Cognitive Views of LearningCluster 7

The Cognitive Perspective Information Processing Metacognition Becoming Knowledgeable

The Cognitive View of Learning: A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering and using knowledge. Knowledge guides new learning and knowledge is the outcome of learning.

Assumptions about the cognitive perspective: Knowledge is learned, and changes in knowledge

make changes in behavior possible Reinforcement is seen as a source of feedback

about what is likely to happen if behaviors are repeated. Feedback is a source of information

People are seen as active learners who initiate experiences, seek out information to solve problems, and reorganize what they already know to achieve new insights

New cognitive approaches stress the construction of knowledge

Already acquired knowledge determines to a large extent what we will pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember, and forget in the future

Comparing PerspectivesDiffer in their assumptions about learning and in their

methods

Behavioral Psych Cognitive Psych

Behaviors Knowledge

Reinforcement strengthens behavior

Reinforcement is a source of feedback

Learners respond to environmental stimuli

Learners initiate learning experiences

Knowledge is acquired Knowledge is constructed

Study done on animals Study done on animals and people

Types of Knowledge General-Information that is useful in many different kinds

of tasks; information that applies to many situations Domain Specific- Information that is useful is a particular

situation or that generally applies to only one specific topicNo absolute line between general and domain specific

knowledge Declarative-Verbal information facts. Knowing that

something is the case, specific facts, personal preferences, personal events, rules

Procedural-Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task. Knowing how to do something

Conditional or structural- Knowing when and why to apply declarative and procedural knowledgeGeneral Reading, numbers

Domain specific Periodic table

Declarative: Who, what, where?

History dates Names of presidents

Procedural: How? Riding a bike

Conditional: Why? Which study strategy should I use?

Overview of Informational Processing Model of Memory Human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information

Encoding gathering and representing information process by which information gets into

memory Storage

holding information Retrieval

getting the information when needed Control Processes

guides how and when information will flow through the system

Sensory Memory Use of the 5 senses Holds sensations from the environment for a brief time in

their original form sensory memory for up to several seconds visual images about ¼ of a second

Very large capacity Because of its short duration, it is important for students to

attend to sensory information that is important for learning Perception

The meaning we attribute to sensory memory Heavily influenced by what we already know-example lead vs.

lead Gestalt (pattern/configuration) Theory- organized meaningful wholes vs. bits

and pieces Bottom-Up processing- a.k.a. feature analysis- stimulus is

analyzed into features or components and assembled into a meaningful pattern

Top-Down Processing- Based on knowledge and expectations Attention

limited resource can only pay attention to one demanding task at a time

Automaticity ability to process information with little or no effort perform thoroughly learned tasks without much effort

Working Memory a.k.a. Short Term MemorySee Figure 18.3, p. 236

Holds the information that is currently activated Capacity: Limited, 5-9 separate new items at once Duration: Short, about 5-20 seconds (without maintenance

rehearsal)

Contents: May be in the form of images or structured more abstractly and based on meaning

Structure: Central Executive-”Supervisor.” integrates information from

the two below, and long term memory as well. Transfers information to the long term memory via strategies such as rehearsing. Plays important roles in attention, planning, and organizing behavior.

Phonological Loop-Memory rehearsal system specialized to briefly store speech-based information. Limited capacity

Visuospatial Sketchpad-Stores visual and spatial imagery. Can work with the phonological loop—rehearse numbers in phonological group while using visual spatial memory. Limited capacity.

Rehearsal can increase duration

–Maintenance rehearsal

–Elaborative rehearsal

–Chunking

Forgetting

– Interference

–Decay

Retaining Information in Working Memory

Comparison of Short- & Long Term Memory

Short TermVery fast inputLimited capacity5–20 seconds

durationContains words,

images, ideas, sentences

Immediate retrieval

Long TermRelatively slow inputPractically unlimited

capacityPractically unlimited

durationContains networks,

schemataRetrieval depends on

connections

Long-Term Memory: The Goal of Teaching

Hold information that is well learned Capacity: Unlimited Duration: Can remain in long-term memory indefinitely Access can be difficult Dual Coding Theory (Alan Paivio): Information is stored

as either visual images or verbal units, or both Information coded both ways may be easier to learn

See Figure 19.1, p. 242 Declarative-Explicit-Long term memories. Conscious

recollection of information—specific facts, events that can be verbally communicated. Deliberate recall.

Procedural-Implicit-Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling in the form of specific events. Knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations.

Types of MemoryTypes of MemoryEpisodic

Semantic

Procedural

Yesterday’sgolfouting

The conceptairplane

How togive apresentation

Explicit MemoriesSemantic Memory-memory for meaning

Stored as propositions, schemas and images Propositions & propositional networks

proposition-smallest unit of information that can be judged propositional network-interconnected bits if information Bits of information can trigger or activate recall of another

“proposition” Images are representations based on perceptions—

perception of the appearance of information Schema are abstract knowledge structures

organize a vast amount of information patterns or guides for understanding an event, concept, or

a skill Story grammar Event schema/script

Episodic memory is memory for information tied to a particular place and time, especially events in one'

Implicit Memories -- Procedural

Knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations Mental and motor skills are stored as procedural

knowledge musician’s ability to play a song athletes to perform in an event driving a car

Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but given the correct conditions, an action is triggered

LTM Storage Strategies Elaboration-the addition of meaning to new information through

its connection with already existing information Organization-material that is well organized is easier to learn

and to remember than bits of information Context-aspects of physical and emotional content are learned

along with other information Serial Position Effect-recall is better for items at the beginning

and end of a list

Retrieval & ForgettingLevels of Processing Theories-the more completely information is processed, the better are the chances of retrieving the information later.

Cues Spread of activation-retrieving of information based on

relatedness to other information Reconstruction Decay Interference See Guidelines, Woolfolk p. 249

Metacognitive Knowledge Awareness of your own thinking processes

Knowing what you know (declarative knowledge) Knowing how to use what you know (procedural

knowledge) Knowing when and why to use what you know

(conditional knowledge) Planning Monitoring Evaluation

Differences in Metacognition and MemoryIndividual Differences in Metacognition

due to development

age/maturation

biological differences

variations in learning experiences

Learning Declarative Knowledge Making it meaningful Mnemonics Rote memorization Serial position effect Part learning Distributed practice Massed practice

Mnemonics Loci method Peg type: keyword, peg

word, acronyms

Chaining Key Word Method Rote Memorization

Making It Meaningful Relating to previous knowledge Relating to students’ experiences Clarifying unfamiliar terms Give examples, illustrations, analogies from students’

view Use humor, emotion, novelty

Procedural & Conditional Knowledge Automated basic skills

Cognitive stage- rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving strategies

Associative stage- individual steps of a procedure are combined into larger units

Autonomous stage- whole procedure can be accomplished without much attention

Prerequisite knowledge Practice with feedback-teachers can help students

become experts through constructive feedback and practice

Domain-specific strategies- consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject, task or problem area