cohesion in discourse analysis - group 10
TRANSCRIPT
DISCOURSE ANALYSISDISCOURSE ANALYSIS
COHESION IN ENGLISH
Supervisor: Dr. Nguyen Hoa
Group 10: Nguyen Thi Nguyet Anh – 17A
Hoang Thi Huyen – 17B Nguyen Thi Dan Que 17C Mai Thi Thu Trang – 17D
COHESION IN ENGLISH
CONTENT
I. What is cohesion?
II.Cohesion vs. coherence
III.Lexical cohesion
IV.Grammatical cohesion
V.Logical cohesion
I.What is cohesion?
• “Basically, cohesion refers to the formal relationship that causes texts to cohere or stick together. It is indicated by grammatical, logical and lexical relationships found among or between the sentences of a text” (Nguyễn Hoà, 2000)
I.What is cohesion?
• Halliday and Hasan (1976):
• “A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text … the texture is provided by cohesive relation”. (quoted in Nguyen Hoa, 2000)
II.COHERENCE VS. COHESION
What is coherence?
• Nunan (1993): coherence is the extent to which discourse is perceived to hang together.
- Palmer (1983): “Coherence refers to the rhetorical devices, to ways of writing and speaking that bring about order and unity and emphasis”
Coherence vs. Cohesion
Example1: A: My car’s broken downB: There’s a garage down the road
Example 2: Yesterday I got up early. I had breakfast, brushed my teeth and washed my face. Then I went to the university and did morning exercises.
Coherence vs. Cohesion
- These two aspects of discourse are interrelated.
- Cohesion is seen as one of the ways of indicating coherence.
- Both ‘cohesion’ and ‘coherence’ have the function of binding the discourse/text together by creating sequences of meanings
Coherence vs. Cohesion
Coherence (Mạch lạc) Cohesion (Liên kết)
- Concerned with sequencing of the configuration of the concepts and relation of the textual world which underline and are realized by the surface text
- Concerned with formal surface structures (syntax and lexis) to interacts with underlying semantic relations or underlying functional coherence to create textual unity (Bell)
Classification of cohesive devicesCohesion (C)
1. Lexical C 2. Grammatical C 3. Logical C
1.1. Reiteration
1.2. Synonyms
1.3. Antonyms
1.4. Association
2.1. Reference
2.2. Substitution
2.3. Ellipsis
3.1. and 3.7 Result
3.2. Enumeration 3.8. Inference
3.3. addition 3.9. ReformulationOr Replacement
3.4. Transition 3.10. Concession
3.5 Summation 3.11. Comparison
3.6. Apposition
Coherence vs. CohesionĐỗ Hữu Châu (1996: 18)
Cohesion
Form Content
Topical Logical(Cohesive devices- Trần Ngọc Thêm)
(same referent) ( sequence of meaning suitable for common knowledge and subjective reality)
Them’s system (1985) Topical cohesion includes:
1. Topic maintaining devices– Reiteration– Synonyms/synonymic expressions– Substitution– Ellipsis
2. Topic developing devices.– Association– Antithesis
III.LEXICAL COHESION
LEXICAL COHESION
+ Definition “ Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in meaning between
lexical items in a text and, in particular, content words and the relationship between them”
(Brian Paltridge in “Discourse analysis: an introduction”)
“ Lexical cohesion is a cohesive device which creates unity in a text through the selection of vocabulary. Lexical items are connected to one another to create cohesive “ties” which hold the sentences together and make them appear as being about “the same thing”
( Dafna Yitzhaki in “Artificial lexical cohesion”)
LEXICAL COHESION
+ Kinds of lexical cohesion:- Repetition:
Refers to words that are repeated in a text. This includes words which are inflected for tense or number and words which are derived from particular items.
Example:
Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy
* The lexical item which contributes to cohesion here is of course the word 'bear' (not Algy and bulgy!).
- Synonymy
Synonymy refers to words which are similar in meaning such as “blokes” and
“men” in the following example:
Example:
I’m just not one of those blokes that find approaching women easy. The book assumes all men are confident, or that if they really like a girl, they’ll overcome their shyness. The opposite is true.
( Cooper 2005 : S38)
* Both “blokes” and “men” are referring to the same concept but in different way
- Antonomy Antonomy describes opposite or contrasive meaning such as “women” and
“men” in the following example:
Example:
Ande Stern, 28, a builder says he’s worried the book will drive women towards dodgy men.
( Cooper 2005 : S38)
- Hyponomy
Hyponymy refers to classes of lexical items where the relationship between
them is one of them is one of “general-specific” or “in a class to member” type relationship.
Example:
field grown crop
wheat
corn
sorghum
- Meronymy Meronymy is where lexiical items are in a “whole to part” relationship with
each other such as the relationship between “Jen” and “Stuart” in relation to the item “couple” as the following example:
Couple
Jen
Stuart
- Collocation Collocation describes associations between vocabulary items which have
tendency to co-occur, such as combination of abjectives and nouns; verb and nouns such as “real” and “estate agent”; “love” and “book”; “waste” and “time” in the following example:
IV.GRAMMARTICAL COHESION
Grammatical Cohesion
• In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language
• Grammatical cohesion refers to the structural content• In Cohesion in English, M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify
five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion, and conjunction.
Conjunction
• Conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses. Ex: then, however, in fact, and consequently.
• Conjunctions can also be implicit and can be deduced by the interpretation of the text. The aim of conjunction is to create a logically articulated discourse.
• The most cohesive conjunctions are therefore and so, while the least cohesive one is and.
Types of Conjunction
• Coordinating conjunctions
• Correlative conjunctions
• Subordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
• Here is a quick precis of some of the co-ordinating conjunctions in English:
• and: used to connect words, phrases, or clauses• but: indicates a contrast or exception• or: presents opinions, alternates, or substitutes
for ideas of equal importance• nor: presents an alternate negative idea
Correlative conjunctions
• Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together to coordinate two items. English examples include both…and, [n]either…[n]or, and not [only]…but [also], either... or, whether... or.
Subordinating conjunctions
• Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that introduce a dependent clause.
• The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include the following: after, although, as much as, as long as, as soon as, because, before, if, in order that, lest, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, and while.
Referencing
• There are three referential devices that can create cohesion:• Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or
something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition.• Ex: "the taxi driver" with the pronoun "he" or "two girls" with "they". Another
example: formulas such as "as stated previously" or "the aforementioned".• Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward as
opposed to backward in the discourse. Something is introduced in the abstract before it is identified. Ex: "Here he comes, our award-winning host... it's John Doe!"
• Exophoric reference is used to describe generics or abstracts without ever identifying them. e.g."everything". The prefix "exo" means "outside", and the persons or events referred to in this manner will never be identified by the writer.
Substitutions• A word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for another,
more general word. • For example, "Which ice-cream would you like?" - "I would like the
pink one" where "one" is used instead of repeating "ice-cream.“• Pronouns replace the noun. For example, 'Ice-cream' is a noun, and
its pronoun could be 'It'. 'I dropped the ice-cream because it was dirty'.
• Replacing the noun for a pronoun. "I dropped the green ice-cream. It was the only one I had'.( One should not mix up the two because they both serve different purposes: one to link back and one to replace)
Ellipsis
• Ellipsis is another cohesive device. It happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated.
• Ellipsis is the narrative device of omitting a portion of the sequence of events, allowing the reader to fill in the narrative gaps.
• An ellipsis in narrative leaves out a portion of the story. This can be used to condense time, or as a stylistic method to allow the reader to fill in the missing portions of the narrative with their imagination.
Ellipsis
• Ellipsis is another cohesive device. It happens when, after a more specific mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated.
• Ex: 1) A: Where are you going? B: To town. 2) The younger child was very outgoing, the
older much more reserved
Ellipsis
• Ellipsis is the narrative device of omitting a portion of the sequence of events, allowing the reader to fill in the narrative gaps.
• A famous example of ellipsis in narrative is offered by Virginia Woolf's novel, To the Lighthouse. Between the first and second parts of the novel, many years pass and World War I is fought and won. The reader is left to infer the events that have taken place during the elapsed time by the changes evident in the characters in the novel.
V.LOGICAL COHESION
Logical cohesion Logical cohesion refers to the logical
relationships holding between the sentences, creating cohesion. Logical cohesion is clearly seen through logical cohesive devices functioning as sentence connectors. There are twelve types of logical cohesion.
Logical cohesion1. And: connects two sentences by way of
‘and’
e.g: It was a convention where there were few blacks and few beards. And that remains the Republican problem.
Logical cohesion• 2. Enumeration: Enumerators indicate a
listing of what is being said, such as: first, second….next, finally, to begin with, to start with, for one thing…for another; one final point…
Logical cohesion3. Addition: the addition relationship is often
expressed by two classes if additive conjunts: reinforcing conjuncts – also, too, furthermore, moreover, then, in addition, above all…and equative conjuncts- equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way…
Logical cohesion4. Transition: transitional markers in
English are: with reference to, with respect to, with regard to….
Logical cohesion5. Summation: is used as a cohesive
device to generalize and sum up what has been discussed or said earlier. Summative conjuncts such as: to sum up, all in all, in conclusion, in a nutshell...
Logical cohesion6. Apposition: apposition markers can be
used to refer back to the pevious sentences, such as: namely, in other words, for example, that is, that is to say…
Logical cohesion7. Result: result markers indicate the results
or consequences of what was mentioned or said in the preceding sentences. These indicators include: consequently, hence, so, thus, therefore, as a result….
Logical cohesion8. Inference: is from what is implicit in the
preceding sentence or sentences which can be indicated by such markers as: else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case…
Logical cohesion9. Reformulation or replacement: these
markers introduce another way of saying the same thing by meaning of such conjuncts as: better, rather, in other words, or again…
Logical cohesion10. Contrast: can be introduced by the
conjunction but, or other antithetic conjuncts like: instead, then, on the contrary, in contrast, on the other hand….
Logical cohesion11. Concession: Concession markers
introduce the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before, such as: anyhow, anyway, besides, else, however, nevertheless, at any rate…..
Logical cohesion12. Comparison: Comparison markers are
mostly found in adjectives and adverbs, including: more, as, less, least….