cognitive loa summary

7/28/2019 Cognitive LOA Summary

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Cognitive LOA SUMMARY


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Outlineprinciples that define the cognitive level of analysis

(for example, mental representations guide behaviour, mental

processes can be scientifically investigated).

Mental representations guide behaviour:Earlier behaviourists believed it was possible to understand behaviour by observing the

stimuli and responses of the organism and ignoring the black box (brain) which they

believed could not be studied effectively.

Cognitive psychologists argued it was important to study the mediator of the input

and output this is in large part our memory which intervenes to organise &

interpret reality. Schema theory illustrates how cognitive structures influence ourbehaviour and enable efficient processing of our environment.

According to schema theory, schemas perform several interrelated functions:

they organize information in memory

they can be activated, often automatically, to increase information-processing efficiency

in the form of stereotypes (social schemas), they influence social perception and behaviour,often when automatically activated

they can lead to distortions and mistakes when the wrong schemas become activated.

Schemas have been shown to affect behaviour in many ways eg affects what we

remember (Bartlett/Allport & Postman) and they influence how we respond to

people.


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Mental processes can be investigated scientifically:

Viewing mental processes in terms of information-processing has made it

possible to formulate testable theories about unobservable cognitivestructures and processes.

Such models or theories can be tested by conventional scientific methods

(e.g. laboratory experiments, brain-imaging studies) without having to rely

on introspection for data collection.

The study of mental processes has enabled psychologists to addressimportant psychological phenomena which behaviourism/early

psychologists found difficult, or even impossible, to address.

The flourishing state of modern cognitive psychology, cognitive

neuroscience and other related fields, bear witness to the success of

addressing psychological phenomena at the cognitive LOA.

The study of phenomena at the cognitive level of analysis can often be

integrated with the study of these same phenomena at the biological and

sociocultural levels thus leading to more comprehensive explanations.


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Explainhow principles that define the cognitive level of

analysis may be demonstrated in research (that is, theories

and/or studies)

Mental representations guide behaviour:

Schemas have been shown to affect behaviour in many

ways eg affects what we remember (Bartlett/Allport &

Postman) and they influence how we respond to people.

Mental processes can be investigated scientifically:

Examples: Mental processes can be scientifically

investigated: memory models (Sperling, Miller, Atkinson &

S, Baddeley & Hitch, Craik & Tulvingor schema (Bartlett,

Allport & Postman.), FBM (Brown & Kulik, Conrad,

McCloskey.)


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Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at

the cognitive level of analysis (for example, experiments,

observations, interviews).

Experiments:Laboratory eg Miller; Petersen and Petersen; Craik and Lockhart/Craik and

Tulving

Loftus and Palmer used to show lack of reliability of memory

Why:shows cause and effect (leading Qs influence estimates of speed)

control of variables

objective measurement

Quasi-Expt: eg, Schema: Bartlett; Allport and Postman; Brewer and Treyenseg Cole and Scribner: Liberian tribal children does not show cause and effect but did reveal

differences in memory processing based on schooling and need for culturally specific test of

memory eg, Rogoff and Waddell use of diorama with Mayans..

Field Expt : eg BuckhoutCalifornia State Uni 141 witnesses of mock attack of Professor

inaccurate descriptions only 40% correct, 25% identified bystander as attacker, using biased

photos led to answers of attacker.

Case Studies: H.M and Clive Wearing, K.F

Why: allows in-depth data to be collected eg qualitative (observational) and quantitative (MRI

records)

Shows changes over time longitudinal

But problems include: no control over IV so no cause and effect, difficult to replicate, hard to

generalise as one case is very different to next esp. with brain damage cases


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Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at

the cognitive level of analysis.

Informed Consent needed and most studies show this BUT

Schachter and Singer shows consent was not informed norwas Deception avoided! And poss risk of harm

Deception avoid

Debriefing all studies show this

Protection from harm most show this esp. memory expts Right to withdraw relate to studies such as L and P (hard

when R is your lecturer)

What else can you think of.

Can argue that it is easier to be ethical when studying thecognitive level than biological as invasive surgery/drug use not

required for much research.and use of new technology has

opened up further methods to study cognitive processes in

action and enabled a better understanding of the inter-

relationship between biology and cognitive processes


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Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

(CP 1)

Strengths of theory:

Considerable evidence to support

Plausible explanation for categorisation, misinterpretation, distortion and reconstruction

Contributed significantly to an understanding of cognitive distortions in memory.

Has shown an impact on all three memory processes: encoding, storage and retrieval. See

Anderson and Pichert pg 72 Crane

Social schemas contribute to/applied to explain stereotyping and prejudice.

(see Socio-cultural section later ) Cognitive miser concept helps explain how we manage masses of social info at one time.

Weaknesses: some studies dated and not well-controlled eg Bartlett, but has been replicated.

Not clear how Schemas originate.

Not clear how we choose between them.

Not clear how they influence us.

Vague and difficult concept to explore as an inferred cognitive structure we cant see it

or measure it directly and objectively.

Schema theories generally predict that readers will draw more inferences when reading a

text than is actually the caseBartlett exaggerated the number of memory distortions

produced. ( see uni student study by Wynn and Logie p 320 Eysenck Int.)

Schema-induced memory distortions may be less common in naturalistic conditions thanin the laboratory. (eg Wynn and Logie, 1998)


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Key studies schema theory

Bartlett Native American Indian folktale: serial recall

canoe boat seal hunting

Allport and Postman Race and stereotypes

Brewer and Treyens Office schema Bransfordtitle or no title extract eg washing clothes

Gender schema theory pg 559 H


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Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example,

memory)with reference to research studies.

(CP 2)

Multi-store Model: Atkinson and Shiffrin

MS model Atkinson & Shiffrin(1968) H p.13, C p.72-3

Linear, passive, separate stores, verbal rehearsal to form LTM

Iconic store Sperling (1960) H. p.13 but

KF, challenge to single STM storeShallice & Warrington

(1974) - H p.14

Challenge to rehearsal Tulving (1967) H p.14

Working Memory Model: Baddeley and Hitch

WM Model Baddeley & Hitch (1974) Crane p.73

Structure of WMM Baddeley (1986) H p.16

Visuo-spatial sketchpad - Kosslyn & Schwartz (1981) H p.17


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http://www.oxfordschoolblogs.co.uk/psychcompanion/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/page_8_1.jpg


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Explainhow biological factors may affect one cognitive process

(for example, Alzheimers disease, brain damage, sleep deprivation).

Brain damage can affect memory in different ways

eg damage to the hippocampus results in amnesia:

REVIEW Clive Wearing see Crane pp.78-9

REVIEW H.M.Milner (1966) see Crane p.79

But damage to the parietal-occipital area can cause problems with verbal rehearsal

see KF by Shallice and Warrington

Alzheimers Disease is the most common form of dementia

Plaques and tangles form in cell body and dendrites of neurons

First ..memory is affected (new facts more than older semantic or episodic memories)

Later in the very final stages of the disease procedural memory is affected, along with

loss of verbal abilities , muscle mass and mobility deteriorate

Mosconi (2005) investigates early signs of reduced metabolism in the hippocampus

(Crane p86)

Can also use:

Martinez & Kesner (linking ACh (BIO) and memory (COG))


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Comparison of Normal Aged Brain and Alzheimers Diseased Brain


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Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive

process (for example, education affects memory recall). (CP 4)

Education/Culture

Cole and Scribner rural Liberian children do not learn word lists

easily but can learn the words if put in a ..

Rogoff and Waddell Mayan children do not learn via list learning

but using a diorama they do as well as US children

Culture

Kearins J (1981)Aboriginal adolescents have better spatial recall

than white Australians

Bartlett- culture affects recall

Allport and Postman racial stereotypes/schema affect recall

Wang etalindividualistic culture FBM

But collectivist cultures are less likely because

Gender: gender schema theory

h f l h d h


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With reference to relevant research studies, to what extentis

one cognitive process reliable (for example, reconstructive

memory)? Memory is reconstructive eg Bartlett War of the Ghosts

Loftus and Palmer see http://www.holah.karoo.net/loftusstudy.htm L and P argue that two kinds of information go into a person's memory of a complex event. The

first is the information obtained from perceiving the event, and the second is informationsupplied to us after the event eg leading Qs. Over time, information from these two sources maybe integrated so we are unable to tell from which source some specific detail is recalled. All wehave is one 'memory'. This argument is called the reconstructive hypothesis.

BUT memory is also affected by emotions, alcohol, who you are with, personal meaning etc

Strengths of the methodExperiments allow for precise control of variables. The purpose of control is to enable theexperimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected (the IV), in order to observeits effect on some other variable (the DV). Control is intended to allow us to conclude that it is theIV, and nothing else, which is influencing the DV. For example Loftus was able to control the ageof the participants, the use of video and the location of the experiment. All participants wereasked the same questions (apart from changes in the critical words), and the position of the keyquestion in the second was randomised.

Limitations of the methodThe experiment is not typical of real life situations. Demand characteristics are likely. The

experiments are artificial in the sense that they are different from how people would normallywitness events and it is often victims who give testimony. For example, when the participantswere giving their estimates of speed, they did not have any personal involvement in the

judgement and had not taken part in the event. When we witness events in everyday life, weoften have some involvement in the people or the action and there may also be significant andserious legal consequences if we are inaccurate. Also most memory distortions are for minordetails eg broken glass rather than features of the criminal.?? Therefore it is difficult to

generalise findings from laboratory experiments because they are not ecologically valid (true toreal life), however the use of a video is an improvement on photographs.
http://www.holah.karoo.net/loftusstudy.htmhttp://www.holah.karoo.net/loftusstudy.htm


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Further research

Loftus et. al 1987 (Weapons Focus Effect)

Deffenbacher (2004) anxiety improves memory recall except

too great anxiety impairs recall

Buckhout (1975) simulated attack on professor, recall

inaccurate

Ihleback et al (2003) staged a robbery with two robbers

armed with hand guns live video condition showed video

viewers had a better memory and videoed this

Real life: better recall Yuille and Cutshall real life robbery & murder.

Survivors of the Titanic also remembered events accurately.

Riniolo (2003) archival study.


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EEG - Electroencephalogram. Electro-chemical signals are the basis of communicationbetween nerve cells and these can be recorded at the scalp. CW

PET- imaging has also been used to assess patients with other neurological diseasesincluding Alzheimers and Parkinsons diseases, because the images can demonstrate areasof the brain that are functioning differently to normal. eg Alzheimers Mosconi studyreduced metabolism in the hippocampus can indicate early on-set Alzheimers Disease

MRI &fMRI - Clive Wearing and H.M.

Advantages: Quantitative hard evidence of cognitive functions relating them to physiologicalactivity. it would not be possible for the participants to respond to demand characteristics.although the use of computers does make very sophisticated analysis possible.

MRI scanning technology does not pose any health risks to the participants and all of theparticipants give informed consent. None of the participants should have been negatively

affected by their experience.

Disadvantages: Expensive technique in terms of equipment and researchers time, risk ofinferences about normal functions based on abnormal brain functioning, plus the task ofbeing scanned in an MRI scanner is hardly ecologically valid.

Discussthe use of technology in investigating cognitive processes (for

example, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans in memory research, fMRI scansin emotion and cognition studies).


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Cognition and

Emotion


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To what extentdo cognitive and biological factors interact in

emotion (for example, two factor theory, arousal theory, Lazarus

theory of appraisal)?

Biological pathways for emotional response

Le Doux: Short route = emotional stimuli sensory thalamus amygdala emotional response

Long route = emotional stimuli sensory thalamus hippocampus and neo cortex amygdala emotional responseWhat is the significance of the hippocampus & neo cortex in the long route? (Sam dont tell them) Lazarus: cognitive appraisal theory : stress experiences are not only physiological but need to beexperienced psychologically. We actively interpret and evaluate whats happening to us. We appraisethe threat as well as appraising our own resources / ability for dealing with the situation.

Initially Lazarus distinguished two types of appraisal = primary and secondary but in later work hedeveloped six!

Primary = is this personally relevant? Motivational relevance

Motivational congruence

Accountability

Secondary = provides info on how the individual can cope Problem-focussed coping

Emotion focussed coping

Future expectancy

Lazarus talked of CRT Core Relational Theme = summary of all the appraisal judgements


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Schachter and Singer: two factor theory (BOTH

physiological arousal plus cognition are needed before

emotion is felt)

See: http://www.holah.karoo.net/schachterstudy.htm

This unethical expt clearly shows the necessity of both physiological

arousal (via adrenaline) and cognitive factors (appraisal of the situation:

euphoria or anger).

Limitation: Marshall and Zimbardo - has not been possible to replicate

Lacks ecological validity, artificial injection and situation (euphoria and

anger)

Now considered too simplistic, cognitive appraisal is more complex than

first thought

Speisman (1964) film of initiation ceremony of genital surgery, aiming

to see if peoples reaction to situations can be manipulated by playing

different soundtracks while the film was playing.

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive
http://www.holah.karoo.net/schachterstudy.htmhttp://www.holah.karoo.net/schachterstudy.htm


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Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive

process (for example, state-dependent memory, flashbulb

memory, affective filters).

Flash Bulb Memory

Definition = detailed, vivid and photographic-like remembrance of amoment in time and the context in which you experienced thisepisode.

FBMTheory proposed by Brown and Kulik: see Pearsonform in situations where we encounter surprising and highlyemotional information

are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (involving discussion withothers) and covert

rehearsal (private rehearsing or ruminating)differ from other memories in that they more vivid, last longer, andare more consistent and accurate

require for their creation the involvement ofa specialized neuralmechanism which stores information permanently in a uniquememory system.


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FBM cont

Conwayresignation of Margaret Thatcher for those British people who were close to this eventand formed FBM = good recall but not so for non-British ppts.

McCloskey

Neisser and Harsch

Talarico and Rubin

The studies discussed above, and additional research, demonstrate that FBMs: are long lasting butnot permanent and

may not be any longer lasting than important everyday memories

are more vivid than most ordinary memories

are recalled with a higher degree of confidence than other memories.

Thus two key determinants are:

High importance/consequences and Emotionality

But not surprise.

Some of the properties describe by Brown and Kulik eg permanence and consistency are disputed

BUT vividness and confidence are supported by the research.

Weakest claim there is a separate neural mechanism = not so!

If you wish to pursue the four models in more depth seehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb_memory

for quite a good summary.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashbulb_memory

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