cognitive level of analysis outline

Alip, FrancisNovember 16, 2014

Period 2A

III. Cognitive Level of Analysis

Learning Outcomes:

I. Historical and Cultural Development of Cognitive Level of Analysis

A. The cognitive level of analysis studies cognition: all the mental structures and processes involved in the reception, storage, and use of knowledge.

B. The cognitive level of analysis studies the mind, according to this approach it is an information-processing system, functions much like a computer

C. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, viewed in terms of information-processing, by means of established scientific methods

D. Behaviorism was a very influential 20th century movement, based on the premise that mental processes could not be studied scientifically, called behaviorists

E. Watson (1913), father of behaviorismF. Pavlov (1928), influential in his studies of classical

conditioning, dogs and salivationa. The researcher conducting this study was Ivan

Pavlovb. Aim: to observe the process of salivation in dogs,

which would lead to the discovery of classical conditioning, in which an organism comes to associate stimuli

c. Method: laboratory experimentd. Procedure: They paired various neutral stimuli, such

as a tone, with food in the mouth to see if the dog would begin salivating to the neutral stimuli alone. To eliminate the possible influence of extraneous stimuli, they isolated the dog in a small room, secured it in a harness, and attached a device that diverted its saliva to a measuring instrument. From an adjacent room they could present food, at first by sliding in a food bowl, later by blowing meat powder into the dog’s mouth at a precise moment. Just before placing food in the dog’s mouth to produce salivation, Pavlov sounded a tone


Period 2Ae. Results: After several pairings of tone and food, the

dog began salivating to the tone alone, in anticipation of the meat powder. Using this procedure, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate to other stimuli, a buzzer, a light, a touch on the leg, even the sight of a circle

f. Interpretation of Results: Pavlov repeatedly presented a neutral stimulus (tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, food) that triggered an unconditioned response (UCR, salivation). After several repetitions, the tone alone (now the conditioned stimulus, CS) began triggering a conditioned response (CR, salivation). The dogs would associate the two stimuli.

g. Evaluation: advantages include that the experiment was tightly controlled, to reduce extraneous variables, it has many real-world applications, especially in animal training, disadvantages include that it does not account for unobservable or complex behaviors, and its explanations are too limited and simplistic

h. Application to outcome: Pavlov’s legacy includes that he taught that principles of learning apply across species, that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that conditioning principles have important practical applications, contributing to the formation of the cognitive level of analysis

G. Skinner (1938), influential in his studies of operant conditioning, rats, positive and negative reinforcement, Skinner box

a. The researcher conducting this study was B. F. Skinner

b. Aim: to explore the precise conditions that foster efficient and enduring learning

c. Method: laboratory experimentd. Procedure: Skinner designed an operant chamber,

also known as the Skinner box. The box is typically soundproof, with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a reward of food or water, and a device that records these responses


Period 2Ae. Results: Skinner was able to explore the principles of

reinforcement, that is any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response, as well as reinforcement schedules, including fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules, in which the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs

f. Interpretation of Results: Skinner showed that when placed in an operant chamber, rats or pigeons can be shaped to display successively closer approximations of a desired behavior. Researchers have also studied the effects of primary and secondary reinforces, and of immediate and delayed reinforces. Partial reinforcement schedules (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval) produce slower acquisition of the target behavior than does continuous reinforcement, but they also create more resistance to extinction. Punishment is most effective when it is strong, immediate, and consistent, however it can have undesirable side effects

g. Evaluation: Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, as well as has a large number of applications in the real-world. The Skinner box also provides a controlled environment, to reduce extraneous variables, however it places too much emphasis on the external control of behavior, and operant conditioning fails to taken into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning

h. Application to outcome: Skinner stimulated vigorous intellectual debate on the nature of human freedom and the strategies and ethics of managing people. Nevertheless, his operant principles are being applied in schools, the workplace, and homes, contributing to the formation of the cognitive level of analysis

H. Bandura (1977), influential in his studies of observational learning, observing and imitating others

II. Principles of the Cognitive Level of Analysis


Period 2AA. Outline principles that define the cognitive level of

analysisa. Mental processes can and should be studied

scientificallyBased on the following claims:

Viewing mental processes in terms of informational-processing has made it possible to formulate testable theoriesSuch models or theories can be tested by conventional scientific methods (e.g. laboratory experiments, brain-imaging studies) without having to rely on introspection for data collectionThe study of mental processes has enabled psychologists to address important psychological phenomena which behaviorism found difficult, or even impossible to addressThe flourishing state of modern cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and other related fields, bear witness to the success of addressing psychological phenomena at the cognitive level of analysisThe study of phenomena at the cognitive level of analysis can often be integrated with the study of these same phenomena at the biological and sociocultural levels thus leading to more comprehensive explanations

1. Loftus and Palmer, 1974i. The researchers conducting this study

were Loftus and Palmerii. Aim: to test their hypothesis that the

language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. Thus, they aimed to show that leading questions could distort eyewitness testimony accounts and so have a confabulating effect, as the account would become distorted by cues provided in the question

iii. Method: laboratory experimentiv. Procedure: Participants in this study

watched seen film clips of different car accidents. After each clip, participants


Period 2Adescribed what they saw and answered a number of questions about it. One of the questions, the critical question, asked about the speed of the cars in the accident. The experiment involved five experimental conditions which were defined by the verb used to ask the question about the cars’ speed. The critical question in one of the conditions was: About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other. For the other conditions the verb hit was replaced with contacted, collided, bumped, and smashed into.

v. Interpretation of Results: Loftus and Palmer found that the speed estimates were influenced by the wording used:contacted – 31.8 mphhit – 34 mphbumped – 38.1 mphcollided – 39.3 mphsmashed into – 40.8They argue that the results could be due to a distortion in the memory of the participant. The memory of how fast the cars were travelling could have been distorted by the verbal label which had been used to characterize the intensity of the crash. Additionally, Loftus and Palmer argue that the results could be due to response-bias factors, in which case the participant is not sure of the exact speed and therefore adjusts his or her estimate to fit in with the expectations of the questioner. (This is also an example of a demand characteristic)

vi. There was also another experiment conducted similar to the first:

vii. Aim: to provide additional insights into the origin of the different speed estimates. In particular they wanted to


Period 2Afind out if the participant’s memories really had been distorted by the verbal label

viii. Method: laboratory experimentix. Procedure: One group of participants

was asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other, and another group was asked the same thing but ‘smashed’ was replaced with ‘hit’. The third group wasn’t asked for any speed estimates. They were the control group. One week later, participants were asked if they had seen any broken glass in the film clip. There wasn’t any, but the dependent variable measured how many participants said they had in fact ‘seen’ broken glass. The independent variable was the verbs changed in the question to each group of participants

x. Results: participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass

xi. Interpretation of results: This research suggests that memory is easily distorted by questioning technique and information acquired after the event can merge with original memory causing inaccurate recall or reconstructive memory. The results from experiment two suggest that this effect is not just due to a response-bias because leading questions actually altered the memory a participant had for the event.

xii. Evaluation: The experiment was rigorously controlled so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between the independent variable (the critical words) and the dependent variable (estimation of speed). Additionally, this allowed for extraneous variables not affecting the results.


Period 2AHowever, students were used only, so the findings of the experiments may not be necessarily generalizable to the population as a whole until repeated on other groups. Moreover, another limitation of the research is that it lacked ecological validity. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likely to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgments

xiii. Application to outcome: this study directly shows how it is possible for mental processes to be studied scientifically

b. Mental representations guide behaviorCognitive psychologists believe there are cognitive mediators between what happens in the environment (the input) and what is delivered as output. The processing that intervenes is based to a very great extent on the way the world is represented in our memory. Examples of such mental representations are the schemas (cognitive structures) which organize our knowledge of objects, events, ourselves, and others.

1. Darley and Gross, 1983i. The researchers conducting this study

were Darley and Grossii. Aim: to determine the role of schemas

on social cognitioniii. Method: laboratory experimentiv. Procedure: participants saw videos of

the same girl. Group 1 saw a video with the girl playing in a rich neighborhood. Group 2 saw her playing in a poor neighborhood. Finally, participants saw a third video where the girl seemed to take an intelligence test. They then


Period 2Aasked the participants how the girl would do in the future

v. Results: participants who had watched the girl in the poor environment said she would not do so well; participants who had watched the girl in a rich environment first said she would do well in the future.

vi. Interpretation of Results: the results indicate that participants used pre-stored schema about what it means to be poor and rich to form an impression of the future of the girl

vii. Evaluation: as an experiment, it allowed for a cause-effect relationship, as well as it demonstrates the effects on what schemas have on our judgments, however it only collects qualitative data

B. Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

a. For the principle of mental representations guide behavior, this is demonstrated by the Bartlett, 1932 study

1. The researcher conducting this study was Bartlett

2. Aim: to prove that memory is reconstructive and schemas influence recall as well as demonstrate the role of culture in schema processing

3. Method: Bartlett used two techniques, serial reproduction and repeated reproduction

4. Procedure: Bartlett performed a study where he used serial reproduction, which is a technique where participants hear a story or see a drawing and are told to reproduce it after a short time and then to do so again repeatedly over a period of days, weeks, months or years. Bartlett told participants a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts. The participants in the study were British; for them the story was filled with unknown names and concepts, and the manner in which the story


Period 2Awas developed was also foreign to them. The story was therefore ideal to study how memory was reconstructed based on schema processing.

5. Results: The participants remembered the main idea of the story but they changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations. The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed.

6. Interpretation of Results: Memory is reconstructive, and people try to make memories fit in with whatever personal schema they have. These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants were culturally familiar with. This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and cultural background (schemas).

7. Evaluation: due to the experimental design, a cause-and-effect relationship was established (high control of the independent and confounding variables). Because it was a controlled laboratory experiment, there are issues of artificiality, additionally participants did not receive standardized instructions, so some of the distortions could be due to participants’ guessing or other demand characteristics. Also the study was specific to European Americans so there is a low potential generalizability

8. Application to Outcome: Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes as the difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of culture affected mental representations (schemas)

b. For the principle of mental representations guide behavior, this is demonstrated by the Atkinson and Shiffrin study of 1968

1. The researchers conducting this study were Atkinson and Shiffrin


Period 2A2. Aim: to investigate the processes of memory

that there are different types of memory that are used for different tasks.

3. Theory (derived from study)The multi-store model consists of three parts, the sensory memory, the short-term memory (STM) and the long term memory (LTM).Some information from the sensory store moves to the STM (limited capacity).Some information from the STM moves to the LTM via constant rehearsal of that information.Once that piece of information is stored in the LTM it is long lasting; perhaps even for a lifetime if that certain piece of information is that strong.The difference in forgetting between STM and LTM is that: memory forgotten from the short term store is lost whereas forgotten memories in the LTM are still in the system but cannot be retrieved.

4. Evaluation: This study is supported by other studies such as the HM case study, however, the model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion, the model’s main emphasis was on structure and tends to neglect the process elements of memory

5. Application to Outcome:Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrated how cognitive processes such as memory, can be scientifically studied, developed a theory of memory, known as the multistore model, and this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive process, thus, the study demonstrates that the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically, in which cognitive theories and models can be applied to real-life scenarios.


Period 2AIII. Schema Theory

A. Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

a. The schema theory is useful for understanding how distortions, prejudices, and stereotypes are formed, as well as is useful for explaining our cognitive processes and how we do things such as categorize information and make inferences. However, it is limited in that it is unclear how schemas are created and how they actually affect cognitive processes, it does not explain how information that does not fit our schemas may be ignored and forgotten (selection and storage) or distorted (normalization) in order to rationalize, or why the reconstructive nature of memory and distortions are regarded as inaccurate.

1. A study demonstrating schema theory is Brewer and Treyens, 1981The researchers conducting this experiement were Brewer and TreyensAim: to determine whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory recall of an officeMethod: laboratory experimentProcedure: participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room, they were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the officeResults: participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema, however they did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the officeInterpretation of Results: Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it, they did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical office” schemaEvaluation: there was a strict control over variables which allowed to determine cause and effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous variables, however the study lacks


Period 2Aecological validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial environment and the task does not reflect daily activity Application to outcome: this study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory, and that our schemas influence what we recall in our memory.

2. Another study that demonstrate the schema theory is French and Richards, 1933The researchers conducting this study were French and RichardsAim: to investigate the schemata influence on memory retrievalMethod: laboratory experimentProcedure: In the study there were three conditions:

i. Condition 1: Participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to draw from memory.

ii. Condition 2: The same procedure, except the participants were told beforehand that they would be required to draw the clock from memory.

iii. Condition 3: The clock was left in full view of the participants and just had to draw it.

The clock used represented the number four with IIII, not the conventional IV.

Results: In the first two conditions, the participants reverted to the conventional IV notation, whereas in the third condition, the IIII notation, because of the direct copy. They found that subjects asked to draw from memory a clock that had Roman numerals on its face typically represented the number four on the clock face as “IV” rather than the correct “IIII,” whereas those merely asked to copy it typically drew “IIII.”Interpretation of Results: French and Richards explained this result in terms of schematic


Period 2Aknowledge of roman numerals affecting memory retrieval. The findings supported the idea that subjects in the copy condition were more likely than subjects in other conditions to draw the clock without invoking schematic knowledge of Roman numeralsEvaluation: there was a strict control over variables which allowed to determine cause and effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous variables, however the study lacks ecological validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial environment and the task does not reflect daily activityApplication to outcome: This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory, and that our schemas influence what we recall in our memory

IV. Reliability of MemoryA. Discuss, with reference to relevant research studies, the

extent to which one cognitive process is reliablea. Because the findings of Loftus & Palmer's

experiment are considered invalid, and the experiment lacked ecological validity in comparison Yuille and Cutshall's study, which was a quasi experiment, it can be concluded that memory in eyewitness testimony is still reliable, to some extent. Thus, the unreliability of reconstructive memory (that can be influenced by incorrect/distortive schemas) and research by Loftus shows that memory is reliable to a small extent. However, due to the limitations and artificial nature of Loftus’ work, including that it lacks ecological validity (EV) and demand characteristics were present, which is overcome by Yuille and Cutshall’s real eye-witness testimony study. This suggests that memory is reliable to a great extent. Overall, it can be considered that memory is reliable to some extent.

1. Loftus and Palmer, 1974The researchers conducting this study were Loftus and Palmer


Period 2AAim: to investigate the effect of leading questions on eye witness testimony of an eventMethod: laboratory experimentProcedure: participants were shown 7 films of car accidents (5-30 seconds). After each clip, participants were given a questionnaire asking:

i. To give an account of the accident ii. Number of questions, including the

critical question “How fast were the cars going when they?”

iii. Verb in the critical question was changed to smashed/collided/hit/bumped/contacted

Experimental conditions: Participants were split in 5 groups of 9 – each group were asked the question with a different verb

Results: Loftus and Palmer found that the speed estimates were influenced by the wording used:

i. contacted – 31.8 mphii. hit – 34 mphiii. bumped – 38.1 mphiv. collided – 39.3 mphv. smashed into – 40.8

The more severe-sounding verb produced higher speed estimates. For example, ‘smashed’ gave an estimated 9 mph higher than ‘contacted’

Interpretation of Results: Loftus and Palmer concluded that the wording of the question did have an effect on the speed estimates given. This was suggested it may be because people are poor judges of speed and are affected by the wording of a question. These findings can be explained by Bartlett’s view of memory as an active reconstructive process. The verbs used in the various conditions activated slightly different schemas which influenced the speed estimates. In this study, information was received after witnessing the accident researchers used a leading question. Thus after


Period 2Athe accident was reconstructed in the participant’s mind, the schema that were influenced by the leading question relating to the different verbs associated with speech explains how reconstructive memory works. This study also supports the idea that when people witness complex events, they tend to report inaccurate and numeric details like time, distance and speed.Evaluation: The experiment was rigorously controlled so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between the independent variable (the critical words) and the dependent variable (estimation of speed). Additionally, this allowed for extraneous variables not affecting the results. However, students were used only, so the findings of the experiments may not be necessarily generalizable to the population as a whole until repeated on other groups. Moreover, another limitation of the research is that it lacked ecological validity. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likely to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgmentsApplication to outcome: Loftus’ research indicates that it is possible to create a false memory using post-event information. These results indicate that memory is not reliable but like all research studies, there are some limitations that need to be considered relating to its validity/ecological validity

2. Yuille and Cutshall, 1986The researchers in this study were Yuille and CutshallAim: to investigate the accuracy/effectiveness in recall eye-witness testimony using real eyewitnesses from a real crimeMethod: field study


Period 2AProcedure: There were 21 witnesses interviewed by the police originally who had witnessed the event from different viewpoints: (passing by in the car, walking on the street or within buildings). Twenty of those eyewitnesses were contacted by the researchers four-to-five months after the event, asking them to take part in a scientific study. Of those 20, thirteen agreed to participate in the study. All aged between 15-32; only three female, and ten males. The victim was not asked to participate as he did not wish to relive the trauma. The researchers interviewed the participants at this four or five month period after the incident. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. They used the same interviewing procedure as the police had used with them allowing them to give their account first and then asking questions. Of course, one of the aims was to look into the effects of leading questions, and so following Loftus' procedures, two leading questions were used. Half the group were asked if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half if they saw the broken headlight, when in fact there was no broken headlight in the thief's car. Similarly, half of the participants were asked about a yellow panel on the car, and the others about the yellow panel, whereas the quarter panel was really blue. A scoring procedure was introduced to turn the qualitative data collected into quantitative data. This was carefully devised, as the researchers needed to know not only the true details of the event, but also be able to compare the results to those of the police interviews. The researchers decided to use systems of 'action details' and 'description details' (split further into ‘object descriptions’ and ‘people descriptions’ to collate information from the interviews.Results: The researchers ended up obtaining more details than the police had. The police


Period 2Afound 392 action details against the researchers' 552 action details. What was found is that the misleading questions had very little effect on their recall. Ten of the eyewitnesses said that there was no broken headlight and no yellow quarter panel at all on the thief's car which was correct to identify. Interpretation of Results: It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable. There were several factors which made this true, including correctly recalling large numbers of accurate details; almost always arguing the misleading questions and a healthy comparison between the police and research interviews. Yuille and Cutshall concluded that eyewitnesses were in fact not inaccurate, contrary to the findings of the vast majority of previous research into eyewitness testimony, which had all been from laboratory experiments. The misleading questions had had little effect on the eyewitness, which again disagreed with a Loftus' theory of misleading questions. Evaluation: This was a field study looking at a real incident with real witnesses, thus making it have a very strong validity, the scoring procedure also produced quantitative data from qualitative data, which requires no subjective interpretation and is easier to base conclusions upon. However, it lacks generalizability since it is a one-off incident and a field study. Moreover, there was weak points in the scoring procedure, such as with a question based on age: the thief was actually 35 years of age, and when asked to estimate the age, most eyewitnesses said he looked as though he was in his early 20s – which was marked as an inaccurate memory, even though he did really look that ageApplication to outcome: Yuille and Cutshall’s study found that eyewitnesses were in fact not inaccurate, contrary to the findings of the vast


Period 2Amajority of previous research into eyewitness testimony, which had all been from laboratory experiments. The misleading questions had had little effect on the eyewitness, which again disagreed with a Loftus' theory of misleading questions. This demonstrates that memory can be reliable to an extent

V. Models or Theories of MemoryA. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process

a. The Multistore Model of Memory1. Its advantages include that it was influential;

early model that stimulated further research into memory processes, it is still accepted by most psychologists and is still widely used, there is a considerable amount of evidence demonstrating the existence of short term memory and long term memory as separate memory stores, it provides support for anterograde amnesia, it is based on considerable evidence

2. Limitations include that it focuses too much on the structure of memory systems rather than providing an explanation on how it works (functioning/ processing), it oversimplifies memory processes, it assumes that stores are single and unitary, and that it suggests that rote rehearsal is the only way information transfers from the short term memory to the long term memoryGlanzer and Cunitz, 1966

i. The researchers conducting this study were Glanzer and Cunitz

ii. Aim: to see if they could find evidence for the existence of separate short term and long term memory stores

iii. Method: laboratory experimentiv. Procedure: Glanzer and Cunitz

presented two groups of participants with the same list of words. One group recalled the words immediately after presentation, while the other group recalled the words after waiting 30


Period 2Aseconds. These participants had to count backwards in threes (the Brown-Peterson technique), which prevented rehearsal and caused the recency effect to disappear. Both groups could free recall the words in any order

v. Results: participants in the immediate group remembered the first and last words best, participants in the delayed group remembered the words at the beginning of the list. Both groups were weak in recalling the words in the middle of the list

vi. Interpretation of Results: Both groups remembers the words from the start of the list because they were stored in the Long Term Memory. Words at the end of the list were stored in the Short Term Memory. When recall was delayed by a distractor task it prevented maintenance rehearsal and therefore affected the recency effect without changing the primacy effect. This supports the idea that STM and LTM are separate stores because it shows that one can be changed without the other.

vii. Evaluation: This is a controlled laboratory study with highly controlled variables, but there is no random allocation of participants to experimental conditions so it is not a true experiment. The participants were all male and may possibly differ in brain capacity/memorization to females. lacks ecological validity as this memorization of the items does not present everyday ways of utilizing memory

viii. Application to outcome: This supports the idea that STM and LTM are separate stores because it shows that one can be changed without the other,


Period 2Ademonstrating the validity of the multistory model of memory

b. Levels of Processing Model of Memory1. Its strengths include that it overcomes

criticisms of the Multistore Model as being too simple methods of remembering. The levels of processing was very influential when first proposed. It changed the direction of research and stimulated further research into memory Accounts for why some things are remembered better and for longer than others. The levels of processing theory is useful in daily life as it shows how elaboration, which requires deeper processing, leads to better memory. It helps to understand processes at learning stage. Also, it focuses on mental processes rather than structures

2. Its weaknesses include that it lacks ecological validity in that it focuses on mental processes rather than structures. Another major limitation difficult to define “deep” processing, and that the levels of processing theory of memory is descriptive rather than explanatoryCraik and Tulving, 1975

i. The researchers conducting this study were Craik and Tulving

ii. Aim: to investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall

iii. Method: laboratory experimentiv. Procedure: Participants presented with a

series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three questions, requiring different depths of processing. Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed. They were asked to pick out the original words.

v. Results: Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to acoustically and visually processed.


Period 2Avi. Interpretation of Results: Semantically

processed words involve deep processing which results in more accurate recall

vii. Evaluation: there was a strict control over variables which allowed to determine cause and effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous variables, however the study lacks ecological validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial environment and the task does not reflect daily activity

viii. Application to outcome: this supports the idea that different levels of processing allow for different accuracies of recalls

VI. Biology and CognitionA. Explain how biological factors affect one cognitive

processa. Alzheimer’s is a serious and progressive

degenerative brain disease, which leads to the loss of neurons and often leading to dementia. The onset of symptoms is gradual but its progression is irreversible. Alzheimer’s impairs the creation of new memories but procedural memory (how to die a bike or play a musical instrument) is largely unaffected. Episodic memory (memory of events and personal experiences) is the most severely affected. Episodic memory problems are the earliest symptoms of Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s also causes a steady decline in the semantic memory – general knowledge about the world, concepts and language.

b. Biological factors that affect Alzheimer’s include1. Medial temporal lobe2. Deterioration of neurons involved in the

production of acetylcholine 3. Amyloid plaques4. Neurofibrillary tangles5. Genetic predisposition

c. A study that shows how the medial temporal lobe plays a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Schwindt and Black, 2009


Period 2A1. The researchers conducting this study were

Schwindt and Black2. Aim: to test the effect of episodic memory on

AD. 3. Procedure: they conducted a meta-analysis of

fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD patients, compared to normal & AD patients.

4. Results: there was greater brain activity in the MTL and frontal lobe in the control group. Compared to controls, the AD patients showed decreased activation in the MTL and increased activation in the prefrontal cortex. There were a number of consistent findings across the previous studies.

5. Interpretation of Results: It was well-established that AD patients show decreased activation in the MTL.

6. Application to outcome: Schwindt and Black’s study supports the biological factor of the medial temporal lobe in causing AD and thus, impairment in memory.

d. A study that shows how biological factors occurring in the hippocampi play a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Mosconi, 2005

1. The researcher conducting this study was Mosconi

2. Aim: To test how the hippocampi region interacts with Alzheimer’s, and to investigate metabolism in the hippocampus, which is when the neurons in the brain activate responses in the body and dies

3. Procedure: Followed a sample of 52 normal participants for a period of 9 – 24 years (longitudinal), they used a brain scan based computer program that measures metabolic activity in the hippocampus.

4. Results: Reduced metabolism in the hippocampus was associated with later AD

5. Interpretation to Results: This can be explained by the fact that the hippocampus of normal people contains high concentration of acetylcholine (Squire, 1987). Low


Period 2Aconcentrations are found in people with AD. This results from severe brain tissue loss in areas of the forebrain, known to secrete acetylcholine.

6. Application to outcome: Mosconi’s study supports the role of the hippocampus in AD.

VII. The Interaction of Cognitive and Biological Factors in EmotionA. Discuss to what extent cognitive and biological factors

interact in emotiona. The cognitive and biological interaction in emotion is

demonstrated in the Schacter and Singer study of 1962

1. The researchers in this study include Schacter and Singer

2. Aim: to test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of cognition and arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline

3. Method: laboratory experiment4. Procedure:

184 college males Divided into 4 groupsAll groups were told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its effects on visionEven though men were really receiving adrenaline and:Informed of the correct effects of adrenaline (under the impression that it was suproxin) Given no information on effects Given false effects Last group was given a placebo 4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups Condition 1 euphoriaConfederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the waiting room (withffice equipment) Condition 2 angerConfederate completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but became more and more angry as the questions became more personal


Period 2AParticipants were observed for changes in emotionParticipants were then asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of emotion

5. Results: participants that were given information on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal changes in emotion because they had an accurate explanation of their emotion, but those who had been told no effect showed much higher changes in emotion because they had no explanation for their state of arousal, so they used cues of the confederate's behaviour and labelled their emotions, these participants changed their behaviour according to cognitive appraisal of their emotions, rather than specific physiological arousal, indicating that only general arousal is required

6. Interpretation of Results: researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's subjective experience of emotion

7. Evaluation: study was an experiment so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between the independent variable, and the dependent variable, as well as they were able to control for extraneous variables, however, the study only included males, so it has low generalizability, as well as they used deception, which was necessary for the validity of the study

8. Application to Outcome: this study supports that a combination of physiological change (adrenaline) and cognitive labelling (appraisal of the situation) can contribute to changes in emotion

b. The cognitive and biological interaction in emotion is demonstrated in the Speisman et al. study of 1964

1. The researchers conducting this study included Speisman and others


Period 2A2. Aim: to demonstrate the influence of appraisal

on emotional experiences. 3. Method: laboratory experiment4. Procedure:

Participants were shown a ‘stressful’ film about ‘unpleasant’ genital surgery depicting Aboriginal boys have circumcision in the context of puberty. Accompanied by soundtrack, in which investigators manipulated the ‘appraisal’ of the surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1 control:

i. Trauma condition – pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized

ii. Denial – boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus de-emphasizing the pain (presented the p’s as happy and deliberate)

iii. Intellectualization – soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of situation and emphasized traditions of aboriginal culture

iv. Silent – nothing Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR) measure of electrical conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic arousal and heart rate.

5. Results: observations and self-reports showed that participants reacted more ‘emotionally’ to the soundtrack that was more traumatic, lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions,the way participants appraised (act of assessing someone or something) what they were seeing in the film affected their physiological experience in terms of emotion

6. Interpretation of Results: the way participants appraised what they were seeing in the circumcision film affected their physiological reaction to it

7. Evaluation: since this was a laboratory experiment, we can establish a cause and effect releationship, additionally we can control for


Period 2Aextraneous variables, on the other hand, because they were shown a video, it lacks ecological validity, as well as participants could have experienced psychological trauma after watching the video

8. Application to Outcome: different emotions can be displayed with the same stimuli, hence showing the Theory of Appraisal (cognition) can interfere with emotion. This supports that cognitive factors do interact in emotion to a great extent.

c. The theories discussed above suggest that cognitive and biological factors contribute and interact in emotion, according to the two factor theory of emotion, emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labelling. According to Lazarus’ theory of appraisal, evaluation of situations (cognition) determines emotion. These theories have been supported through much research, and although there were a few limitations within the studies, there have been no other theories or research that opposes the idea that biological and cognitive factors influence emotion. Therefore, all of these theories suggest that both cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a large extent

VIII. How Does Emotion Affect Cognition?A. Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one

cognitive processa. One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive

process of memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM) suggested by Brown & Kulik (1977)

b. Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory by enhancing it

c. A study demonstrating this theory is the Brown and Kulik study of 1977

1. The researchers conducting this study are Brown and Kulik

2. Aim: to investigate FBM and how it works (to support their theory).

3. Method: interview4. Procedure:

Interviewed 80 Americans


Period 2A40 African Americans 40 Caucasian Americans

Had to answer questions about 10 events 9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or attempted assassinations of well-known American personalitiesThe last event was self-selected of personal events that included self-shock

They were asked how much they rehearsed these events (overtly or covertly) Overly: rehearsal by discussing with other people Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating

5. Results: They found that J.F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb memories of all participants (90% of participants recalled this in context and with vivid detail), African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil right leaders; e.g. the assassination of Martin Luther King more than the Caucasians recalled it (as a FBM). For the tenth event (which was self-selected) most participants recalled shocking events like the death of a parent

6. Interpretation of Results: because these events were highly emotional to each participant, they were able to recall these events in vivid detail, forming flash bulb memories

7. Evaluation: There were many participants, so there is high ecological validity to the American people, it is also naturalistic since the reactions and memories of events were from real life events, however, the participants and events are only related to Americans so it cannot be generalized to the rest of the population, it lacks reliability since it is hard to replicate, and the participants may have been under distress having to recall these events

8. Application to Outcome: This study carried out by Brown and Kulik supported the theories of flashbulb memories whereby they were formed in situations where we encounter surprising and


Period 2Ahighly emotional information, are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (discussion with others) and covert rehearsal (private), differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more consistent and accurate, amd require for their creation the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores information permanently in a unique memory system

d. Another study demonstrating the theory of flashbulb memory is Conway et al. of 1994

1. The researchers conducting this study were Conway and others

2. Aim: to test the theory of flashbulb memory3. Method: interview4. Procedure: participants were either UK or non-

UK citizens, the study was based on the resignation of Margaret Thatcher (British Prime Minister,1990), participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few days after the event, they were asked again 11 months after the event

5. Results: They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of the resignation of Margaret Thatcher, while there were fewer non-UK participants (29%) had flashbulb memories of the event

6. Interpretation of Results: Conway claimed that this event met the criteria for FBM for British people as it was an unexpected and highly significant event pertaining to their culture, therefore arousing deep emotions, influencing the special neural mechanisms and therefore creating FBM of the event

7. Ealuation: this study is ecologically valid since this was a real event, and because it was an interview, there is in depth qualitative data, however, distress in having to remember a tragic event, and this is hard to replicate thus having low reliability

8. Application to Outcome: suggests that flashbulb memories exist and are different from normal


Period 2Amemories, however, they may only exist for events with personal significance

e. In conclusion, FBM (affected by emotion) can influence the recall of memories. However, it is hard to test accuracy of memories as the evidence is very retrospective

Overall Strengths: The majority of research into flashbulb memories is naturalistic. It all involves people’s reactions and memories formed from real life events. Therefore there is high in ecological validity.Overall Weaknesses: However, the studies can lack reliability as they cannot really be replicated. Therefore, we cannot test to see how consistent the results are. Also, much of the research is retrospective, and there is the issue that we cannot reliably measure how accurate people’s initial memories are.

IX. The effects of social or cultural factors on cognitive processesA. Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive

processa. The Bartlett study of 1932 demosntrates how

culture can affect memory through schemas1. The researcher conducting this study was

Bartlett2. Aim: to prove that memory is reconstructive

and schemas influence recall as well as demonstrate the role of culture in schema processing

3. Method: Bartlett used two techniques, serial reproduction and repeated reproduction

4. Procedure: Bartlett performed a study where he used serial reproduction, which is a technique where participants hear a story or see a drawing and are told to reproduce it after a short time and then to do so again repeatedly over a period of days, weeks, months or years. Bartlett told participants a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts. The participants in the study were British; for them the story was filled with unknown names and concepts, and the manner in which the story


Period 2Awas developed was also foreign to them. The story was therefore ideal to study how memory was reconstructed based on schema processing.

5. Results: The participants remembered the main idea of the story but they changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations. The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed.

6. Interpretation of Results: Memory is reconstructive, and people try to make memories fit in with whatever personal schema they have. These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants were culturally familiar with. This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and cultural background (schemas).

7. Evaluation: due to the experimental design, a cause-and-effect relationship was established (high control of the independent and confounding variables). Because it was a controlled laboratory experiment, there are issues of artificiality, additionally participants did not receive standardized instructions, so some of the distortions could be due to participants’ guessing or other demand characteristics. Also the study was specific to European Americans so there is a low potential generalizability

8. Application to Outcome: Bartlett's study supports the principle that the stimuli used in terms of culture affected mental representations (schemas)

b. Another study demonstrating how social factors can affect memory is the Brewer and Treyens study of 1981

The researchers conducting this experiement were Brewer and Treyens


Period 2AAim: to determine whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory recall of an officeMethod: laboratory experimentProcedure: participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room, they were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the officeResults: participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema, however they did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the officeInterpretation of Results: Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it, they did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical office” schemaEvaluation: there was a strict control over variables which allowed to determine cause and effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous variables, however the study lacks ecological validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial environment and the task does not reflect daily activity Application to outcome: this study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory, and that our schemas influence what we recall in our memory

X. The Use of Technology in Investigating Cognitive ProcessesA. Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive

processesa. MRI Scans on Memory

1. This technique uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images.

2. MRI scans involve people to remove all metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI machine.


Period 2A3. It can distinguish among different types of soft

tissue and allows researchers to see structures within the brain

4. Advantages of MRI: Excellent resolution, non-invasive, fast, safer, and individuals can be tested repeatedly

5. Disadvantages: Expensive, gives correlation but not causation, cannot be used on everyone (can’t be used on individuals with metallic implants)

6. A study using this technology on a cognitive process is Maguire et al., 2000, on memoryThe researchers conducting this study were Maguire and othersAim: Maguire hypothesized that full licensed taxi drivers in London would have a different hippocampi structure in their brains compared to ‘normal’ people. Method: quasi experimentProcedure: this was based on the knowledge that London taxi drivers must do a two-year training course where they end up being able to find their way around the city without a map, MRI scans were used to scan the structure of their hippocampi, which were compared to already existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not drive taxis. Results: Taxi drivers’ left and right hippocampi had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi drivers, also, some parts of the hippocampi were smaller in the taxi driversInterpretation of Results: Maguire concluded that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to the regular use of the spatial memory skills required to remember roads; the neurons are stronger in areas of the brain which are used most. Evaluation: Limitations of this study include that the sample does not include women or left-handed people, however, it is an experiment which allows for the establishment


Period 2Aof a cause and effect relationship, and there were controls to allow for a basis of comparisonApplication to Outcome: By using an MRI, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the brain and find a correlation between the hippocampi (biological factor) and memory skills (cognitive process). Maguire used MRI scans to investigate the structure of the hippocampi, which would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan

b. PET Scan on Language1. The researcher PET scans require patients to be

injected with a radioactive glucose tracer which shows the areas where glucose is absorbed in the active brain.

2. More glucose metabolism means more brain activity.

3. PET scans show a colored visual display of brain activity; where radioactive tracer is absorbed

4. Advantages of PET Scan: sensitive, good resolution, receptor mapping, it is possible to do metabolic studies, and it can track ongoing activity in the brain

5. Disadvantages of PET Scan: invasive, very expensive, it takes longer than MRI scans, and there is a limit to the number of injections someone can have

6. A study using this technology on a cognitive process is Tierney et al., in 2001, on languageThe researchers conducting this study were Tierney and othersAim: yo evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual language compensation following early childhood brain damage Method: quasi experimentProcedure:

i. 37 year old man (known as MA) with normal speech functions who was participating in a normal speech study. It was discovered that he had a lesion in his left frontal lobe. Probably as a result


Period 2Aof encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6 weeks. He had no significant long-term, clinically consequences. Both his parents were deaf and he used sign language at home from a very young age. Researchers were curious to know if this might have had something to do with his ability to speak despite the brain damage (that should have prevented him from doing so.

ii. Researchers compared MA to 12 control participants, who were fluent in sign language

iii. PET scanning technologies were used while the participants produced narrative speech or signs

Results: MA's right hemisphere was more active than the controls' during the production of both speech and sign language Interpretation of Results: Language function seems to have developed in the right hemisphere instead of the left hemisphere as an adaptation following his early brain damage Evaluation: Since this was an experiment, it calls for the establishment of a cause and effect relationship, however, there is not a direct manipulation of the variablesApplication to Outcome: Tierney utilized PET scans to investigate the cognitive processes of language and observe the areas of the brain (biological factor) that activated while MA produced language (cognitive process).

c. In conclusion, brain imaging technologies are very useful in investigating cognitive processes. Useful in different situations. All these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, primarily involving invasiveness and levels of radioactivity. However, all of these methods contribute to investigating the relationship between cognitive processes and behavior. It is important to note that different brain scans are used depending on the


Period 2Aindividual, the cause of the problem and or the cognitive process being investigated.

XI. Methods used in the cognitive level of analysis and the ethical concerns they raise

A. Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis

a. Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).

b. Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV)

c. Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory experiments)

d. Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be collected as well

e. Loftus and Palmer’s study of 1974 reflected an experiment since there was an independent variable which was the verb in the leading question, as well as it had a dependent variable which was the speed estimates

1. Loftus and Palmer, 1974i. The researchers conducting this study

were Loftus and Palmerii. Aim: to test their hypothesis that the

language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. Thus, they aimed to show that leading questions could distort eyewitness testimony accounts and so have a confabulating effect, as the account would become distorted by cues provided in the question

iii. Method: laboratory experimentiv. Procedure: Participants in this study

watched seen film clips of different car accidents. After each clip, participants described what they saw and answered a number of questions about it. One of the questions, the critical question, asked about the speed of the cars in the accident. The experiment involved five


Period 2Aexperimental conditions which were defined by the verb used to ask the question about the cars’ speed. The critical question in one of the conditions was: About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other. For the other conditions the verb hit was replaced with contacted, collided, bumped, and smashed into.

v. Interpretation of Results: Loftus and Palmer found that the speed estimates were influenced by the wording used:contacted – 31.8 mphhit – 34 mphbumped – 38.1 mphcollided – 39.3 mphsmashed into – 40.8They argue that the results could be due to a distortion in the memory of the participant. The memory of how fast the cars were travelling could have been distorted by the verbal label which had been used to characterize the intensity of the crash. Additionally, Loftus and Palmer argue that the results could be due to response-bias factors, in which case the participant is not sure of the exact speed and therefore adjusts his or her estimate to fit in with the expectations of the questioner. (This is also an example of a demand characteristic)

vi. There was also another experiment conducted similar to the first:

vii. Aim: to provide additional insights into the origin of the different speed estimates. In particular they wanted to find out if the participant’s memories really had been distorted by the verbal label

viii. Method: laboratory experiment


Period 2Aix. Procedure: One group of participants

was asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other, and another group was asked the same thing but ‘smashed’ was replaced with ‘hit’. The third group wasn’t asked for any speed estimates. They were the control group. One week later, participants were asked if they had seen any broken glass in the film clip. There wasn’t any, but the dependent variable measured how many participants said they had in fact ‘seen’ broken glass. The independent variable was the verbs changed in the question to each group of participants

x. Results: participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass

xi. Interpretation of results: This research suggests that memory is easily distorted by questioning technique and information acquired after the event can merge with original memory causing inaccurate recall or reconstructive memory. The results from experiment two suggest that this effect is not just due to a response-bias because leading questions actually altered the memory a participant had for the event.

xii. Evaluation: The experiment was rigorously controlled so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between the independent variable (the critical words) and the dependent variable (estimation of speed). Additionally, this allowed for extraneous variables not affecting the results. However, students were used only, so the findings of the experiments may not be necessarily generalizable to the population as a whole until repeated on


Period 2Aother groups. Moreover, another limitation of the research is that it lacked ecological validity. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likely to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgments

xiii. Application to outcome: this study by using an experiment allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognized

1. Cause: The verbs in the leading questions – The wording of the question in eyewitness testimony/testimonials

2. Effect: Their schema a particular factor or experience in their life can be influenced, as their study shows that people are affect by the wording of a question.

The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found using other research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)

f. Case Studies are used to obtain enriched (especially qualitative) data and information about mediating processes which could not be gained in any other way, to study unusual psychological phenomena, stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena, to study a particular variable that cannot be produced in a laboratory. For example, due to ethical or financial restrictions, to obtain other information they may not be able to get from other methods.

g. Milner’s study on HM in 1966 reflects a case study since it was an in-depth study of HM’s amnesia


Period 2Acondition, which resulted from a head injury sustained when he was 9 years old, suffering epileptic seizures along with it

1. A case study was used because it was to study the case of a man who suffered from anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) as a result of the removal of tissue from the temporal lobe including the hippocampus, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment, as it would most likely cause a similar condition to the extent of HM’s.

2. A case study allowed researchers to observe HM’s behavior from when he was a young child, to his adolescent years, and after the surgery, in which they found out a link between the temporal lobe/hippocampi and memory which led to further research, findings and advances in later studies, helping improve people’s understanding of certain disorders such as amnesia, and memory in general.

3. This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.

h. Research methods are methods used for collecting and analyzing data. The type of research method used is dependent on the aim. At the CLA, the two main research methods used are experiments and case studies.

B. Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

a. Clive Wearing Sacks (2007) b. Method: Case Studyc. Procedure: Clive Wearing was a musician who got a

viral infection encephalitis. This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused memory impairment. He suffers from anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident as well as retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a


Period 2Aparticular incident. Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge). He could not transfer information from STM to his LTM. His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories.

d. The ethical issues of this study included1. Consent

Wearing did not give consent to being in a study His wife gave consent for him to be studied But Wearing would not remember being informed of the study or giving consent due to his short memory span

2. Confidentiality Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality Wearing’s real name was revealed His case was revealed to the world of psychology But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period of time, he would not remember that his confidentiality was violated

3. Withdraw Wearing would not remember being in a study or his right to withdraw and so would not express any desires to withdraw

4. Debriefing Wearing was not debriefed But because of his short memory span, he would not know he is in a study and would not desire a debriefing

5. A study demonstrating the ethical concerns of experiments is the Speisman et al. study of 1964

6. The researchers conducting this study included Speisman and others

7. Aim: to demonstrate the influence of appraisal on emotional experiences.

8. Method: laboratory experiment9. Procedure:

Participants were shown a ‘stressful’ film about ‘unpleasant’ genital surgery depicting


Period 2AAboriginal boys have circumcision in the context of puberty. Accompanied by soundtrack, in which investigators manipulated the ‘appraisal’ of the surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1 control:

i. Trauma condition – pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized

ii. Denial – boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus de-emphasizing the pain (presented the p’s as happy and deliberate)

iii. Intellectualization – soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of situation and emphasized traditions of aboriginal culture

iv. Silent – nothing Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR) measure of electrical conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic arousal and heart rate.

10. Results: observations and self-reports showed that participants reacted more ‘emotionally’ to the soundtrack that was more traumatic, lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions,the way participants appraised (act of assessing someone or something) what they were seeing in the film affected their physiological experience in terms of emotion

11. Interpretation of Results: the way participants appraised what they were seeing in the circumcision film affected their physiological reaction to it

12. Evaluation: since this was a laboratory experiment, we can establish a cause and effect relationship, additionally we can control for extraneous variables, on the other hand, because they were shown a video, it lacks ecological validity, as well as participants could have experienced psychological trauma after watching the video

13. The ethical concerns of this study include


Period 2APsychological harm: Participants had to watch a traumatic video

cognitive level of analysis outline

Documents

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cognitive level of analysisg

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various neutral stimuli