Koreancannons.

Since its introduction by the Portuguese traders on the islandof Tanegashima in 1543,[69] the arquebus had become widelyused in Japan.[70] While both Korea and China had also beenintroduced to firearms similar to the Portuguese arquebus,most were older models. The Korean soldiers' small firearmswas a handgun with simple mechanism either with gunstockor wooden shaft attached. When the Japanese diplomatspresented the Yi Court arquebuses as gifts, the Koreanscholar-official Yu Seong-ryong advocated the use of the newweapon but the Yi Court failed to realize its potency.[45] Incontrast, the Japanese often deployed the arquebus incombination with archery in war.[71]

Korean archers used the advanced composite, which wasmade of different materials laminated together along with aninward curve to increase power. These composite bows had amaximum range of 500 yards, in comparison to the 350 yardsof most standard Japanese bows.[72]

The Chinese used a variety of weapons, including longbows,[72] swords,[73] [74] firearms, early kind of land minesand early hand grenades.[55]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 7

An illustration of an ampulliform Chinese fire-lancewith a gunpowder charge shooting a blast of flame with

lead pellets as coviative projectiles. The weapon wascalled the 'phalanx-charging fire-gourd'

Chinese also demonstrated massive use of rocket-propelledarrows, notably during the Siege of Pyongyang in January 1593.During siege actions, Chinese deployed rattan shields and ironpavises (large shields), reputed to be musket-proof.The Japanese successively defeated the Korean armies with acombination of muskets, spears and swords. While muskets weresuperior to Korean bows in terms of penetration, the former lackedthe range, accuracy, and fire rate of the latter. Numerous battleaccounts from the Annal of Joseon dynasty and various essays,diaries of Korean officials and commanders show that musketalone couldn't ensure victory. By employing both musket and armeblanche ("cold steel", swords, lances, spears, and the like), theJapanese were able to achieve success during the early phase ofwar. Indeed, the ferocious charge of Japanese troops with spearsand swords were often more decisive than muskets. This isbecause the Koreans, while resisted fairly decently in rangedcombat by employing small firearms and bows, were poorlytrained in close combat, and also because of the lack of battlefieldexperience and discipline. This made Korean soldiers unable tohold line in front of charging Japanese. The following words froma Korean military official named Shi-eon Lee to the Korean kingclearly shows such weakness

The King asked him (Shi-eon Lee),"You have already told me about the low accuracy of Japanese muskets. Why, then, are Korean armies having greatproblem with defeating them?"He then answered."The Korean soldiers cower before the enemy and flee for their lives even before they have engaged the enemy. Asfor the commanders, they seldom leave their positions because they fear that they might be executed for deserting.However, there is a limit to executing deserting soldiers since there are so many of them. Truly, the Japanese aren'tgood musketeers, but they advance so rapidly that they appear right in front of the Koreans in the time Koreans canshoot only two arrows. It is said that Koreans are good archers, but they seldom hit the targets when the enemy is toofar away, and are too scared to shoot when the enemy is near because they fear Japanese swords. Archery oftenbecomes useless because Koreans, fearing the Japanese arme blanche, can barely shoot. The Japanese are reputed tobe good swordsmen, but it is possible for Koreans to draw swords and hold their ground. However, the Koreansseldom do this and merely run for their lives."[75]

As for field artillery, it seems the Koreans seldom employed them, with the cannons being mainly used in siegeaction and defending castles. However, there are a few cases of Koreans employing artillery in the field. At the battleof Haengju, the Korean army employed "Earth" class cannon(Jeejha Chongtong) behind field fortification. Inaddition, a non-regular Korean army with government-supplied weapons used explosive shots fired from mortars atthe open terrain in Bahn-ahm, Gyongsang district. This is recorded in "The Diary of a Militia"(향병일기), which isstored in the database of www.history.go.kr. The Chinese seem to have been more active in employing field artillerythan the Koreans. One of the notable Chinese field gun was "Great General Cannon". This was a largebreech-loading cannon with two-wheeled cart, shooting an iron ball weighing about 10 kilograms. The Japanese, onthe other hand, employed virtually no artillery in both siege and field warfare.(Nevertheless, when Admiral Leebombarded Japanese base in Busan, the Japanese employed looted Korean cannons against the Korean Navy, usingKorean captives.)

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 8

The Koreans actively deployed their cavalry divisions in action, however they often suffered significantdisadvantages. The terrain was often mountainous, lacking both the flat plains suitable for cavalry charges and thegrass essential in feeding the horses. In addition, the Japanese use of the arquebus at long range and in concentratedvolleys negated effective cavalry tactics.[74] The Korean cavalrymen's primary weapons were bows, with swords andlances holding only subsidiary position. Most of the cavalry action for the Koreans took place in the Battle ofChungju at the beginning of the war where they were outnumbered and wiped out by the Japanese infantry.[76]

Although the Japanese divisions also fielded cavalry (they, however, dismounted when engaged in action, actingmore like mounted infantry) and occasionally specialized firearms were used on horseback, though most cavalrymenpreferred the conventional yari (spear),[77] their use was reduced by increasing logistical difficulties and theincreasing use of firearms by the Koreans and Chinese.[78]

Naval power

An old painting of a panokseon.

In contrast to the Japanese advantages on land, Koreapossessed a large advantage at sea. Advanced artilleryand shipbuilding technology, along with an experiencednaval history against Japanese pirates, allowed theKorean navy to field highly advanced and formidablewatercraft. By the time of the Japanese invasion, Koreaemployed the panokseon, a powerful galley-type shiparmed with cannons that outranged most Japanesevessels.

As virtually all Japanese ships in the first phase of the warlacked cannon artillery,[54] Korean ships outranged andbombarded Japanese ships with impunity outside therange of the Japanese muskets, arrows, and catapults.[54]

When the Japanese attempted to outfit cannons to their ships,[79] their lightweight ship design prohibited using morethan a few per vessel and usually lacked the firepower or range of their Korean counterparts[80]

In addition to a lack of effective naval armament, most Japanese ships were modified merchant vessels more suitedfor transportation of troops and equipment than fielding artillery weapons.[54] [81] Most Japanese ships were alsoconstructed with a deep keel and a single sail, that while provided speed limited movement to favourable winds andmanouevrability was considerably disadvantaged by Korea's narrow coastal waters. Korean ships in contrast fieldedmultiple sails and crews providing oar power, and were constructed with a flat keel that enabled sharp turns.Additionally Japanese ships were constructed with iron nails while the Korean panokseons used wooden pegs. Inwater, nails corroded and loosened while wooden pegs expand and strengthened the joints.Admiral Yi's leadership and strategic thinking was also a large factor in Korea's naval dominance, using a superiornaval force to disrupt the Japanese logistical network and hence limit the Japanese forces' ability to operate inland.In order to bolster his fleet, Hideyoshi attempted unsuccessfully to hire two Portuguese galleons to join theinvasion.[82]

First invasion (1592–1593)

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 9

First wave of the Japanese invasion[83]

1st div. Konishi Yukinaga 7,000

Sō Yoshitoshi 5,000

Matsuura Shigenobu 3,000

Arima Harunobu 2,000

Ōmura Yoshiaki (ja) 1,000

Gotō Sumiharu 700 18,700

2nd div. Katō Kiyomasa 10,000

Nabeshima Naoshige 12,000

Sagara Yorifusa (ja) 800 22,800

3rd div. Kuroda Nagamasa 5,000

Ōtomo Yoshimasa 6,000 11,000

4th div. Shimazu Yoshihiro 10,000

Mōri Yoshimasa (ja) 2,000

Takahashi Mototane (ja), Akizuki Tanenaga, Itō Suketaka (ja), ShimazuTadatoyo[84]

2,000 14,000

5th div. Fukushima Masanori 4,800

Toda Katsutaka 3,900

Chōsokabe Motochika 3,000

Ikoma Chikamasa 5,500

Ikushima (Kurushima Michifusa)? 700

Hachisuka Iemasa (ja) 7,200 25,000(sic)

6th div. Kobayakawa Takakage 10,000

Kobayakawa Hidekane, Tachibana Muneshige, Tachibana Naotsugu (ja),Tsukushi Hirokado, Ankokuji Ekei

5,700 15,700

7th div. Mōri Terumoto 30,000 30,000

Subtotal 137,200

Reservers (8th div.) Ukita Hideie (Tsushima Island) 10,000

(9th div.) Toyotomi Hidekatsu (ja) and Hosokawa Tadaoki (ja) (Iki Island) 11,500 21,500

Subtotal 158,700

Stationed force atNagoya

Ieyasu, Uesugi, Gamō, and others 75,000

Subtotal 233,700

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 10

Naval forceexclusion

-9,000

Total (rounded) 225,000

Initial attacks

Busan and Dadaejin

On May 23, 1592, the First Division of 7,000 men led by Konishi Yukinaga[85] left Tsushima in the morning, andarrived at the port city of Busan in the evening.[86] The Korean naval intelligence had already detected the Japanesefleet, but Won Gyun, the Right Naval Commander of Gyeongsang, mistook the fleet as consisting of trading vesselson a mission.[87] A later report of the arrival of an additional 100 Japanese vessels raised his suspicions, but thegeneral did nothing about it.[87] Sō Yoshitoshi landed alone on the Busan shore to ask the Koreans for a safe passageto China for the last time; the Koreans refused, and Sō Yoshitoshi besieged the city while Konishi Yukinaga attackedthe nearby fort of Dadaejin the next morning.[86] Japanese accounts claim that the battles dealt the Koreans completeannihilation (one claims 8,500 deaths, and another, 30,000 heads), while a Korean account claims that the Japanesethemselves took significant losses before sacking the city.[88]

Dongnae

"Dongnaebu Sunjeoldo", a Korean painting from 1760depicting the Battle of Dongnae.

On the morning of May 25, 1592, the First Division arrivedat Dongnae eupseong.[88] The fight lasted twelve hours,killed 3,000, and resulted in a Japanese victory.[89] Apopular legend describes the governor in charge of thefortress, Song Sang-hyeon. When Konishi Yukinaga againdemanded, before the battle, that the Koreans allow theJapanese to travel through the peninsula, the governorreplied, "It is easy for me to die, but difficult to let youpass."[89] Even when the Japanese troops during the battleneared his commanding post, Song remained seated withcool dignity.[89] And when a Japanese cut off Song's rightarm holding his staff of command, Song picked up the staffwith his left arm, which was then cut off; again Song pickedit up, this time with his mouth, but was killed by a thirdblow.[89] The Japanese, impressed by Song's defiance,treated his body with proper burial ceremony.[89]

Occupation of the Gyeongsang Province

Katō Kiyomasa's Second Division landed in Busan on May27, and Kuroda Nagamasa's Third Division, west ofNakdong, on May 28.[90] The Second Division took theabandoned city of Tongdo on May 28, and capturedKyongju on May 30.[90] The Third Division, upon landing,

captured the nearby Kimhae castle by keeping the defenders under pressure with gunfire while building ramps up tothe walls with bundles of crops.[91] By June 3, the Third Division captured Unsan, Changnyong, Hyonpung, andSongju.[91] Meanwhile, Konishi Yukinaga's First Division passed the Yangsan mountain fortress (captured on the

night of the Battle of Dongnae, when its defenders fled when the Japanese scouting party's fired their arquebuses), and captured the Miryang castle on the afternoon of May 26.[92] The First Division secured the Cheongdo fortress in

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 11

the next few days, and destroyed the city of Daegu.[92] By June 3, the First Division crossed the Nakdong River, andstopped at the Sonsan mountain.[92]

Joseon responseUpon receiving the news of the Japanese attacks, the Joseon government appointed General Yi Il as the mobileborder commander, as was the established policy.[93] General Yi headed to Myongyong near the beginning of thestrategically important Choryong pass to gather troops, but he had to travel further south to meet the troopsassembled at the city of Daegu.[92] There, General Yi moved all troops back to Sangju, except for the survivors ofthe Battle of Dongnae who were to be stationed as a rearguard at the Choryong pass.[92]

Battle of Sangju

On April 25,[94] General Yi deployed a force of less than 1,000 men on two small hills to face the nearing FirstDivision.[95] Assuming that rising smoke was from the burning of buildings by a nearby Japanese force, General Yisent an officer to scout horseback; however, as he neared a bridge, the officer was ambushed by Japanese musket firefrom below the bridge, and beheaded.[95] The Korean troops, watching him fall were greatly demoralized.[95] Soonthe Japanese began the battle with their arquebuses; the Koreans replied with their arrows, which fell short of theirtargets.[95] The Japanese forces, having been divided into three, attacked the Korean lines from both the front and thetwo flanks; the battle ended with General Yi Il's retreat and 700 Korean casualties.[95]

Battle of Chungju

General Yi Il then planned to use the Choryong pass, the only path through the western end of the Sobaek mountainrange, to check the Japanese advance.[95] However, another commander, Sin Rip, appointed by the Joseongovernment had arrived in the area with a cavalry division, and moved 8,000 combined troops to the Chungjufortress, located above the Choryong pass.[96] General Sin Rip then wanted to fight a battle on an open field, whichhe felt ideal for the deployment of his cavalry unit, and placed his units on the open fields of Tangeumdae.[96] As thegeneral feared that, since the cavalry consisted mostly of new recruits, his troops would flee in battle easily,[97] hefelt the need to trap his forces in the triangular area formed by the convergence of the Talcheon and Han rivers in theshape of a "Y".[96] However, the field was dotted with flooded rice paddies, and was not suitable for cavalryaction.[96]

On June 5, 1592 the First Division of 18,000 men[97] led by Konishi Yukinaga left Sangju, and reached anabandoned fortress at Mungyong by night.[98] The next day, the First Division arrived at Tangumdae in the earlyafternoon, where they faced the Korean cavalry unit at the Battle of Chungju. Konishi divided his forces into three,and attacked with arquebuses from both flanks and the front.[98] The Korean arrows fell short of the Japanese troops,which were outside their range, and General Sin led two charges that failed against the Japanese lines. General Sinthen killed himself in the river, and the Koreans that tried to escape by the river either drowned, or were decapitatedby the pursuing Japanese.[98]

Capture of SeoulThe Second Division led by Katō Kiyomasa arrived at Chungju, with the Third Division not far behind.[99] There, Katō expressed his anger against Konishi for not waiting at Busan as planned, and attempting to take all of the glory for himself; then Nabeshima Naoshige proposed a compromise of dividing the Japanese troops into two separate groups to follow two different routes to Hanseong (the capital and the present-day Seoul), and allowing Katō Kiyomasa to choose the route that the Second Division would take to reach Seoul.[99] The two divisions began the race to capture Hanseong on June 8, and Katō took the shorter route across the Han River while Konishi went further upstream where smaller waters posed a lesser barrier.[99] Konishi arrived at Hanseong first on June 10 while the Second Division was halted at the river with no boats to with which to cross.[99] The First Division found the castle undefended with its gates tightly locked, as King Seonjo had fled the day before.[100] The Japanese broke into a

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 12

small floodgate, located in the castle wall, and opened the capital city's gate from within.[100] Katō's Second Divisionarrived at the capital the next day (having taken the same route as the First Division), and the Third and FourthDivisions the day after.[100] Meanwhile, the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Divisions had landed on Busan, withthe Ninth Division kept in reserve on the island of Iki.[100]

Parts of Hanseong had already been looted, burnt (i.e. bureaus holding the slave records and the weapons), andabandoned by its inhabitants.[100] General Kim Myong-won, in charge of the defenses along the Han River, hadretreated.[101] The King's subjects stole the animals in the royal stables and fled before him, leaving the King to relyon farm animals.[101] In every village, the King's party was met by inhabitants, lined up by the road, grieving thattheir King was abandoning them, and neglecting their duty of paying homage.[101] Parts of the southern shore of theImjin River was burnt to deprive the Japanese troops of materials with which to make their crossing, and GeneralKim Myong-won deployed 12,000 troops at five points along the river.[101]

Japanese campaigns in the north

Crossing of the Imjin River

While the First Division rested in Hanseong, the Second Division began heading north, only to be delayed by theImjin River for two weeks.[101] The Japanese sent a familiar message to the Koreans on the other shore requestingthem to open way to China, but the Koreans rejected this.[101] Then the Japanese commanders withdrew their mainforces to the safety of the Paju fortress; the Koreans saw this as a retreat, and launched an attack at dawn against theremaining Japanese troops on the southern shore of the Imjin River.[101] The main Japanese body retaliated againstthe isolated Korean troops, and acquired their boats; at this, the Korean General Kim Myong-won retreated with hisforces to the Kaesong fortress.[102]

Distribution of Japanese forces in 1592

With the Kaesong castle having been sacked shortly after General Kim Myong-won retreated to Pyeongyang,[102] theJapanese troops divided their objectives thus: the First Division would pursue the Korean king in Pyongan Provincein the north (where Pyongyang is located); the Second Division would attack Hamgyong Province in thenortheastern part of Korea; the Sixth Division would attack Jeolla Province at the southwestern tip of the peninsula;the Fourth Division would secure Gangwon Province in the mid-eastern part of the peninsula; and the Third, Fifth,Seventh, and Eighth Divisions would stabilize the following provinces respectively: Hwanghae Province (belowPyongan Province), Chungcheong Province (below Gyeonggi Province); Gyeongsang Province (in the southeastwhere the Japanese first had landed); and Gyeonggi Province (where the capital city is located).[103]

Capture of Pyeongyang

The First Division under Konishi Yukinaga proceeded northward, and sacked Pyongsan, Sohung, Pungsan,Hwangju, and Chunghwa on the way.[104] At Chunghwa, the Third Division under Kuroda Nagamasa joined theFirst, and continued to the city of Pyeongyang located behind the Taedong River.[104] 10,000 Korean troops guardedthe city against 30,000 Japanese [105] under various commanders including the Generals Yi Il and Kim Myong-won,and their defense preparations had assured that no boats were available for Japanese use.[104]

On the night of July 22, 1592, the Koreans silently crossed the river and launched a successful surprise attack againstthe Japanese encampment.[104] However, this stirred up the rest of the Japanese army, which attacked the rear of theKorean positions and destroyed the reinforcements crossing the river.[106] Then the rest of the Korean troopsretreated back to Pyeongyang, and the Japanese troops gave up their pursuit of the Koreans to observe the way theKoreans crossed the river.[106]

The next day, using what they had learned from observing the retreating Korean troops, the Japanese began sending troops to the other shore over the shallow points in the river, in a systematic manner, and at this the Koreans abandoned the city overnight.[107] On July 24, the First and Third Divisions entered the deserted city of

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 13

Pyeongyang.[107]

Campaigns in the Gangwon Province

The Fourth Division under the command of Mōri Yoshinari set out eastward from the capital city of Hanseong inJuly, and captured the fortresses down the eastern coast from Anbyon to Samcheok.[107] The division then turnedinward to capture Jeongseon, Yeongwol, and Pyeongchang, and settled down at the provincial capital of Wonju.[107]

There Mōri Yoshinari established a civil administration, systematized social ranks according to the Japanese model,and conducted land surveys.[107] Shimazu Yoshihiro, one of the generals in the Fourth Division, arrived at Gangwonlate, due to the Umekita Rebellion, and finished the campaign by securing Chunchon.[108]

Campaigns in the Hamgyong Province and Manchuria

Katō Kiyomasa leading the Second Division of more than 20,000 men, crossed the peninsula to Anbyon with a tenday march, and swept north along the eastern coast.[108] Among the castles captured was Hamhung, the provincialcapital of the Hamgyong Province, and here a part of the Second Division was allocated for defense and civiladministration.[109]

The rest of the division of 10,000 men[105] continued north, and fought a battle on August 23 against the southernand northern Hamgyong armies under the commands of Yi Yong at Songjin (present-day Kimchaek).[109] A Koreancavalry division took advantage of the open field at Songjin, and pushed the Japanese forces into a grainstorehouse.[109] There the Japanese barricaded themselves with bales of rice, and successfully repelled a formationcharge from the Korean forces with their arquebuses.[109] While the Koreans planned to renew the battle in themorning, Katō Kiyomasa ambushed them at night; the Second Division completely surrounded the Korean forceswith the exception of an opening leading to a swamp.[109] Here, those that fled were trapped and slaughtered.[109]

Koreans who fled gave alarms to the other garrisons, allowing the Japanese troops easily to capture Kilchu,Myongchon, and Kyongsong.[109] The Second Division then turned inland through Puryong toward Hoeryong wheretwo Korean princes had taken refuge.[109] On August 30, 1592, the Second Division entered into Hoeryong whereKatō Kiyomasa received the Korean princess and the provincial governor Yu Yong-rip, these having already beencaptured by the local inhabitants.[109] Shortly afterward, a Korean Warrior band handed over the head of ananonymous Korean general, and the General Han Kuk-ham tied up in ropes.[109]

Katō Kiyomasa then decided to attack a nearby Jurchen castle across the Tumen River in Manchuria to test histroops against the "barbarians", as the Koreans called the Jurchens ("Orangkae" in Korean and "Orangai" in Japanese– the Japanese derived both the word and the concept of the Jurchens as barbarians from the Koreans).[110] TheKoreans with 3,000 men at Hamgyong joined in (with Kato's army of 8,000), as the Jurchens periodically raidedthem across the border.[110] Soon the combined force sacked the castle, and camped near the border; after theKoreans left for home, the Japanese troops suffered a retaliatory assault from the Jurchens.[110] Despite having theadvantage, Katō Kiyomasa retreated with his forces to avoid heavy losses.[110] Because of this invasion, risingJurchen leader Nurhachi offered military assistance to Joseon and Ming in the war. However, the offer was refusedby both countries, particularly Joseon, citing that it would be disgraceful to accept assistance from the "Barbarians"to the north.The Second Division continued east, capturing the fortresses of Jongseong, Onsong, Kyongwon, and Kyonghung,and finally arrived at Sosupo on the estuary of the Tumen River.[110] There the Japanese rested on the beach, andwatched a nearby volcanic island rising on the horizon that they mistook as Mount Fuji.[110] After the tour, theJapanese continued their previous efforts to bureaucratize and administrate the province, and allowed severalgarrisons to be handled by the Koreans themselves.[111]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 14

Naval battles of Admiral YiHaving secured Pyeongyang, the Japanese planned to cross the Yalu River into Jurchen territory, and use the waterswest of the Korean peninsula to supply the invasion.[112] However, Yi Sun-sin, who held the post of the Left NavalCommander (equivalent of "Admiral" in English) of the Jeolla Province (which covers the western waters of Korea),successfully destroyed the Japanese ships transporting troops and supplies.[112] Thus the Japanese, now lackingenough arms and troops to carry on the invasion of the Jurchens, changed the objective of the war to the occupationof Korea.[112]

When the Japanese troops landed at the port of Busan, Bak (also spelled Park) Hong, the Left Naval Commander ofthe Gyeongsang Province, destroyed his entire fleet, his base, and all armaments and provisions, and fled.[87] WonGyun, the Right Naval Commander, also destroyed and abandoned his own base, and fled to Konyang with only fourships.[87] Therefore, there was no Korean naval activity around the Gyeongsang Province, and the surviving two, outof the four total navies, were active only on the other (west) side of the peninsula.[87] Admiral Won later sent amessage to Admiral Yi that he had fled to Konyang after being overwhelmed by the Japanese in a fight.[113] Amessenger was sent by Admiral Yi to the nearby island of Namhae to give Yi's order for war preparations, only tofind it pillaged and abandoned by its own inhabitants.[113] As soldiers began to flee secretly, Admiral Yi ordered "toarrest the escapees" and had two of the fugitives brought back, beheaded them and had their heads exposed.[113]

Admiral Yi's battles greatly affected the war and put significant strain on Japanese supply routes.[114]

Battle of Okpo

Admiral Yi relied on a network of local fishermen and scouting boats to receive intelligence of the enemymovements.[114] On the dawn of June 13, 1592, Admiral Yi and Admiral Yi Eok-gi set sail with 24 Panokseons, 15small warships, and 46 boats (i.e. fishing boats), and arrived at the waters of the Gyeongsang Province by sunset.[114]

Next day, the Jeolla fleet sailed to the arranged location where Admiral Won was supposed to meet them, and metthe admiral on June 15. The augmented flotilla of 91 ships[115] then began circumnavigating the Geoje Island, boundfor the Gadeok Island, but scouting vessels detected 50 Japanese vessels at the Okpo harbor.[114] Upon sighting theapproaching Korean fleet, some of the Japanese who had been busying themselves with plundering got back to theirships, and began to flee.[114] At this, the Korean fleet encircled the Japanese ships and finished them with artillerybombardments.[116] The Koreans spotted five more Japanese vessels that night, and managed to destroy four.[116]

The next day, the Koreans approached 13 Japanese ships at Jeokjinpo as reported by the intelligence.[116] In the samemanner as the previous success at Okpo, the Korean fleet destroyed 11 Japanese ships – completing the Battle ofOkpo without a loss of a single ship.[116]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 15

A turtle ship replica at the War Memorial in Seoul. The historicalexistence of the ironclad roof is disputed.[117] [118] [119]

Battle of Sacheon and the Turtle Ship

About three weeks after the Battle of Okpo,[120]

Admirals Yi and Won sailed with a total of 26 ships(23 under Admiral Yi) toward the Bay of Sacheon uponreceiving an intelligence report of the Japanesepresence.[121] Admiral Yi had left behind his fishingvessels that used to make up most of his fleet in favorof his newly completed Turtle ship.[120]

The turtle ship was a vessel of a Panokseon design withthe removal of the elevated command post, themodification of the gunwales into curved walls, and theaddition of a roof covered in iron spikes (andhexagonal iron plates, which is disputed[117] [118] [119]

).[122] Its walls contained a total of 36 cannon ports,and also openings, above the cannons, through whichthe ship's crew members could look out and fire theirpersonal arms.[121] This design also prevented theoutsiders from boarding the ship and aiming at thepersonnel inside.[122] The ship was the fastest and mostmaneuverable existing warship in the East Asiantheater, as it was powered by two sails and 80 oarsmentaking turns to handle the ship's 16 oars.[81] No morethan six Turtle Ships served throughout the entire war,and their primary role was to cut deep into the enemy lines, cause havoc with its cannons, and destroy the enemy flagship.[81]

On July 8, 1592, the fleet arrived at the Bay of Sacheon, where the outgoing tide prevented the Korean fleet fromentering.[120] Therefore, Admiral Yi ordered the fleet to feign withdrawal, which the Japanese commander observedfrom his tent on a rock.[122] Then the Japanese hurriedly embarked their 12 ships and pursued the Korean fleet.[120]

The Korean navy counterattacked, with the Turtle Ship in the front, and successfully destroyed all 12 ships.[120]

Admiral Yi was shot by a bullet in his left shoulder, but survived.[120]

Battle of Dangpo

On July 10, 1592, the Korean fleet again found and destroyed 21 Japanese ships, which were anchored at Dangpowhile the Japanese raided a coastal town.[123]

Battle of Danghangpo

Admiral Yi Eok-gi with his fleet joined Admirals Yi Sun-sin and Won Gyun, and participated in a search for enemy vessels in the Gyonsang waters.[123] On July 13, the generals received intelligence that a group of Japanese ships including those that escaped from the Battle of Dangpo was resting in the Bay of Danghangpo.[123] Having traveled through a narrow gulf, the Koreans sighted a total of 26 enemy vessels in the bay.[123] The turtle ship was used to penetrate the enemy formation and rammed the flagship, while the rest of the Korean fleet held back.[124] Then Admiral Yi ordered a fake retreat, as the Japanese could escape to land while in the bay.[124] When the Japanese pursued the Koreans far enough, the Korean fleet turned and surrounded the Japanese fleet, with the Turtle Ship again ramming against the enemy flag ship. The Japanese were unable to counter the Korean cannons.[124] Only 1 Japanese ship managed to escape from this route, and that too was caught and destroyed by a Korean ship the next

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 16

morning.[124]

Admiral Yi's crane wing formation, famously used at the Battle of Hansando.

Battle of Yulpo

On July 15, the Korean fleet wassailing east to return to the island ofGadok, and successfully interceptedand destroyed seven Japanese shipscoming out from the Yulpo harbor.[124]

Battle of Hansando

In response to the Korean navy's success, Toyotomi Hideyoshi recalled three admirals from land-based activities:Wakizaka Yasuharu, Kato Yoshiaki, and Kuki Yoshitaka.[124] They were the only ones with naval responsibilities inthe entirety of the Japanese invasion forces.[124] However, the admirals arrived in Busan nine days beforeHideyoshi's order was actually issued, and assembled a squadron to counter the Korean navy.[124] EventuallyAdmiral Wakizaka completed his preparations, and his eagerness to win military honor pushed him to launch anattack against the Koreans without waiting for the other admirals to finish.[124]

The combined Korean navy of 70 ships[125] under the commands of Admirals Yi Sun-sin and Yi Ok-gi was carryingout a search-and-destroy operation because the Japanese troops on land were advancing into the Jeolla Province.[124]

The Jeolla Province was the only Korean territory to be untouched by a major military action, and served as homefor the three admirals and the only active Korean naval force.[124] The admirals considered it best to destroy navalsupport for the Japanese to reduce the effectiveness of the enemy ground troops.[124]

On August 13, 1592, the Korean fleet sailing from the Miruk Island at Dangpo received local intelligence that a largeJapanese fleet was nearby.[124] The following morning, the Korean fleet spotted the Japanese fleet of 82 vesselsanchored in the straits of Gyeonnaeryang.[124] Because of the narrowness of the strait and the hazard posed by theunderwater rocks, Admiral Yi sent six ships to lure out 63 Japanese vessels into the wider sea,[125] and the Japanesefleet followed.[124] There the Japanese fleet was surrounded by the Korean fleet in a semicircular formation called"crane wing" by Admiral Yi.[124] With at least three turtle ships (two of which were newly-completed) spearheadingthe clash against the Japanese fleet, the Korean vessels fired volleys of cannonballs into the Japanese formation.[124]

Then the Korean ships engaged in a free-for-all battle with the Japanese ships, maintaining enough distance toprevent the Japanese from boarding; Admiral Yi permitted melee combats only against severely damaged Japaneseships.[124] The battle ended in a Korean victory, with Japanese losses of 59 ships – 47 destroyed and 12captured.[126] Several Korean prisoners of war were rescued by the Korean soldiers throughout the fight. AdmiralWakisaka escaped due to the speed of his flag ship.[126] When the news of the defeat at the Battle of Hansandoreached Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he ordered that the Japanese invasion forces cease all naval operations.[124]

Battle of Angolpo

On August 16, 1592, Yi Sun-sin led their fleet to the harbor of Angolpo where 42 Japanese vessels were docked.[124]

When Admiral Yi tried to fake a retreat, the Japanese ships did not follow; in response, Admiral Yi ordered theKorean ships to take turns bombarding the Japanese vessels.[124] In fear that the Japanese troops would take revengefor their losses against the local inhabitants, Admiral Yi ordered the Korean ships to cease fire against the fewremaining enemy vessels.[124]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 17

Korean MilitiasFrom the beginning of the war, the Koreans organized militias called the "Righteous Army" (의병) to resist theJapanese invasion.[127] These fighting bands were raised throughout the country, and participated in battles, guerillaraids, sieges, and the transportation and construction of wartime necessities.[128]

There were three main types of Korean militias during the war: first, the surviving and leaderless Korean regularsoldiers; second, the "Righteous Armies" consisting of patriotic yangbans (aristocrats) and commoners; and third, theBuddhist monks.[128]

During the first invasion, the Jeolla Province remained the only untouched area on the Korean peninsula.[128] Inaddition to the successful patrols of the sea by Admiral Yi, volunteer activism pressured the Japanese troops to avoidthe province for other priorities.[128]

Gwak Jae-u's Campaigns along the Nakdong River

Gwak Jae-u was a famous leader in the Korean militia movement, and it is widely accepted that he was the first toform a resistance group against the Japanese invaders.[129] He was a land-owner in the town of Uiryong situated bythe Nam River in the Gyeongsang Province. As the Korean regulars abandoned the town[128] and an attack seemedimminent, Gwak organized fifty townsmen; however the Third Division went from Changwon straight towardSongju.[129] When Gwak used abandoned government stores to supply his army, the Gyeongsang Province GovernorKim Su branded Gwak's group as rebels, and ordered that it be disbanded.[129] When the general asked for help fromother landowners, and sent a direct appeal to the King, the governor sent troops against Gwak, in spite of havingenough troubles already with the Japanese.[129] However, an official from the capital city then arrived to raise troopsin the province, and, since the official lived nearby and actually knew him, he saved Gwak from troubles with thegovernor.[129]

Gwak Jae-u deployed his troops in guerilla warfare under the cover of the tall reeds on the union of the Nakdong andthe Nam Rivers.[129] This strategy prevented easy access for the Japanese troops to the Jeolla Province whereAdmiral Yi and his fleet were stationed.[129]

Battle of Uiryong/Chongjin

The Sixth Division under the command of Kobayakawa Takakage was in charge of conquering the JeollaProvince.[129] The Sixth Division marched to Songju through the established Japanese route (i.e. the Third Division,above), and cut left to Geumsan in Chungcheong, which Kobayakawa secured as his starting base for his invasion ofthe province.[129]

Ankokuji Ekei, a former Buddhist monk made into a general due to his role in the negotiations between MōriTerumoto and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, led the units of the Sixth Division charged with the invasion of the JeollaProvince. The units began their march to Uiryong at Changwon, and arrived at the Nam River.[129] Ankokuji's scoutsplanted meters measuring the river's depths so that the entire squadron could cross the river; over the night, theKorean militiamen moved the meters into the deeper parts of the river.[129] As the Japanese troops began to cross,Gwak's militia ambushed them, and caused heavy losses for the Japanese.[129] In the end, to advance into the JeollaProvince, Ankokuji's men had to try going north around the insecure grounds and within the security of theJapanese-garrisoned fortresses.[129] At Kaenyong, Ankokuji's target was changed to Gochang, to be taken with theaid of Kobayakawa Takakage.[129] However, the entire Jeolla campaign was then abandoned when Kim Myeon andhis guerillas successfully ambushed Ankokuji's troops by firing arrows from hidden positions within themountains.[129]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 18

Jeolla coalition and Battle of Yong-in

When the Japanese troops were advancing to Hanseong (present-day Seoul),Yi Kwang, the governor of the JeollaProvince, attempted to check the Japanese progress by launching his army toward the capital city.[130] Upon hearingthe news that the capital had already been sacked, the governor withdrew his army.[130] However, as the army grewin size to 50,000 men with the accumulation of several volunteer forces, Yi Kwang and the irregular commandersreconsidered their aim to reclaim Hanseong, and led the combined forces north to Suwon, 26 miles (42 km) south ofHanseong.[130] [131] On June 4, an advance guard of 1,900 men attempted to take the nearby fortress at Yong-in, butthe 600 Japanese defenders under Admiral Wakizaka Yasuharu avoided engagement with the Koreans until June 5,when the main Japanese troops came to relieve the fortress.[130] [132] The Japanese troops counterattackedsuccessfully against the Jeolla coalition, forcing the Koreans to abandon arms and retreat.[130]

First Geumsan Campaign

Around the time of General Kwak's mobilization of his volunteer army in the Gyeongsang Province, GoGyeong-myeong in Jeolla Province formed a volunteer force of 6,000 men.[130] Go then tried to combine his forceswith another militia in the Chungchong Province, but upon crossing the provincial border he heard that KobayakawaTakakage of the Sixth Division had launched an attack on Jeonju (the capital of Jeolla Province) from the mountainfortress at Geumsan. Go returned to his own territory.[130] Having joined forces with General Gwak Yong, Go thenled his soldiers to Geumsan.[130] There, on July 10, the volunteer forces fought with a Japanese army retreating toGeumsan after a defeat at the Battle of Ichi two days earlier on July 8[133]

Siege of JinjuJinju (진주) was a large castle that defended Jeolla Province. The Japanese commanders knew that control of Jinjuwould mean the fall of Jeolla. Therefore, a large army under Hosokawa Tadaoki approached Jinju. Jinju wasdefended by Kim Si-min (김시민), one of the better generals in Korea, commanding a Korean garrison of 3,000men. Kim had recently acquired about 200 new arquebuses that were equal in strength to the Japanese guns. With thehelp of arquebuses, cannon, and mortars, Kim and the Koreans were able to drive back the Japanese from JeollaProvince. Hosokawa lost over 30,000 men. The battle at Jinju is considered one of the greatest victories of Koreabecause it prevented the Japanese from entering Jeolla.

Intervention of Ming China

Ming Dynasty Wanli Emperor     萬曆神宗皇帝

Viewing the crisis in Choson, the Ming Dynasty Wanli emperor and his courtwas initially filled with confusion and skepticism on how their tributary couldhave been overran so quickly, this combined with the fact that they were stilldealing with a military rebellion in Ningxia, resulted in a slow response. Thelocal governor at LiaoDong though eventually acted upon King Seonjo'srequest for aid by sending a small force of 5,000 soldiers led by ZuChengxun. This cavalry force advanced almost unhindered and even enteredPyongyang, where they were badly defeated by the Japanese troops in thestreets, one of their main general, Shi Ru, was also killed.[134]

By then it had become clear that this was a situation much more serious thansomething that could be handled by the local forces, the Ming Emperormobilized and dispatched a larger force in January 1593 under the general LiRusong and Imperial Superintendent Song Yingchang, the former being oneof the sons of Ming dynasty's Liaodong military magistrate Li Chengliang

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 19

and the latter being a bureaucratic officer (Ming military law stipulated that any military officer would have anaccompanying bureaucrat appointed by the Imperial Court acting as the general's superior). The army had aprescribed strength of 100,000, though actual strength was much lower, according to the collection of letters left bySong Yingchang, the actual strength of the Ming army that crossed into Korea in late 1592 was 36,000 andeventually reinforced to over 38,000 by early February,[135] composed of mostly garrisons from the north, including3,000+ men who were trained by officers with experience against Japanese based pirates a couple decades backunder Qi Jiguang and other generals.

Ming Army's matchlocks, an early muzzle-loaded firearm used in the15th to 17th centuries,.

Siege of Pyongyang

On January 5, 1593, the Ming expedition arrivedoutside Pyongyang with a group of Korean force. ByKing Seonjo's decree, Ming general Li Rusong wasappointed the supreme commander of armies in Korea.After some initial attempts to barter with the Japanesedefenders under Konishi Yukinaga that wasunsuccessful,[136] the two sides began skirmishing onthe outskirts over the next couple of days, with theallied forces attempting to dislodge a Japanese garrison on the hills north of the city while the Japanese attempted anight raid on the Ming camp.[136]

On the morning of the 8th, Li ordered an all out assault on 3 sides of the city, the Japanese defenders were forced offthe walls fairly quickly, and retreated to the citadel they built on the eastern portions of the city. The allies wereunwilling to commit to a direct assault on the heavily defended fortification during the day, instead they left anopening for the Japanese to rally while making preparations for a fire assault on their position, at night, the Japaneseforces sallied out of the undefended eastern walls and made a run for Seoul, they were hit with additional ambusheson the way back south and took heavy casualties.[137] [138] [139]

Battle of ByeokjegwanSoon after retaking PyongYang, the allied forces also succeeded in retaking the major city of Kaesong on the 19th ofJanuary [140] and met only minor resistance from the Japanese defenders.Overconfident with his recent success and possibly mislead by false reports,[141] Li Ru Song advanced towards thecapital city of Seoul on January 21 of 1592, he personally led small force of elite cavalry numbering somwherearound 6,000, along with a small force of Koreans and advance scouts, the force ran into an unexpectedconfrontation on January 26 at Byeokjegwan by a large Japanese formation of about 30,000.Initially, the scouting party of the group under Cha Da Sho and a Korean general confronted a small band ofJapanese numbering no more than 600 men, the party overran them successfully but soon ran into a much larger hostunder Tachibana Muneshige, the party retreated to a nearby hill to defend themselves.Upon hearing his scouting party's plight, Li decided to rush forward with the rest of his small host, he met up withhis scouting party around noon but by now even more Japanese forces were converging on the area.The Ming forces gradually retreated north whlie fighting off several waves of attacks, Li Rusong and many othergenerals were personally fighting in the brawl, and they sustained heavy casualties before they met up with the restof their army toward the later portion of the day. At this point, the Japanese gave up further attacks and both sidespulled back. The Ming suffered heavy casaulties among their elite retinues and Li would be reluctant to moveaggressively for the remainder of the war.[142]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 20

Battle of HaengjuThe Japanese invasion into Jeolla province was broken down and pushed back by General Gwon Yul at the hills ofIchiryeong, where outnumbered Koreans fought overwhelming Japanese troops and gained victory. Gwon Yulquickly advanced northwards, re-taking Suwon and then swung south toward Haengju where he would wait for theChinese reinforcements. After he got the message that the Ming army under Li Rusong was pushed back at Byeokje,Gwon Yul decided to fortify Haengju.Bolstered by the victory at Battle of Byeokjegwan, Katō and his army of 30,000 men advanced to the south ofHanseong to attack Haengju Fortress, an impressive mountain fortress that overlooked the surrounding area. Anarmy of a few thousand led by Gwon Yul was garrisoned at the fortress waiting for the Japanese. Katō believed hisoverwhelming army would destroy the Koreans and therefore ordered the Japanese soldiers to simply advance uponthe steep slopes of Haengju with little planning. Gwon Yul answered the Japanese with fierce fire from thefortification using Hwachas, rocks, handguns, and bows. After nine massive assaults and 10,000 casualties, Katōburned his dead and finally pulled his troops back.The Battle of Haengju was an important victory for the Koreans, as it greatly improved the morale of the Koreanarmy. The battle is celebrated today as one of the three most decisive Korean victories; Battle of Haengju, Siege ofJinju (1592), and Battle of Hansando.Today, the site of Haengju fortress has a memorial built to honor Gwon Yul.

StalemateAfter the Battle of Byeokjegwan, the Ming army took a cautious approach and moved on Seoul again later inFebruary after the Korean milita's valiant defense in the Battle of Haengju.The two sides remained at stalemate between the Kaesong to Seoul line for the next couple of months, both sideswere unable and unwilling to commit to further offensives, the Japanese were still unable to gain sufficient suppliesto move north, and the defeat at PyongYang had caused part of the Japanese leadership such as Konishi Yukinagaand Ishida Mitsunari to seriously consider negotiating with the Ming dynasty forces, this got them into a heateddebate with other hawkish generals such as Kato Kiyomasa, these conflicts would eventually have furtherimplications in the events of Japan following the war. (see Battle of Sekigahara)The Allied forces on the other hand, was also facing their own set of problems, soon after arriving in Korea the Mingofficials began to note the inadequate logistical supply from the Korean court, the records by one such general ( QianShiZheng) noted that even after the siege of Pyongyang the Ming forces were already stalled for nearly a week dueto the lack of supplies before moving on to Kaesong,[143] as the time went on the situation only become moreserious. When the weather warmed the road condition in Korea also became terrible, as numerous letters from SongYingchang and other Ming officers attest, which made resupplying from China itself also a tedious process.[144]

The Korean countryside was already devastated from the invasion when the Ming forces arrived, and in the heart ofwinter it was extremely difficult for the Koreans to muster sufficient supplies, even though the court had assigned themajority of the men on hand to tackle the situation, but their desire to reclaim their country along with the miltitarilyinexperienced nature of many of their administrators resulted in them continuing requesting the Ming forces toadvance despite the situation. These events created an increasing level of distrust between the two sides.The Ming forces also had some internal conflicts, as the forces with Southern China origins were often at odds withLi Rusong and his northmens, Qian ShiZheng in his records noted that the Northmen often did not follow orders andstole their gains in battles. While Li also appeared to have favored his compatriots more than the forces fromsouthern China.Though by mid April 1593, faced with ever greater logistical pressure from blockade of Admiral Yi and theRighteous army's raid, in addition to the Ming forces special operation that managed to burn down a very significantportion of the Japanese grain storage [145] the Japanese decided break off into talks and pull out of Seoul.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 21

Negotiations and truce between China and Japan (1594–1596)Under pressure from the Chinese army and local militias, with food supplies cut off and his forces now reduced bynearly one third from desertion, disease and death, Konishi was compelled to sue for peace. General Li Rusongoffered General Konishi a chance to negotiate an end to the hostilities. When negotiations got underway in the springof 1593, China and Korea agreed to cease hostilities if the Japanese would withdraw from Korea altogether. GeneralKonishi had no option but to accept the terms, but he would have a hard time convincing Hideyoshi that he had noother choice.Hideyoshi proposed to China the division of Korea: the north as a self-governing Chinese satellite, and the south toremain in Japanese hands. The peace talks were mostly carried out by Konishi Yukinaga, who did most of thefighting against the Chinese. The offer was taken into consideration until Hideyoshi also demanded one of theChinese princesses to be sent as his concubine. Then the offer was promptly rejected. These negotiations were keptsecret from the Korean Royal Court.By May 18, 1593, all the Japanese soldiers had retreated to the area around Busan and many began to make theirway back to Japan. In the summer of 1593, a Chinese delegation visited Japan and stayed at the court of Hideyoshifor more than a month. The Ming government withdrew most of its expeditionary force, but kept 16,000 men on theKorean peninsula to guard the truce.An envoy from Hideyoshi reached Beijing in 1594. Most of the Japanese army had left Korea by the autumn of1596; a small garrison nevertheless remained in Busan. Satisfied with the Japanese overtures, the imperial court inBeijing dispatched an embassy to allow Hideyoshi to have the title of "King of Japan" on condition of completewithdrawal of Japanese forces from Korea.Later, Hideyoshi abrogated a negotiation one-sidedly. Peace negotiations soon broke down and the war entered itssecond phase when Hideyoshi sent another invasion force. Early in 1597, both sides resumed hostilities.

Korean military reorganization

Proposal for military reforms

Strong fortifications such as Hwaseong Fortress were needed.Internal corruption prevented any building plans from being carried

out.

During the period between the First and Secondinvasions, the Korean government had a chance toexamine the reasons why they had been easily overrunby the Japanese. Yu Seong-ryong, the Prime Minister,spoke out about the Korean disadvantage.Yu pointed out that Korean castle defenses wereextremely weak, a fact which he had already pointedout before the war. He noted how Korean castles hadincomplete fortifications and walls that were too easyto scale. He also wanted cannons set up in the walls.Yu proposed building strong towers with gun turrets forcannons. Besides castles, Yu wanted to form a line ofdefenses in Korea. He proposed to rebuild the series ofall enveloping walls and forts around Seoul. In thiskind of defense, the enemy would have to scale many walls in order to reach Seoul.Yu also pointed out how efficient the Japanese army was, in that it took them only one month to reach Seoul, andhow well organized they were. The organized military units the Japanese generals deployed were a large part of the

Japanese success. Yu noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex maneuvers, often weakening the enemy with arquebuses, then attacking with melee weapons. Korean armies often moved forward as one body without any

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 22

organization at all.

Military Training AgencyKing Seonjo and the Korean court finally began to reform the military. In September 1593, the Military TrainingAgency was established. The agency carefully divided the army into units and companies. Within the companieswere squads of archers, arquebusers, swordsmen, and spear infantry. The agency set up divisional units in eachregion of Korea and garrisoned battalions at castles. The agency, which originally had less than 80 members, soongrew to about 10,000.One of the most important changes was that both upper class citizens and slaves were subject to the draft. All maleshad to enter military service be trained and familiarized with weapons.It was also around this time that the military scholar Han Gyo (한교) wrote the martial arts manual Muyejebo basedon the book Ji Xiao Xin Shu written by the famous Chinese general Qi Jiguang.

Second invasion (1597–1598)

Japanese second invasion wave[83]

Army of the Right

Mori Hidemoto 30,000

Katō Kiyomasa 10,000

Kuroda Nagamasa 5,000

Nabeshima Naoshige 12,000

Ikeda Hideuji 2,800

Chosokabe Motochika 3,000

Nakagawa Hidenari 2,500

Subtotal 65,300

Army of the Left

Ukita Hideie 10,000

Konishi Yukinaga 7,000

Sō Yoshitoshi 1,000

Matsuura Shigenobu 3,000

Arima Harunobu 2,000

Omura Yoshiaki 1,000

Goto Sumiharu 700

Hachisuka Iemasa 7,200

Mōri Yoshinari 2,000

Ikoma Kazumasa 2,700

Shimazu Yoshihiro 10,000

Shimazu Tadatsune 800

Akizuki Tanenaga 300

Takahashi Mototane 600

Ito Suketaka 500

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 23

Sagara Yorifusa 800

Subtotal 49,600

Naval Command

Todo Takatora 2,800

Katō Yoshiaki 2,400

Wakizaka Yasuharu 1,200

Kurushima Michifusa 600

Mitaira Saemon 200

Subtotal 7,200

Total 122,100

Hideyoshi was dissatisfied with the first campaign and decided to attack Korea again. One of the main differencesbetween the first and second invasions was that conquering China was no longer a goal for the Japanese. Failing togain a foothold during Katō Kiyomasa's Chinese campaign and the full retreat of the Japanese during the firstinvasion affected Japanese morale. Hideyoshi and his generals instead planned to conquer Korea.Instead of the nine divisions during the earlier invasion, the armies invading Korea were divided into the Army ofthe Left and the Army of the Right, consisting of about 49,600 men and 30,000 respectively.Soon after the Chinese ambassadors returned safely to China in 1597, Hideyoshi sent 200 ships with approximately141,100 men[146] under the overall command of Kobayakawa Hideaki.[58] Japan's second force arrived unopposed onthe southern coast of Gyeongsang Province in 1596. However, the Japanese found that Korea was both betterequipped and ready to deal with an invasion this time.[147] In addition, upon hearing this news in China, the imperialcourt in Beijing appointed Yang Hao (楊鎬) as the supreme commander of an initial mobilization of 55,000troops[146] from various (and sometimes remote) provinces across China, such as Sichuan, Zhejiang, Huguang,Fujian, and Guangdong.[148] A naval force of 21,000 was included in the effort.[149] Rei Huang, a Chinese historian,estimated that the combined strength of the Chinese army and navy at the height of the second campaign was around75,000.[150] Korean forces totaled 30,000 with General Gwon Yul's army in Gong Mountain (공산; 公山) in Daegu,General Gwon Eung's (권응) troops in Gyeongju, Gwak Jae-u's soldiers in Changnyeong (창녕), Yi Bok-nam's(이복남) army in Naju, and Yi Si-yun's troops in Chungpungnyeong.[146]

Initial offensiveInitially the Japanese found little success, being confined mainly to Gyeongsang Province and only managingnumerous short-range attacks to keep the much larger Korean and Chinese forces off balance.[147] All throughout thesecond invasion Japan would mainly be on the defensive and locked in at Gyeongsang province.[147] The Japaneseplanned to attack Jeolla Province in the southwestern part of the peninsula and eventually occupy Jeonju, theprovincial capital. Korean success in the Siege of Jinju in 1592 had saved this area from further devastation duringthe first invasion. Two Japanese armies, under Mōri Hidemoto and Ukita Hideie, began the assault in Busan andmarched towards Jeonju, taking Sacheon and Changpyong along the way.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 24

Plot against Admiral Yi

A naval battle. Close combat was very rare during Admiral Yi'soperations.

The Korean navy played a crucial part in the secondinvasion, as in the first. The Japanese advances werehalted due to the lack of reinforcements and supplies asthe naval victories of the Korean navy prevented theJapanese from accessing the south-western side of theKorean peninsula.[151] Also, during the second invasion,China sent a large number of Chinese ships to aid theKoreans. This made the Korean navy an even biggerthreat to the Japanese, since they had to fight a largerenemy fleet.

Initially, Korea was setback in the naval arena when WonGyun took Admiral Yi's place as commander.

Because Admiral Yi, the commander of the Korean navy,was so able in naval warfare, the Japanese plotted todemote him by making use of the laws that governed the Korean military. A Japanese double agent working for theKoreans falsely reported that Japanese General Katō Kiyomasa would be coming on a certain date with a greatJapanese fleet in another attack on Korean shores, and insisted that Admiral Yi be sent to lay an ambush.[152]

Knowing that the area had sunken rocks detrimental to the ships, Admiral Yi refused, and he was demoted and jailedby King Seonjo for refusing orders. On top of this, Admiral Won Gyun accused Admiral Yi of drinking and idling.Won Gyun was quickly put in Admiral Yi's place.

Battle of Chilcheollyang

After Won Gyun replaced Admiral Yi, Won Gyun gathered the entire Korean fleet, which now had more than 100ships carefully accumulated by Admiral Yi, outside of Yosu to search for the Japanese. Without any previouspreparations or planning, Won Gyun had his fleet sail towards Busan.After one day, Won Gyun was informed of a large Japanese fleet near Busan. He decided to attack immediately,although captains complained of their exhausted soldiers.At the Battle of Chilcheollyang, Won Gyun was completely outmaneuvered by the Japanese in a surprise attack. Hisships were overwhelmed by arquebus fire and the Japanese traditional boarding attacks. However, before the battle,Bae Soel, an officer, ran away with 13 Panokseons, the entire fighting force of the Korean navy for many months.It should be noted that the Battle of Chilcheollyang was Japan's only naval victory of the war. Won Gyun was killedby a Japanese garrison after he struggled ashore on an island.

Siege of Namwon

After the disaster at Battle of Chilcheollyang, the allied defenses in the south began to break down, the Japaneseforces stormed into Jeolla province, the garrison of Namwon became their next key target.Namwon was located 30 miles southeast of Jeonju. Correctly predicting a Japanese attack, a coalition force of 6,000soldiers (including 3,000 Chinese troops under Yang Yuan and civilian volunteers) were readied to fight theapproaching Japanese forces.[153] The Japanese laid siege to the walls of the fortress with ladders and siegetowers.[154] The two sides exchanged volleys of arquebuses and bows. Eventually the Japanese forces scaled thewalls and sacked the fortress. According to Japanese commander Okochi Hidemoto, author of the Chosen Ki, theSiege of Namwon resulted in 3,726 casualties[155] on the Korean and Chinese forces' side.[156] The entire JeollaProvince fell under Japanese control, but as the battle raged on the Japanese found themselves hemmed in on allsides in a retreat and again positioned in a defensive perimeter only around Gyeongsang Province.[147]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 25

Among the defenders, the Korean forces and its leaders were almost entirely killed, while Yang Yuan managed tosally out after the walls were breached with a handful of men back to Seoul, though eventually he was executed bythe Ming court on the grounds of this defeat.

Battle of Hwangseoksan

Hwangseoksan Fortress consisted of extensive walls that circumscribed the Hwangseok mountain and garrisonedthousands of soldiers led by the general Jo Jong-do and Gwak Jun. When Katō Kiyomasa laid siege to the mountainwith a large army, the Koreans lost morale and retreated with 350 casualties. Even with this incident the Japanesewere still unable to break free from Gyeongsang Province and were reduced to holding a defensive position only,with constant attacks from the Chinese and Korean forces.[147]

First allied counter offensiveUpon the breakout of the new round of fighting, the Ming emperor was furious about the entire debâcle of the peacetalk and turned his wrath on many of its chief supporters; namely, the minister of military department Shi Xin, whowas deposed and jailed (he died a couple of years later in prison) while the chief negotiator, Shen Wei-Jin, wasexecuted. Xin Jie was named the new minister of military and Yang Hao as the new chief superintendent (Jin Lue) ofKorea; Xin Jie himself was also stationed in Korea for the remainder of the war. The Ming quickly pulled in manyunits from its border with Korea in the hopes of turning the tide on the Japanese onslaught.

Battle of Jiksan

After the Japanese initial success on land, they were ready to aim for Seoul by late August – early September 1597.However, their attempt to attack Seoul was foiled by a Ming defense around Jiksan (modern day Cheonan).Forces under Kuroda Nagamasa formed the vanguard of the right army and marched toward Seoul, the court at Seoulwas deeply disturbed and several of the Ming generals stationed in Korea also suggested for the court to pull backwith them for now until they can gather more reinforcements, however the Ming administrators overruled theirgenerals and ordered them to make a stand. Thus the chief commander of the Ming forces at the time Ma Gui sentout general Xie Shen (解生) and three other generals with an elite cavalry force to try to confront the Japaneseforces.According to Korean records, the Ming forces ran into the vanguard forces under Kuroda Nagamasa around the areaof Jiksan; on the first day they beat back a smaller scouting party and on the second day the two forces clashed inearnest, with the Japanese forces being beaten back as a result, though soon afterwards a larger Japanese forceshowed up and the Ming forces also retreated; however the Japanese force also did not advance much further fromJiksan and pulled back afterwards. This battle greatly relieved the court and was the beginning of the turnaround onland.[157]

Battle of Myeongnyang

After the debacle in Chilcheollyang, King Seonjo immediately reinstated Admiral Yi. Admiral Yi quickly returned toYeosu only to find his entire navy destroyed. Yi re-organized the navy, now reduced to 12 ships and 200 men fromthe previous battle.[158] Nonetheless, Admiral Yi's strategies did not waver, and on September 16, 1597, he foughtagainst a large Japanese fleet of 133 warships and 200 logistical ships with only 12 of his own ships.[159] in theMyeongnyang Strait. The Battle of Myeongnyang resulted in a Korean victory and the Japanese were forced toreturn to Busan,[160] under the orders of Mōri Hidemoto. Admiral Yi won back the control of the Korean shores. TheBattle of Myeongnyang is considered Admiral Yi's greatest battle because of the disparity of numbers.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 26

Siege of Ulsan

Korean and Chinese soldiers assault the Japanese-built fortress atUlsan.

By late 1597, the Joseon and Ming allied forcesachieved victory in Jiksan and pushed the Japanesefurther south. After the news of the loss atMyeongnyang, Katō Kiyomasa and his retreating armydecided to destroy Gyeongju, the former capital ofUnified Silla.

Eventually, Japanese forces sacked the city and manyartifacts and temples were destroyed, mostprominently, the Bulguksa, a Buddhist temple.However, Joseon and Ming allied forces repulsed theJapanese forces, who retreated south to Ulsan,[161] aharbor that had been an important Japanese trading posta century before, and which Katō had chosen as astrategic stronghold.

Yet Admiral Yi's control of the areas over the KoreaStrait permitted no supply ships to reach the westernside of the Korean peninsula, into which manyextensive tributaries merge. Without provisions andreinforcements, the Japanese forces had to remain inthe coastal fortresses known as wajō that they stillcontrolled. To gain advantage of the situation, the Chinese and Korean coalition forces attacked Ulsan. This siegewas the first major offensive from the Chinese and Korean forces in the second phase of the war.

The effort of the Japanese garrison (about 7,000 men) of Ulsan was largely dedicated to its fortification inpreparation for the expected attack. Katō Kiyomasa assigned command and defense of the base to Katō Yasumasa,Kuki Hirotaka, Asano Nagayoshi, and others before proceeding to Sosaengpo.[162] The Chinese Ming and Koreanarmy first assault on January 29, 1598, caught the Japanese army unawares and still encamped, for the large part,outside Ulsan's unfinished walls.[163]

A total of around 36,000 troops with the help of singijeons and hwachas nearly succeeded in sacking the fortress, butreinforcements under the overall command of Mōri Hidemoto came across the river to aid the besieged fortress[164]

and prolonged the hostilities. Although the Japanese garrison was desperately short of supplies, the Mingcommander Ma Gui judged the situation to be going against the allied forces; as more and more Japanese forcesbegan to arrive around the area, the allied forces were quickly becoming outnumbered.[165]

Late at night on 1/03 1598, Ma Gui decided to order a general retreat of the allied forces, but soon confusion beganto erupt in the allied forces further complicated by heavy rainfall and Japanese attacks, the chief superintendent YangHao also panicked and left hastily for Seoul ahead of the army.[166] [167] [168]

Soon the general retreat order began to fall apart into a chaotic rout; the Japanese forces also took advantage of thesituation and attacked some of the allied forces.[169]

The disaster was a heavy setback for the allied forces, who would not move on the Japanese position again for morethan eight months.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 27

Final allied offensive of 1598After the debatical at Ulsan, the two side remained in stalemate for the next several months. Xin Jie decided that theywould require further reinforcements to launch a final large offensive to destroy the Japanese presence once and forall.Reinforcements from China began to pour in through most of mid 1598, with Chen Lin and Deng Zilong with theirnavy arriving in May, by September 1598, the Ming presence in Korea have swelled to 75,000 overall, by far thelargest at any point in the war.Xin Jie divided his forces into four groups, with Ma Gui heading the offensive against Ulsan yet again, Li RuMeiheading the offensive against Sacheon, Chen Lin would command the navy and along with Liu Ting and Yi Sun-Sinwith a cordinated land-sea effort against Suncheon.Just before they set out however, news came that Li Rusong was killed by Mongolian tribesman back in Liao Dong,Xin Jie decided to remove his emotionally weakened brother Li Rumei in favor of Dong Yi YuanIn June 1598, after Commander Konishi Yukinaga's warning of the dire situations in the campaign, 70,000 troopswere withdrawn and 60,000 troops were left behind — mostly Satsuma soldiers under the Shimazu clan commandersShimazu Yoshihiro and his son Tadatsune.[170] Kato Kiyomasa remained in command of the defenses of Ulsan whileKonishi himself commanded the defenses at Suncheon.Only in Sacheon was the battle more decisive before the Japanese abandoned the war in November. in Suncheonfailed cordination among the different generals caused the allies several good chances, while in Ulsan some back andforth fighting resulted in further stalemate.

Battle of Sacheon

The Chinese believed that Sacheon was crucial in their program to retake the lost castles and ordered an attack.Although the Chinese were ascendant initially, the tide of battle turned when Japanese reinforcements attacked therear of the Chinese army and the Japanese soldiers inside the fortress counter-attacked through the gates.[171] TheChinese Ming forces retreated with 30,000 losses.[172]

According to the Chinese and Korean sources, forces lead by Dong Yi Yuan were making strong headways in thesiege until a sudden gunpowder accident caused most of their camp to go up in flame, and the Japanese forces wereable to take advantage of the situation to rout the already devastated forces.[173]

Death of HideyoshiOn September 18, 1598, Hideyoshi ordered the withdrawal of forces from Korea on his deathbed.[174] The Councilof Five Elders kept Hideyoshi's death a secret to preserve morale and sent the decree to withdraw to the Japanesecommanders in late October.

Battle of Noryang PointThe Battle of Noryang Point was the final naval battle in the war. The Korean navy under Admiral Yi had recoveredfrom its losses and was aided by the Chinese navy under Chen Lin. Intelligence reports revealed that 500 Japaneseships were anchored in the narrow straits of Noryang in order to withdraw the remaining Japanese troops.[175] Notingthe narrow geography of the area, Admiral Yi and Chen Lin led a surprise attack against the Japanese fleet at 2:00am on December 16, 1598, using cannons and fire arrows.By dawn, nearly half of the Japanese battle ships were destroyed; as the Japanese began to withdraw, Admiral Yiordered the final charge to destroy the remaining ships. As Yi's flagship sped forward, he was shot on the left side ofhis chest under the arm. This was the third time he was shot throughout the war. Yi told his captains to keep hisdeath secret and to continue the battle so that the morale of the soldiers would not drop. Admiral Yi died in minutes.Only three nearby captains, including his nephew, saw his death.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 28

The battle ended with an allied victory and a Japanese loss of nearly 300 warships out of the original 500. Only afterthe battle did the soldiers learn of Yi's death, and it is said that Chen Lin was so shocked when he heard the news ofhis death, he fell down many times on his way and lamented that Yi died in his stead.[176]

Postwar negotiationsAs Tsushima suffered greatly from its loss of trade with Korea as a result of the invasions, Yoshitoshi of the Sōfamily, then dominant in Tsushima, sent four peace negotiation missions to Korea in 1599: the first three werecaptured and sent to Beijing by Chinese troops, but the fourth one in 1601 successfully obtained from Seoul thecondition of returning the Korean captives for peace.[177] However, the major incentive for Korea towardnormalization of relations with Japan was the withdrawal of the Chinese soldiers, which could result from thenormalization, since the Chinese themselves were causing as much havoc as the Japanese had.[177] Yoshitoshi thenreleased several Korean prisoners and, between the years 1603 and 1604, helped the two Korean envoys inrepatriating a further 3,000 by organizing a negotiation at Kyoto with Tokugawa Ieyasu, then the Shogun ofJapan.[177]

In continuation of the diplomatic talks toward peaceful relations, Korea in 1606 demanded that the Shogun write aformal letter requesting peace, and that the Japanese soldiers who had defiled the royal tombs in Seoul beextradited.[177] Unable to fulfill the request, Yoshitoshi sent a forged letter and a group of criminals instead; despitethe apparent fraud, the great need to dispel the Chinese soldiers pushed the Koreans to send an embassy in 1608.[177]

The end result of the visit was a return of hundreds of Koreans as well as the restoration of the diplomatic relationsbetween the two countries.[178]

Aftermath and conclusion

Yeosu today. Admiral Yi's headquarters were located here.

The Japanese invasions were Asia's first regional warsinvolving massive armies equipped with modernweapons.[179] The regular deployment of Japanese armiessizing up to 200,000, Chinese armies at 80,000,[68] andthe regular Korean participation in the hundreds ofthousands.

The invasions also stood as a challenge to the existingChinese world order on two levels:[180] the military, inwhich the war reaffirmed Ming's status as the suprememilitary power in East Asia, and the political, in whichthe war affirmed Chinese willingness to aid in theprotection of its tributary/suzerain states.[181]

Losses and gainsJapan achieved technological transfer from Korea, such as new methods of pottery/silk making/iron forging, etc atthe cost of thousands of lives and large sums of national wealth.[182] After Hideyoshi's death his son ToyotomiHideyori became head of the Toyotomi clan. In fact these two invasions weakened the clan's power and prestige andin a matter of months, Japan was split again. Tokugawa Ieyasu later won the decisive Battle of Sekigahara andestablished himself as Shogun in 1603.[183]

China had to bear the financial burden from defending Korea, all the while fighting several other conflicts in the same decade, the war also at least indirectly weakened their position in Machuria, which gave the then fledgling Machu chieftain Nurhachi significant room to expand. (Nurhachi's expansions would culminate in the rise of the

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 29

Qing Dynasty).[5]

As for Korea, which withstood the most damage out of the three,[5] this conflict was more devastating than any otherevent in its history (even the Korean War).[6] Reduction of arable land to sixty-six percent of the prewar total [4]

greatly hurt Korea's mainly agricultural economy;[182] famine, disease, and rebellions ran rampant in Korea.[5]

Significant losses of historical archives, cultural and scientific artifacts (such as the water clock Ja-gyuk-roo[184] ),and skilled artisans marked the nadir of Korean science in its decline.[185]

The total military and civilian casualty as estimated by the late 19th century historian, Geo H. Jones, is 1 million,[186]

and the total combat casualty ranges around 250,000.[187] A total of 185,738 Korean and 29,014 Chinese casualtiesoccurred, and 50 to 60,000 captives were taken by the Japanese throughout the war.[188] Among those captured, atotal of 7,500 were returned to Korea through diplomatic means.[189] A large portion of the captives were sold toEuropean traders — mainly Portuguese, who then resold them in Southeast Asia.[190]

The captives brought to Japan, including scholars, craftsmen, medicine makers, and gold smelters, provided to Japanmany cultural and technological gains.[188] It is not surprising that Japanese pottery and art developed a significantsimilarity to their Korean counterparts.[114]

Japanese typography began with Korean fonts and technicians along with the adoption of the westerntechniques.[191] The first production of porcelain (Arita) in Japan began in 1616 at the town of Imari when a Koreanpotter called Yi Sam-pyong discovered kaolin-rich clay.[192] As Korean pottery was highly prized in Japan, manyJapanese lords established pottery-producing kilns with the captured Korean potters in Kyūshū and other parts ofJapan,[192] and these communities were forced to maintain their Korean traditions and to keep away from the rest ofthe society.[193]

War brutalityAccording to Stephen Turnbull, a historian specializing in Japanese history, Japanese troops committed crimesagainst civilians in battles and killed indiscriminately, including farm animals.[88] Outside of the main battles,Japanese raided Korean habitations to "kill, rape and steal in a… cruel manner…"[194] Japanese soldiers treated theirown peasants no better than the captured Koreans and worked many to death by starvation and flogging.[195] TheJapanese collected enough ears and noses[196] (cutting ears off of enemy bodies for making casualty counts was anaccepted practice) to build a large mound near Hideyoshi's Great Buddha, called the Mimizuka, or "the Mound ofEars".[197]

The Chinese, as claimed by Turnbull, were said to be no better than the Japanese in the amount of destruction theycaused and the degree of the crimes they committed.[177] Turnbull claimed they even attacked Korean forces,[192]

and they did not distinguish between Korean civilians and the Japanese.[198] He argued that military competitionresulted between the Chinese generals and the Koreans, and supposedly led to the indiscriminate killing of Koreancivilians in Namhae by the Chinese soldiers, whom the Chinese General Chen Lin labelled as Japanese collaboratorsin order to gain a larger head count.[198] Indeed the Chinese / Korean sources of the time confirm several incidents ofthe Ming troops, such as one in 1593 when the forces under Wu WeiZhong apparently attacked a group of Koreancivilians who they thought was trying to rob their supplies, Wu was nearly dismissed for the incident but still went totake part in most of the war. The Ming court also launched an investigation on the rumor that many of the peoplekilled in the Siege of Pyongyang were, in fact, Korean civilians, but the court eventually decided that commander LiRusong was innocent.Korean bandits and highwaymen took advantage of the chaos during the war to form raiding parties and rob otherKoreans.[199] The inhabitants of Hamgyong Province (in the northern part of the Korean peninsula) surrendered theirfortresses, turning in their generals and governing officials to the Japanese invaders, as they felt oppressed by theJoseon government.[109] Many Korean generals and government officials deserted their posts whenever dangerseemed imminent.[92]

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 30

LegacyThe war left significant legacies in all three countries. Korea gained several national heroes. Admiral Yi was and stillis a subject of reverence in Japan: for example, Admiral Togo, famed for his success at the Battle of Tsushimaduring the Russo-Japanese War, called Admiral Yi the greatest naval commander in history.[200]

In appreciation of the Chinese aid, the Koreans built a sacrificial altar for the Chinese Emperor, and held rituals forthe emperor.[6] In Chinese academia, historians list the war as one of the Wanli Emperor's "Three Great PunitiveCampaigns".[6] Contemporary Chinese historians often use the campaigns as an example of the friendship the twonations shared.Contemporary Japanese leaders justified the war with a previous incursion into Korea led by the mythical EmpressJingu in 400 AD, claiming that they were being blessed by the god of war, Hachiman, whom Empress Jingu carriedin her womb during her invasion.[178] This temporary and partial occupation of Korea fixed a Japanese argument thatKorea had always been part of Japan,[201] and the Japanese leaders of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries usedthe war to justify their occupation of Korea.[202] However, the ancient Japanese presence in southern Koreanpeninsula is denied by many Korean historians.Hideyoshi's former castle at Osaka was restored as a museum in the 1930s to commemorate Japan's militaryhistory.[203] In the context of Japanese imperialism, the invasions are seen as the first Japanese attempt to become aglobal power.[6] In China (as well as Korea),[179] the war inspired nationalistic resistance against the Japaneseimperialism during the 20th century.[6]

Today, anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea can be traced back to the Japanese invasions in 1592.

International awareness

Despite the great interest in the war in East Asia,[203] the Japanese invasions of Korea are not widely known in thewest.[204] Historian Stephen Turnbull attributes this ignorance to titles such as Hideyoshi's Invasions of Korea(merely an extended part of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's biography) and the Japanese invasions of Korea (simply a largerrepeat of the Japanese wakō pirate raids) absent the distinction as a "war".[52] Some textbooks treat the war with afew lines, and to date not a single complete academic study on the subject exists in English.[205] Historian KennethM. Swope lists a near exception: Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War 1592–98 by Stephen Turnbull, butcriticizes the work for undercoverage of the Korean and Chinese perspective, and for its pro-Japanese bias.[205]

Footnotes• Note: All websites are listed here independently from the References section.[1] Swope, Kenneth (2006). "Beyond Turtleboats: Siege Accounts from Hideyoshi's Second Invasion of Korea, 1597-1598" (http:/ / sjeas. skku.

edu/ upload/ 200701/ 177-206. PDF) (PDF). Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 6 (2): 177–206.[2] "Today in Korean History" (http:/ / find. galegroup. com/ itx/ infomark. do?& contentSet=IAC-Documents& type=retrieve& tabID=T004&

prodId=ITOF& docId=A155053120& source=gale& srcprod=ITOF& userGroupName=tel_middleten& version=1. 0). Yonhap News Agencyof Korea. 2006-11-28. . Retrieved 2007-03-24.

[3] Swope. 2002. pp. 761[4] "Early Joseon Period" (http:/ / www. opm. go. kr/ warp/ webapp/ content/ view?meta_id=english& id=62). History. Office of the Prime

Minister. . Retrieved 2007-03-30.[5] Strauss, Barry. pp. 21[6] Swope. 2002. pp. 758-9[7] Jang, Pyun-soon. pp. 123-132[8] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 7[9] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 10-11[10] Villiers pp. 71[11] Alagappa, Muthiah pp. 117 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rnNnOxvm3ZwC& pg=PA117& lpg=PA117& dq=china+ tributary+

system+ big+ brother+ korea& source=web& ots=IIlObnPWEw& sig=8oDox81E5Vwsm0kr3ESGGVaCq0o)[12] Sansom, George. pp. 142, 167-180.[13] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 11.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 31

[14] Swope. 2002. pp. 771[15] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 13.[16] Arano pp. 206.[17] Hooker, Richard ((C) 1996, last updated 1999). "Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598)" (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ TOKJAPAN/

TOYOTOMI. HTM). Washington State University. . Retrieved 2007-05-12.[18] Coyner, Tom (2006-07-11). "Why Are Koreans So Against Japanese?: A Brief History Lesson Helps Foreign Investors Do Business" (http:/

/ times. hankooki. com/ lpage/ biz/ 200607/ kt2006071120020911910. htm). The Korea Times.[19] Swope. 2002. pp. 760[20] "Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573–1603)" (http:/ / www. japan-guide. com/ e/ e2123. html). japan-guide.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-12.[21] Stanley, Thomas A.; R.T.A. Irving ((C) 1996, revised 14 September 2001). "Toyotomi Hideyoshi" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/

20070426142209/ http:/ / www. hku. hk/ history/ nakasendo/ ). Nakasendo Highway: A Journey to the Heart of Japan. University of HongKong. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hku. hk/ history/ nakasendo/ ) on 2007-04-26. . Retrieved 2007-05-12.

[22] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 37[23] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 23[24] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 24[25] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 38[26] Swope. 2005. pp. 21.[27] "Toyotomi Hideyoshi - Japanese general who united Japan" (http:/ / www. japan-101. com/ history/ toyotomi_hideyoshi. htm).

Japan101.com. 2003–2005. . Retrieved 2007-05-12.[28] 柚谷康広

[29] Kang, Etsuko Hae-jin (1997). Diplomacy and ideology in Japanese-Korean relations: from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century (http:/ /books. google. com/ ?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C& pg=PA88& dq="So+ yoshishige"+ "Yutani+ Yasuhiro"#v=onepage& q="So yoshishige" "YutaniYasuhiro"). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 88. ISBN 0312173709. .

[30] The Book of Corrections: Reflections on the National Crisis during the Japanese Invasion of Korea, 1592–1598. By Sôngnyong Yu.Translated by Choi Byonghyon. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 2002. xi, 249 pp. James B. Lewis. TheJournal of Asian Studies (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=787224), Volume 63, Issue 02,May 2004, pp 524-526. doi: 10.1017/S0021911804001378, Published online by Cambridge University Press February 26, 2007.

[31] "선조[宣祖]". Daum 백과사전(Britannica). Daum.net. Daum.net (http:/ / enc. daum. net/ dic100/ viewContents. do?& m=all&articleID=b12s0368b)

[32] Caraway, Bill. "Ch 12 - Japanese invasions: More Worlds to Conquer" (http:/ / www. koreanhistoryproject. org/ Ket/ C12/ E1202. htm).KOREA IN THE EYE OF THE TIGER. Korea History Project. . Retrieved 2007-07-04.

[33] Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 240[34] Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 240-1[35] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 34.[36] 宗義智

[37] Hulbert, Homer B. (1999). History of Korea (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rdMBZb6nSOIC& pg=PA427& dq=tsuginobu#v=onepage&q=tsuginobu). 1. Routledge. p. 427. ISBN 070070700X. .

[38] 柳川調信

[39] 玄蘇

[40] 宗義調

[41] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 28.[42] Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 242[43] "구국(救國)의 영재상, 서애 유성룡" (http:/ / innovation. gb. go. kr/ room/ rev_people/ mnu7_1185779926649. swf). 경북혁신인물.

Gyeong-sang-buk-do Province. . Retrieved 2007-10-07.[44] Jang, Pyun-soon. pp. 112[45] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 36.[46] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 36-37.[47] Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 242-3[48] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 38.[49] Swope. 2002. pp. 760-1[50] Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 243[51] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 26[52] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 9.[53] Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 14[54] Swope. 2005. pp. 32.[55] Swope. 2005. pp. 26.[56] Strauss, Barry. pp. 3[57] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 22.[58] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 187.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 32

[59] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 26.[60] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 15.[61] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 16.[62] Caraway, Bill. "Ch 12 - Japanese invasions: More Worlds to Conquer" (http:/ / koreanhistoryproject. org/ Ket/ C12/ E1202. htm). KOREA

IN THE EYE OF THE TIGER. Korea History Project. . Retrieved 2007-07-04.[63] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 17-18.[64] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 20.[65] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 40.[66] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 42.[67] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 109.[68] Swope. 2006. pp. 186.[69] Hawley, Samuel. pp. 3–7.[70] Hawley, Samuel. pp. 6.[71] Swope. 2005. pp. 30.[72] Swope. 2005. pp. 29.[73] Swope. 2005. pp. 37.[74] Swope. 2005. pp. 38.[75] - Seonjo Sillok Book 188, Year 38, 7th of June - (上曰: "倭賊不能射, 而人莫敢敵, 何?" 時言曰: "我國人見賊, 則先潰以走爲能事。

將則雖不忠, 畏有軍律, 不敢先走。 軍之走者, 不可勝誅, 惟其不可勝誅, 是以走耳。 倭賊雖不能射, 兩矢之間, 忽焉到前,我國之人雖曰善射, 遠則不中, 近則倭劍可畏。 發矢之後, 恐其短兵來接, 未得發矢, 射亦不足恃矣。 倭雖善用劍,我國人若持劍而進, 則可以敵矣。 我國人則不能如此, 皆以走爲善策": Both Korean translated text and original Chinese text can be read inthis site: sillok.history.go.kr (http:/ / sillok. history. go. kr/ main/ main. jsp))

[76] Swope. 2005. pp. 28.[77] Swope. 2005. pp. 24.[78] Caraway, Bill. "Ch 12 - Japanese invasions: Song of the Great Peace" (http:/ / koreanhistoryproject. org/ Ket/ C12/ E1201. htm). KOREA IN

THE EYE OF THE TIGER. Korea History Project. . Retrieved 2007-07-04.[79] Brown, Delmer M., pp. 252[80] Strauss, Barry. pp. 9[81] Strauss, Barry. pp. 10[82] Brown, Delmer M., pp. 243[83] Sansom, Sir George Bailey (1961). A History of Japan, 1334-1615 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0syC6L77dpAC& pg=PA353&

hl=en#v=onepage& q& f=false). Stanford University Press. p. 353. ISBN 0804705259. .[84] based on the archives of [[Shimazu clan (http:/ / www. netlaputa. ne. jp/ ~kitsch/ hyuuga/ itonenpyou. htm)]][85] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 47.[86] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 48.[87] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 83-4.[88] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 50-1.[89] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 52.[90] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 55-6.[91] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 56-7.[92] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 53-4.[93] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 53.[94] "상주전투". 문화원영 백과사전. Daum.[95] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 57-8.[96] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 59-60.[97] "한니발의 背水陣, 김정일의 배수진: 부하의 '마음을 '얻지 '못한 '배수진은 '死地가 '된다" (http:/ / www. independent. co. kr/ news_01/

n_view. html?id=16165& kind=menu_code& keys=5& search=& listpage=n_list. html) (in Korean). 독립신문. 2006-10-18. . Retrieved2007-07-25.

[98] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 61-2.[99] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 63-4.[100] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 65-6.[101] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 67-8.[102] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 69-70.[103] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 71.[104] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 72-3.[105] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 240.[106] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 73-4.[107] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 74-5.[108] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 75-6.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 33

[109] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 77-8.[110] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 79-80.[111] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 81-82.[112] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 82.[113] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 85-6.[114] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 90-1.[115] Strauss, Barry. pp. 11[116] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 90-2.[117] Hawley, Samuel: The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China, The Royal Asiatic Society,

Korea Branch, Seoul 2005, ISBN 89-954424-2-5, p.195f.[118] Turnbull, Stephen: Samurai Invasion. Japan's Korean War 1592-98 (London, 2002), Cassell & Co ISBN 0-304-35948-3, p.244[119] Roh, Young-koo: "Yi Sun-shin, an Admiral Who Became a Myth", The Review of Korean Studies, Vol. 7, No. 3 (2004), p.13[120] Strauss, Barry. pp. 12[121] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 93.[122] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 94-5.[123] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 96-7.[124] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 98-107.[125] Strauss, Barry. pp. 13[126] Strauss, Barry. pp. 14[127] "의병 (義兵)" (http:/ / kr. dic. yahoo. com/ search/ enc/ result. html?p=ÀǺ´& pk=16989000& subtype=& type=enc& field=id).

Encyclopedia. Yahoo Korea!. . Retrieved 2007-10-07.[128] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 1-8-9.[129] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 110-5.[130] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 116-123.[131] "Suwon" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9070532/ Suwon). Encyclopædia Britannica. . Retrieved 2007-09-01.[132] "용인전투" (http:/ / enc. daum. net/ dic100/ contents. do?query1=b16a3034a). Encyclopædia Britannica. Daum. . Retrieved 2007-09-01.[133] " 이치전투 (조선 역사) [梨峙戰鬪] (http:/ / enc. daum. net/ dic100/ contents. do?query1=b18a0543a)". Daum 백과사전(Britannica).

Daum.net.[134] The Home Front (http:/ / koreanhistoryproject. org/ Ket/ C12/ E1204. htm)[135] letter by Song YingChang in an official report back to the court on February 16, 1593 states 已到兵丁三萬八千五百三十七人員, a total

of 38537 men have arrived[136] The History of Ming chapter 238 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ ��/ �238#. E5. AD. 90_. E5. A6. 82. E6. 9D. BE)[137] The History of Ming chapter 238. (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ ��/ �238#. E5. AD. 90_. E5. A6. 82. E6. 9D. BE)[138] description within the annals of Seonjo (http:/ / sillok. history. go. kr/ main/ main. jsp)[139] Song YingChang's letters on March the 1st 1593 describing the battle in full to the Ming court[140] The history of Ming Chapter 238 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ ��/ �238#. E5. AD. 90_. E5. A6. 82. E6. 9D. BE)

十九日，如柏遂複開城

[141] The history of Ming Chapter 238 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ æ��å�²/ å�·238#. E5. AD. 90_. E5. A6. 82. E6. 9D. BE)官軍既連勝，有輕敵心 二十七日再進師。朝鮮人以賊棄王京告。如松信之，將輕騎趨碧蹄館。

[142] History of the Ming chapter 238 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ æ��å�²/ å�·238#. E5. AD. 90_. E5. A6. 82. E6. 9D. BE)將輕騎趨碧蹄館。距王京三十裏，猝遇倭，圍數重。如松督部下鏖戰。一金甲倭搏如松急，指揮李有聲殊死救，被殺。如柏、寧等奮前夾擊，如梅射金甲倭墜馬，楊元兵亦至，斫重圍入，倭乃退，官軍喪失甚多。會天久雨，騎入稻畦中不得逞。倭背嶽山，面漢水，聯營城中，廣樹飛樓，箭砲不絕，官軍乃退駐開城。

[143] Statements in "The records of the Eastern Expedition" by Qian ShiZheng[144] various letter by Song Yingchang, including the letter to Li Rusong on February 10, 1593 stating "今糧草未敷泥濘難進"[145] The history of Ming chapter 238 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ æ��å�²/ å�·238#. E5. AD. 90_. E5. A6. 82. E6. 9D. BE)

聞倭將平秀嘉據龍山倉，積粟數十萬，密令大受率死士從間焚之。倭遂乏食。

[146] 브리태니커백과사전. 정유재란 (丁酉再亂) (http:/ / www. mtcha. com. ne. kr/ korea-term/ sosun/ term312-jungyujeran. htm)[147] Korean History Project - Where the Past is Always Present. Song of the Great Peace (http:/ / koreanhistoryproject. org/ Ket/ C12/ E1205.

htm)[148] Hawley, The Imjin War, op. cit, p. 450.[149] Huang, Ray, "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li Reigns, 1567–1620." in The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty,

1368–1644, Part I, edited by Denis Twitchett and John Farbank. Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 572.[150] Huang, Ray, "The Lung-ch'ing and Wan-li Reigns, 1567–1620." in The Cambridge History of Chani. Vol. 7, The Ming Dynasty,

1368–1644, Part I, edited by Denis Twitchett and John Farbank. Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 572.[151] Lee, Ki-Baik, A New History of Korea, Translated by Edward W. Wagner and Edward J. Shultz, Ilchorak/Harvard University Press, 1984,

p. 214, ISBN 0-674-61575-1.[152] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 182–183.[153] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 191.[154] 脇坂紀, 太田 藤四郎 and 塙 保己一, editors, 続群書類従 [Zoku Gunsho Ruiju Series], 1933, p. 448.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 34

[155] This refers to a record of the number of noses collected, as samurai were paid according to how many noses they collected, both from theliving and the dead, in contrast to the more traditional practice of collecting heads.

[156] Hidemoto, Okochi, 朝鮮記 [Chosen Ki], 太田 藤四郎 and 塙 保己一, editors, 続群書類従 [Zoku Gunsho Ruiju Series], 1933[157] 九月，經理楊鎬，使副總兵解生等，大拜賊兵於稷山. 先是,賊自陷南原, 乘勝長驅, 進逼京畿. 經理楊鎬在平壤聞之, 馳入京城,

朝提督責不戰之狀. 於提督定記, 密選騎士之精勇者, 使解生牛伯英楊登山頗貴領之, 迎擊於稷山, 諸軍及我人皆末知也.解生等伏兵於稷山之素沙坪, 乘賊未及城列, 縱突騎擊之, 賊披靡而走, 死者甚多. 又遣游擊擺賽, 將兩千騎繼之, 與四將合勢,游擊又破之. 是日, 經理提督請上出視江上, 上不得已而行, 人心洶懼, 士庶接荷擔而立, 內殿壁兵西幸, 及捷報致，京中乃稍定。 Fromthe Annals of King Seonjo

[158] 桑 田忠親 [Kuwata, Tadachika], ed., 旧参謀本部編纂, [Kyu Sanbo Honbu], 朝鮮の役 [Chousen no Eki] (日本の戦史 [Nihon no Senshi]Vol. 5), 1965, p. 192.

[159] Nanjung Ilgi. War Diary of Admiral Yi Sun-sin. Translated by Ha Tae Hung, edited by Sohn Pow-key. Yonsei University Press, Seoul,Korea, 1977, p. 312, ISBN 89-7141-018-3.

[160] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 202,[161] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 203.[162] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 204–205.[163] 文禄\u12539 ・慶長役における被虜人の研究, 東京大学出版, 1976, p. 128, ASIN 4130260235.[164] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 215.[165] Annals of Seonjo record on 1/14 1598 (http:/ / sillok. history. go. kr) 解副揔【生。】接伴使戶曹參議宋諄啓曰: "蔚山之賊, 被圍日久,

援船多來泊, 又於賊窟迤西遠山, 山上盛張旗幟, 以助聲勢。

[166] History of the Ming chapter 259 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ æ��å�²/ å�·259#. E6. A5. 8A. E9. 8E. AC)明年正月二日，行長救兵驟至。鎬大懼，狼狽先奔，諸軍繼之。賊前襲擊，死者無算。副將吳惟忠、遊擊茅國器斷後，賊乃還，輜重多喪失。

[167] History of the Ming chapter 238 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ æ��å�²/ å�·238)明年正月二日，行長來援，九將兵俱潰。賊張旗幟江上，鎬大懼，倉皇撤師

[168] Annals of Seonjo record on 1/14 1598 (http:/ / sillok. history. go. kr) 正月初三日夜間, 喧說船賊下陸, 而唐軍卒然解圍, 一時移陣。

[169] Annals of Seonjo record on 1/14 1598 (http:/ / sillok. history. go. kr) 初四日朝, 諸軍馬鳥驚魚駭, 達夜崩潰, 俱棄器械, 狼藉原陸。

臣失副摠所在, 追至安東, 亦不相逢, 姑留待候副摠之行, 而以天將接伴之臣, 奉使無狀, 至於相失, 措躬無地, 席藁待罪耳

[170] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 219.[171] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 220–221.[172] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 222.[173] The History of the Ming chapter 239 (http:/ / zh. wikisource. org/ zh-hant/ æ��å�²/ å�·239)

朝鮮再用師，詔一元隸總督邢玠麾下，參贊軍事。尋代李如梅為禦倭總兵官。時兵分四路。一元由中路，禦石曼子於泗州，先拔晉州，下望晉，乘勝濟江，連毀永春、昆陽二寨。賊退保泗州老營，攻下之，遊擊盧得功陣歿。前逼新寨。寨三面臨江，一面通陸，引海為濠，海艘泊寨下千計，築金海、固城為左右翼。一元分馬步夾攻。步兵遊擊彭信古用大棓擊寨，碎其數處。眾軍進逼賊濠，毀其柵。忽營中炮裂，煙焰漲天。賊乘勢沖擊，固城援賊亦至。騎兵諸將先奔，一元亦還晉州。事聞，詔斬遊擊馬呈文、郝三聘，落信古等職，充為事官；一元亦奪宮保，貶秩三等。

[174] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition; 2006 - Hideyoshi[175] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 227.[176] pg. 111 Woongjinweewinjungi #14 Yi Sun-shin by Baek Sukgi. (C) Woongjin Publishing Co., Ltd.[177] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 235.[178] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 236.[179] Swope. 2005. pp. 13.[180] Swope. 2002. pp. 757[181] Swope. 2002. pp. 781[182] Caraway, Bill. "Ch 12 - Japanese invasions: Song of the Great Peace" (http:/ / www. koreanhistoryproject. org/ Ket/ C12/ E1205. htm).

KOREA IN THE EYE OF THE TIGER. Korea History Project. . Retrieved 2007-07-04.[183] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 233.[184] Yi, Gwang-pyo; Yoon Wang-joon (2007-02-20). "500년 전의 첨단과학 다시 숨쉰다…자격루 복원-작동 성공" (http:/ / www. donga.

com/ fbin/ output?n=200702200055) (in Korean). Donga. . Retrieved 2007-07-04.[185] Kim, Yung-sik. pp. 55[186] Jones, Geo H., Vol. 23 No. 5, pp. 254[187] White, Matthew (2005-01-20). "Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th Century" (http:/ / users. erols.

com/ mwhite28/ warstat0. htm#Total). Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century. .[188] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 230.[189] Arano pp. 197.[190] Arano pp. 199.[191] Sohn, pp. 102.[192] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 231.[193] Arano pp. 198.[194] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 169.[195] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp. 206-7.[196] KRISTOF, NICHOLAS D. (1997-09-14). "Japan, Korea and 1597: A Year That Lives in Infamy" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/

fullpage. html?res=9C03EED71E39F937A2575AC0A961958260& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=print). New York Times.[197] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 195.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 35

[198] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 236-7.[199] Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, p. 170.[200] Strauss, Barry. pp. 20[201] Wilhelmina, Nina (2006). "HISTORY OF JAPAN 660 BCE - 500" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080117004351/ http:/ / www.

geocities. com/ odamachi2/ nihongi2. htm). Oda Nobunaga, Samurai Cultural History & Everything You Don't Wanna Know. geocities.Archived from the original (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ odamachi2/ nihongi2. htm) on 2008-01-17. . Retrieved 2007-07-29.

[202] Swope. 2005. pp. 16.[203] Swope. 2005. pp. 12.[204] Swope. 2005. pp. 14.[205] Swope. 2005. pp. 15.

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External links• Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Korean Invasions: the Bunroku Campaign (1592–93) (http:/ / www. h4. dion. ne. jp/

~room4me/ korea/ bunroku. htm)• 임진왜란 (http:/ / www. chungdong. or. kr/ middroom/ syshim/ Çѱ¹»ç/ k-3-9. htm) (very visual website)• The Battles of Imjin Waeran (http:/ / www. e-sunshin. com/ e-sunshin/ life/ yimjin_04. jsp) (in Korean)• The Imjin Waeran (http:/ / www. boseong51. net/ user/ ftp/ free/ LeeSS/ IMJIN-War-Outbreak. html) (in Korean)• Jinju National Museum (http:/ / jinju. museum. go. kr) is dedicated to this topic. Information in English and

Korean.• The Imjinwaeran (http:/ / www. teachenglishinasia. net/ the-imjinwaeran) (in English)

Article Sources and Contributors 37

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