Chapter 22 Culture and Intelligence

Summary notes developed by Vida Dehnad from

Handbook of Cultural Psychology

Shinobu Kitayama & Dov Cohen 2007

Culture and intelligence“Behavior that is in one culture smart may be stupid in another culture”

“culture and intelligence…........... Inextricably interconnected”Q: can we measure intelligence as a universal , constant context-independent phenomenon in

quite the same way we treat blood pressure or some other physical entities ?

• Why should we include culture in studying intelligence?• Conceptualization, assessment and development of intelligence happens in cultural context• What is culture then?• Set of attitudes , values traditions and beliefs shared by a group of people , communicated from

generation to generations via language or other communicative means .

• Culture affects how a group learns , solves problems and copes with life circumstances

• Some early definitions of Intelligence• Boring (1923) ……it is what tests of intelligence measure• Faults: circular• Different tests do not always test the same thing • Differences are observed from one culture to another

Q: Is definition of intelligence totally different from a culture to another culture ??Extreme views:

- it is the same across cultures (Boring)-it is radically different in different cultures

In this case , any try to define intelligence could be vacuous and there were as many definitions as there are cultures .

• consensus definition : ability to adapt to the environment , to think and learn and to understand oneself and others (meta-cognition)

• Theories of intelligence :explicit theories & implicit ones • Explicit theories: cross culturally relevant , proposed by investigators/ • Suggested and by empirical studies

• Implicit theories : folk theories , inside the head of the individuals • Both lay people and scientists believe that they are less scientific • Explicit theories are certainly affected/ shaped by the implicit ones • . Explicit theories conducted mostly in west• Westernization of the norms a solution ?

Explicit theories of intelligence - conventional psychometric theories

- system theories

conventional psychometric theories ( metrics ) Built on the work of Charles Spearman (1904) …a factor of general intelligence &

Louis Thurstone (1938) who propose multiple factors of intelligence ( verbal comp. , number , verbal fluency , memory , perceptual speed , reasoning and spatial visualization)

Raymond cattell ( 1971) …Fluid intelligence & crystalized intelligence John Carroll (1993) masterfully integrates previous theories and proposes his ownHierarchically comprising three strata 1. Narrow /Specific abilities 2. Broad abilities ( similar to fluid and crystalized intelligence / mental/ memory

processes )3. A single general intelligence (like Spearman ‘s)

System theories (more recent ones / tend to be broader in definition )

Gardner’s theory (1983) ….attracts those with cultural interests

Each intelligence is a different system of functioning Linguistic (novelists), logical , mathematical, kinetic, spatial, musical ,interpersonal,

intrapersonal …….intelligences This emanates from one’s ability to work in multiple symbol systems Measuring intelligences separately provides us with a broader range of skills

compared to when just verbal and mathematical abilities are measured Attractive to those with cultural interests …it puts into consideration different

sources and types of data for intelligence Example Romani Gypsy culture mostly based on oral story telling & musical skills Romani gypsies’ intelligence if measured through traditional /cross-cultural tests

scored low

Another system theory : theory of successful intelligence (Sternberg)success not only in academic settings , but in life

some skills and knowledge must be acquired by an individual to be successful in life in his own definition and according to his sociocultural context.

An individual capitalizes on the strengths and corrects or amends for weaknesses by adapting to, shaping and selecting environment through a balance of analytical, creative and practical abilities.

3 components are also involved in problem solving : meta-components / higher order processes

(What to do ); performance component ( does the work ;and knowledge acquisition component ( how to learn things

- Analytical intelligence – components are applied for abstract , but familiar problems - Creative intelligence –components are applied to novel tasks - Practical intelligence – components applied for the purpose of adaptation , shaping ,

selecting environment

Implicit theories of intelligence

The differences between implicit theories of intelligence is the difference between the way different cultures view things &think

Westerners live in individualistic countries # Easterners in collectivistic Richard Nisbett….. cognitive processes are dependent on ecology (location),

economy, social structure, attention, metaphysics, and epistemology, or in other words culture.

Nisbett’s argument is reminiscent of discussion of the bipartite brain, or the idea that the individual influenced by two facets: the internal (body, genes, and hormones) and the external (life experiences, culture).

Westerners’ views ----linear /context-independent / less situated Easterners views ------nonlinear/more situated / context dependent

Some consideration regarding implicit theories of intelligence

-Social aspect of intelligence is involved in Asian & African culture-Chinese were among the first to use intelligence tests (constructing shapes : tangram –as

early as song dynasty)-China Affected by Confucian teachings : waking up , noticing comprehending ,awareness,

consciousness , understanding , mental effort , benevolence , and doing what is right -African cultures mind sociability , harmonious intergroup relationship They also mind kinetic abilities (they are prominent in music / and as singers successful)-Westerners may mind speed action while other cultures may mind depth & quality factors Westerners may cherish technological intelligence # African may mind social intelligenceWestern norms &tests bring a sense of superiority in those who have devised and

undermine other cultures’ abilities

Different tests are differently regarded as serious Example Chinese (memory factor is paramount ) versus Australians

(memory as trivial)

• 4 models of relationship between culture &intelligence • Model 1.Intelligence is the same across cultures ; the tests are the same (etic

studies / radical view )• Model 2. The nature of the intelligence is not the same across cultures , but the

same tests can be used (Nisbett / people think about problems in different ways • Model 3. dimensions of intelligence are the same (( recognizing the problem/ defining it/

mentally representing it /formulating strategies / allocating resources/ monitoring solutions / evaluating things))

• measurements are not (cultural differentials are minded)• Wholly relativistic views rejected /there are constant things in the study of intelligence• Model 4. (Berry 1974)• Tests different / intelligence dimensions are different across cultures intelligence

regarded as indigenous phenomenon /radical cultural relativist position

Some related studies

• All intelligence tests may be better viewed as occurring on a continuum from ability to competencies to expertise

• Interaction of genes and environments can not be denied- no test can claim to be culture free

• children develop contextually important skills at the expense of academic ones (tacit knowledge for example to survive versus verbalized one

• The higher kids scored on tacit knowledge the lower they did in crystalized one • Children may have substantial practical knowledge that go unnoticed by

academic tests • Practical intellectual skill may be a better predictor of health than academic ones• Dynamic testing reveal cognitive skills not revealed by static• Dynamic testing / instruction and help are given to students (Vygotsky / ZPD

Culture fair &culture relevant testing

• Culture fair test is believed to be appropriate for members of all cultures and comprises items that are equally fair to all / adaptations are made so that tests are made suitable

• Etic approach is open to criticism because members of different cultures define intelligence differently

• The processes of intelligence are the same but the manifestations are not model 3.

• Culture relevant tests are more realistic since they regard the cultural experiences of test takers

• Creating culture-free or culture fair tests may be so difficult and sometimes unrealistic

Studies in Iran /Ferdowsi University Of Mashhad

***Pishghadam, Khodadady and Khoshsabk(2010) showed that visual –intelligence based instruction (using illustration, flash cards , charts , graphic symbols depictions and images) has a positive effect on the retention and learning of the vocabularies by students since they could develop their inner black boards . Moreover the students’ writing quality in this kind of instruction improved significantly.In the research , verbal-intelligence based instruction (during four weeks) has less effect on their scores .*****In a quantitative analysis of the relationship of emotional intelligence and foreign language learning , Pishghadam (2009) calculated both product &process data attained from four universities . The results revealed that emotional competencies had a significant role in the success of the language learners.Emotional competencies affecting reading are: stress management; adaptability (problem solving and reality testing & general mood ;Also in speaking interpersonal competencies (empathy , social responsibility ) intrapersonal competencies and general mood exert influence

Self-disclosure, discussion of emotions freely in well-organized groups , emotional clips lead to emotional literacy

• In 2011 , Pishghadam &Tabatabaian studied the relationship of Emotional intelligence and performance on different test formats , the results showed that EQ and its subscales were related to most test formats .

• EQ is only related to C-test (cloze test) • Adaptability scale correlated with multiple choice items • Interpersonal skills ----negative predictor of multiple choice question

success , cloze test and summary writing• Fro a fairer assessment of reading ability cloze tests can be included.

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