CM 220 Unit 2 Seminar

Professor Dr. Julie Pal-AgrawalGeneral Education, Composition

Kaplan University

1

Today’s agenda

• Thesis workshop• Logical fallacy discussion• Discussion about graphic cigarette warning

labels article

2

UNIT 2 reading• Unit 2 overview with discussion of advertising and deceptive

argument• The Kaplan Guide to Successful Writing, pp. 5-6 in ch. 1

(logical fallacy chart), pp. 36-43 in ch. 6 [NOTE: the reading assignment listed when you click the reading icon is incorrect]

• Fallacy Gallery [posted in Doc Sharing, unit 2 folder]• Netemeyer, Andrews, and Burton article on antismoking

advertising [available in Kaplan library, Academic Search Premier database]

• O’Hegarty, et. al article on cigarette warning labels [find link at end of overview reading]

3

Unit 2 activities

• Invention Lab: Develop research questions and a potential working thesis statement

• Project: “Elevator pitch” of big idea and research strategy

• Tech Lab: Slide presentations, traditional and animated options

4

Tech Lab: Slide Presentations

5

What is a THESIS?• The main idea expressed in a written or visual work• It may be stated or implied• The author’s hypothesis or argument encapsulated in

a sentence is the THESIS STATEMENT

6

Thesis statement

• A thesis statement is composed of two parts: your topic + some point you want to make about your topic.

• Once you’ve chosen your topic, find a research question that you’d like to answer. That will give you your point.

• Without a thesis, your paper lacks direction.

7

Research question• This is a question YOU would like to answer through

your research. • It can help you LIMIT your topic/big idea and provide

you with a focus for a paper or argument.• It should be appropriate to the subject and

limitations of the assignment.

8

Sample research questions• WHO benefits from decreased dependence on foreign oil?• WHAT is the best type of alternative fuel vehicle?• WHEN is the best time to invest in alternative fuel vehicles?• WHERE is the engine in an electric car?• HOW does an electric car work?• WHY does the US support offshore drilling?• SHOULD the US government offer tax incentives?

9

Research question to thesis

10

Preliminary thesis (hypothesis)• This is your INITIAL argument, what you think may be the

answer to your research question. • Remember that a preliminary thesis CAN and WILL change.• It will be TESTED and REFINED through research. • If you are arguing a position, that position should be clear in

the thesis.• Good persuasive thesis statements often include clauses

beginning with “since, because, therefore” that indicate why you feel something should or should not be done.

11

Thesis workshop

• Share your ideas. What are some potential BIG IDEAS you might like to focus on this term?

• What are some possible RESEARCH QUESTIONS you might like to explore with this topic?

• What are some PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENTS you might wish to pursue?

12

Applying what you know. . .Let’s review the article by O’Hegarty, et al. • The article concludes that the U.S. should use graphic

warnings on cigarette packages because these are likely to be effective in encouraging people not to smoke.

• Is their research valid? Does it have any weaknesses? Could the hypothesis be tested further? Would the use of graphic warnings be an example of the “appeal to fear” fallacy and, if so, would using them in an anti-smoking campaign be ethical?

• What were drawbacks that study participants noted with some of the ads?

• Does their argument rely on any LOGICAL FALLACIES?

13

Canadian warnings

14

How do we AVOID fallacies in our own writing?

• Imagine you disagree with your own argument. Which of your arguments would not convince you and why? Which arguments are “fishy” or weak?

• List your argument. List the evidence you provide for each claim. Look critically at this evidence.

• Ask yourself which fallacies you are prone to make. Look for these in your arguments.

• Review your argument for absolutes and sweeping generalizations (all, every, never, always)

• Review the types of Logical Fallacies listed in the handbook on pp. 5-6 and review your argument for these problems.

15

Once you've decided on a topic and have done a little research, it's time to begin writing.

(Easier said than done! LOL)It is difficult to write if you have NOTHING to write about! This is where prewriting comes in handy.

What is Prewriting? Why should you use it?

16

Prewriting is the first step in the writing process.

• This is where you gather ideas and discover topics before you attempt to write on that blank page or computer screen. You can use prewriting to find a topic or to decide upon a topic. You can also use prewriting to decide upon a thesis statement.

• There are different methods of prewriting. You can select the one that works best for you.

17

What are some of the strategies for prewriting?

18

Prewriting Techniques• Freewriting• Brainstorming• Bubbling• Clustering• Listing• Informal outlining• Annotating• Questioning

19

Prewriting Techniques

The artist and the judge…

The artist The judge

Prewriting allows you to let ideas in before you can judge them. This helps you generate ideas to use as content for your essays.

20

Freewriting• Simply write and write about a topic.• You record your thoughts, ideas,

impressions, and feelings without interruption and without any concern for spelling, grammar, punctuation or even logic.

• The only problem with this style is that it really has no organization and you have to rewrite several times for organization.

21

Methods You Can Use to Find Your Point: Freewriting

• When free writing, write whatever comes to you. Don't evaluate your ideas; just write FAST! After you are done, read through your writing. Something you wrote may be the direction (point) in which you want to go.

22

Sample Free Writing about Illegal Immigration

• That means coming to the country illegally. What makes it illegal? How do you come legally? What type of people are coming and why? How are they coming? Where are they coming from? Why? Are they families or just individuals? How do they get here. I heard the government was going to build a wall between Mexico and the U.S. I also heard that illegals had built a tunnel. Some people say that it's a war zone down there. Do we have the same problems with Canada? What about our large coast line. I heard people are sneaking in by ship. Some have even landed on Sanibel. That's just down the road from me!

• Reading that, you can see that it lacks unity and organization. That means that it jumps from idea to idea.

23

Freewriting (continued)• When you use free writing, you write down whatever comes

to you. Don't evaluate your ideas; just write FAST! After you are done, comb through the writing, much like an archeologist carefully scrapes the earth looking for things of value. Something you wrote may be the direction (point) in which you want to go.

• Choose one sentence and research it. Examples:– "The U.S. is proposing to build a wall between

Mexico and the U.S." – – You could write an essay informing the reader

about that.– OR: "How do you come illegally?" Answering that

question could be your essay.

24

Freewriting• Freewriting appeals to some. Using this

technique you simply write and write about a topic. You record your thoughts, ideas, impressions, and feelings without interruption and without any concern for spelling, grammar, punctuation, or even logic.

• The only problem with this style is that it really has no organization and you have to rewrite several times for organization. If this style does appeal to you, be sure to double space or skip lines so that you leave yourself room to make changes.

25

Bubbling

26

OutliningWe use an outline because it provides the structure we need to

create an organized essay.Although our writing can use creativity, the essay that the

outline will help you write is not creative writing. It is persuasive writing based on your own ideas. However, you must use facts, examples, and quotes from experts to support any claims that you make!

The outline can help you decide what to include and where it would be most effective to place particular points.

Another purpose of the outline is to determine how outside sources will fit into your paragraphs.

You can use the formal (Roman Numeral) outline structure or a less formal version of the outline.

27

Informal 0utline example

I. Introduction: The United States should ban smoking.

A. Danger to health of smoker

B. Danger to health of non-smoker

C. Contributions to rising health costs in U.S.

II. Smoking is dangerous to the health of smokers.

A. Lung cancer risks

B. Asthma and other breathing disorders

C. Heart problems

28

Brainstorming

• Brainstorming or Listing is a very easy technique. Many people like this method. You simply sit down and for five to ten minutes list everything you can think of about the topic as it pops into your mind. When you cannot think of anything else to write, then sort the information into categories.

29

What are some strategies for prewriting?

• Brainstorming/listing.• Simply sit down and for five to ten minutes list

everything you can think of as it pops into your mind about the topic. When you cannot think of anything else to write, then sort the information into categories.

• Another method is to simply write the categories and rewrite your list underneath.

30

For example, we will assume you are writing about cars and have made a huge list:

• Topic: Cars • Makes: Honda Lexus • Styles: Sedan, Convertible • Costs: Purchase Prices Insurance Maintenance

31

Listing (sample topic: Banning cigarettes)

Main points Support from sources?

Audience concerns to address

Examples I could use

Cigarettes are bad for everyone’s health, smokers and non-smokers alike

Surgeon General (warnings), medical reports on second-hand and third-hand smoke effects

Should the government outlaw everything that is bad for us (fast food, etc.?)

Childhood asthma and allergies, even ear infections, often tied into parents’ smoking

Those horrible pictures they showed in elem. School of black lungs of smokers!

32

Clustering, Webbing, Bubbling, Mapping

• This is a form of brainstorming, but with more organization. When you cluster, the topic is sorted for you as you write.

• There are several formats of clustering. The basic one is to draw a circle in the center of your paper. Put your topic in this circle.

• Your can find more information about clustering at a web site called Types of Maps: www-personal.umich.edu/~jmargeru/conceptmap/types.htm

33

Clustering, mapping, or webbing

• Is a form of brainstorming only it is more organized.

• Draw a circle in the center of your paper and as thoughts come to you about the topic lines are drawn with circles then additional thoughts are added.

• It sorts your ideas as you go and is easily transferred into an outline.

34

Questioning

• Questioning is an excellent way to begin writing about an unfamiliar assigned topic. The "Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How" technique is also excellent for prewriting for a research paper or report in your work area. This can also be used in combination with clustering or listing for research.

35

Methods You Can Use to Find Your Point: Questioning

• If free writing isn't helping or it's just not for you, try questioning. Brainstorm answers to WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY.

• WHO: People from other countries who come to the U.S. They're coming here illegally. Possibly terrorists, too.

• WHAT: They're coming here illegally. What does that mean? How do you come here legally?

• WHERE: They're coming from Mexico, Central America, S. America, China, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Arab nations. Maybe other places.

• HOW: How are they getting here? Car? Boat? Plane? Walking?

36

Choose one question to answer• WHEN: It's happening now. How long has it

been going on? Have there always been laws restricting immigration? Is it different now than before or are we just more worried about it now?

• WHY: Why are they coming here? Money? Freedom? Fleeing from oppression? Running drugs? Terrorists?

• Select one of the questions (who, what, when, where, why). – Example: Why: "Why are they coming

here?“– Answering that question could be your

essay.37

A persuasive argument is credible.

It is so trustworthy that readers can change their

minds painlessly.

How do you build credibility?

38

To Build Credibility• Be thoroughly honest. Demonstrate integrity

toward the topic. Do not falsify data, spin evidence, or ignore facts. Document your sources and cite them wherever appropriate.

• Make realistic claims, projections, and promises. Avoid emotionally charged statements, pie-in-the-sky forecasts, and undeliverable deals.

• Develop and maintain trust. From your first word to your last, develop trust. You do this by your attitude toward the topic, treatment of readers, and respect for opposing viewpoints.

39

Recognizing Deceptive Arguments

• When you are doing your research, you need to read the information carefully and to apply your best critical thinking skills to what the author is saying. You must analyze the articles that you are reading and find the "holes" in the arguments. To do this, you must decide which arguments are valid and which are not.

• The danger of deceptive arguments comes from their misleading nature, which may cause you to reject a valid opposing argument or embrace an argument that has little rational merit.

40

Beware of Deceptive Arguments• Deceptive arguments often distract people from the vital

issues and focus their attention on matters of little importance. By reading and evaluating opposing views, you will become more proficient at recognizing deceptive arguments.

• Many arguments seem reasonable at first reading; however, once students read the opposite opinion, they are forced to decide between two apparently equally plausible arguments. Though opponents may use the same statistics and even the same logic, they may reach different conclusions.

41

Recognizing Deceptive Arguments (Logical Fallacies)

• When researching, you need to read the information carefully and to apply your best critical thinking skills to what the author is saying.

• Analyze and find the “holes” in the arguments that you are reading. Decide which arguments are valid and which are not.

• With practice, you will become better at detecting deceptive arguments.

42

Deceptive Arguments

• Deceptive arguments may mislead you, causing you to believe the wrong information.

• Because deceptive arguments often confuse and distract people, they may take attention from important issues. Deceptive arguments are often more emotionally charged, gaining bigger headlines.

43

Practice Reading &Thinking!

• A big part of learning to write well is learning to read critically.

• Read things you might not normally read, such as newspaper articles. Analyze them. What is the topic? What is the main point? What proof is offered? Look for “holes” in the thinking of the writer. Demand proof for assertions!

44

Demand Proof!• Example: A political add on TV in Florida

stated that Florida Senator Bill Nelson, when he was a state official, caused insurance rates to rise.

• My first thought: I’d like to see back up for that assertion. How did one person cause insurance rates to rise????

• Since deceptive arguments may appear reasonable, it is important that you read both sides of all issues.

45

Some Types of Deceptive Arguments• False Dilemmas & Either/Or Statements• Bandwagon• Slanters• Persuasive Definitions• Personal Attacks• Post Hoc• Scare Tactics• Slippery Slope• Strawman• Testimonials• Generalizations• Categorical Statements• Begging the Question• False Analogy

46

Deceptive Argument: False Dilemmas & Either/Or Statements

• There is no reason to have just two alternatives. Example: "Either you’ll vote for the Republican candidate or you’ll have to vote for the Democratic candidate."

• Obviously, there are other alternatives: don't vote at all, or vote Libertarian or some other alternative party. To avoid false dilemmas (either this or that), we have to use our imaginations for the other possibilities.

• Sometimes a false dilemma is stated without using "either...or." For example: "If you don't bring me flowers, then you don't really love me.” (EITHER you bring me flowers OR you don't love me.)

47

False Dilemma: “If…then” Statements & Perfectionism

• False dilemmas can be “if…then” statements. This is a form of blatant manipulation.– Example: "If you really loved me, then you

would…...” • False dilemmas can also be perfectionism,

which states that if the solution is not perfect, then we shouldn’t bother.– Example: Since the FCATs are a poorly designed

test, the schools shouldn’t do any standardized testing.

48

Perfectionist Dilemma

• Another form of false dilemma is the perfectionist dilemma, which assumes either the situation will be perfect if we do this, or we shouldn't do it (all or nothing at all)

• For example: We shouldn't vote for raising property taxes to pay for improvements to the schools because no matter how much money we pour into the schools, they'll never be first rate.

49

Bandwagon: the idea that everybody does it or believes it

• I'm guessing that you have all used this type of argument when you were younger. You'd say to your parents, But everyone is going OR All of the kids have one of those.

• And what answer did your mom give? • If everyone was going to jump off a cliff does

that mean you should, too? LOL

50

Bandwagon: the idea that everybody does it or believes it

80 percent of Americans dislike the idea of increased taxes; therefore, the government should reduce taxes in order to improve our economy.

What is weak in this argument?

51

Slanting: Persuasive Definitions• Persuasive definitions are a form of slanting in which

the definition closes off the argument because the definition is actually a conclusion instead of a real definition.– Example: The Iraq War is an illegal war being

fought just for oil.– By defining the war as illegal and being fought just

for oil, you are limiting all discussion. Those assertions would have to be proven.

52

Deceptive Argument: Slanters• Slanters attempt to persuade through inflammatory and

exaggerated language instead of reason. • The adjectives used to describe people or their political

positions often reveal the speaker's beliefs. Many do not intend to display their bias, but the words they use send a signal to careful readers and listeners.

• For example: President Reagan called the guerillas fighting against the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s "freedom fighters." The Nicaraguan government called them "terrorists." The labels they chose slanted the way you viewed any claim about those people. Each label concealed a claim.

• "Freedom fighters" – The guerillas are good people fighting to liberate their country and give their countrymen freedom

• "Terrorists" – The guerillas are bad people, inflicting violence on civilians for their own partisan ends without popular support.

53

Slanters: Persuasive Definitions• One form of "slanting" is using persuasive definitions, by

which someone tries to close off the argument by making a definition that should be the conclusion.

• For example, when people define "abortion" to mean "the murder of an unborn child," they make it impossible to debate whether abortion is murder and whether a fetus is a human being. Those conclusions are built into the definition.

• Another form of "slanting" is the loaded question, which conceals a dubious claim that should be argued for rather than assumed. For example, "When did you stop beating your wife?" The question assumes you either are or have been beating your wife.

54

Personal attack

• People use this to attack their opponents personally instead of discussing ideas or behavior. They often attack their opponent’s character, family life, looks, or personal habits, rather than focusing on the issues.

• Example: When Ann Coulter called Democrat presidential candidate John Edwards a “faggot,” she was attacking him personally instead of debating his ideas.

55

Deceptive Argument: Personal Attack

• Personal attack - criticizing an opponent personally instead of rationally debating his/her ideas. Attacks focus on someone's appearance, personal habits, or character rather than focusing on the merits of the issue at hand.

• The implication is that if something is wrong with the person, whatever he or she says or does must be wrong. It is the suggestions that deserve attention, not the person who makes them.

• For example, "Sarah is divorced so whatever relationship advice she gives you can't be good." Sarah's marital status has nothing to do with the quality of her advice. Isn't it also possible that Sarah could be married and give terrible advice?

56

Ad hominem: an attack on the character of a person rather than her/his opinions or arguments

Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all liberals and hippies.

What is weak in this argument?

57

Post Hoc - Latin for "after this, therefore caused by this."

• Just because one event comes after another event, doesn’t mean the second one is caused by the first.

• Example: I turn out the light, and then the dog barked. – My turning out the light did not cause the dog to

bark. The cat running down the hall did.

58

Deceptive Argument: Post Hoc• Post Hoc - Latin for "after this, therefore cause by

this." - Politicians love this one!• Example: Since Governor Bush took office,

unemployment of minorities decreased by 7%. Governor Bush should be applauded for reducing unemployment among minorities.

• Before we pat the governor on the back, the speaker must show that Bush's policies are responsible for the decrease in unemployment. It is not enough to show the decrease came after his election.

59

Post hoc ergo propter hoc: assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have caused 'A.'

After President Clinton raised taxes, our economy went into decline; therefore the increase in taxes caused our economic downturn.

What is weak in this argument?

60

Scare tactics

• Scare Tactics use threat as a form of persuasion: “Do this….or else.” The issues discussed using scare tactics are usually real, but the method used is deceptive.

• Example: We must close our borders NOW! Even as we speak, terrorists are slipping undetected into the U.S., possibly even carrying nuclear or biological bombs.

• While it is true that terrorists may be entering our country, the speaker is trying to scare people into action instead of using reason.

61

Slippery Slope• This is another form of scare tactics. It’s

premise is that once you start down the “slope,” it’s all down hill from there.

• Example: If we allow illegal aliens to remain in our country, they will overwhelm our social services. American citizens will not be able to get help from the government. No one will speak English any more. All of our customs will be changed. Soon we will be little more than Mexico north.

62

Slippery Slope: If A happens, then B will occur

If we legalize same sex marriage, then eventually people will be allowed to marry their family members or even more than one person; therefore, same sex marriage should not be legalized.

What is weak in this argument?

63

Strawman• This means putting words into someone else’s mouth.

The premise is that it is easier to knock down a straw person than a real one.

• Example: The police chief said he was going to wait for the outcome of the investigation. It’s obvious that he doesn’t care about our community.

• The police chief never said that he didn’t care about the community. The speaker put words in the police chief’s mouth in order to discredit him.

64

Testimony or Relying on Experts

• When doing research, we accept the ideas of people who are knowledgeable in their fields.

• Quoting an expert is a valid way of supporting your arguments. When you do this, however, be sure that you keep the meaning of the quote. Do not distort it by using it out of context.

65

Appeal to Authority: If X says so, it must be so.

President Ronald Reagan supported the death penalty; therefore, we should continue to support capital punishment.

What is weak in this argument?

66

Unreliable Testimony• Actors or athletes who advertise products often know little

about those products.• Also, many people who make public statements have little

knowledge about the issues they are discussing.• Example: Movie stars or rock stars give opinions on what the

U.N. should or shouldn't do to end hunger in Africa. The fact that a person is famous in the entertainment field doesn't mean he or she knows how to solve problems in world affairs.

67

Generalizations & Stereotyping

• A generalization is an assertion (argument) based on insufficient evidence.

• Generalizations are often applied to groups that we feel are different than we are. – Stereotyping and sexism are forms of this fallacy.

• Example: Blondes are dumb.• Obviously, not all blondes are dumb anymore

than all women or all men are dumb.

68

Begging the Question

• In this is a form of circular logic, the question remains, "begging" to be answered. Instead of providing support, the assertion is restated.

• Example: Guns are deadly because they kill people. – The words deadly and kill people mean the same

thing. Instead of proving that guns are deadly, the statement goes in a circle repeating its claim.

69

Begging the Question: accept this conclusion without evidence (also may present an argument where the

premise and conclusion are the same)

Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape suffering through death.

What is weak in this argument?

70

False Analogy – Comparing apples to oranges

• Classic example: If we can put a man on the moon, why can't we find a cure for the common cold?– Medicine and space technology are not the same.

Different scientists work in those fields and the advances made are not related.

71

APPLYING WHAT YOU KNOWLet’s review the article by O’Hagearty, et al. The article concludes that the U.S. should use graphic warnings

because graphic warning are likely to be effective in the U.S. Is the research valid? Does it have any weaknesses? Could the

hypothesis be tested further? Would the use of graphic warnings be an example of the “appeal to fear” fallacy and, if so, would using them in an anti-smoking campaign be ethical?

Does this argument rely on any LOGICAL FALLACIES?

72

How do we AVOID fallacies in our own writing?

• Imagine you disagree with your own argument. Which of your arguments would not convince you and why? Which arguments are “fishy” or weak?

• List your argument. List the evidence you provide for each claim. Look critically at this evidence.

• Ask yourself which fallacies you are prone to make. Look for these in your arguments.

• Review your argument for absolutes and sweeping generalizations (all, every, never, always)

• Review the types of Logical Fallacies and review your argument for these problems (Fallacies, 2010).

73

Writing Tip of the Week: "Although" or "Though"

• The words "although" or "though" can not be used in place of "however." For example, you can not say: "Although, I still made it to class on time."

• The word "although" is a subordinator and begins a subordinate clause. Therefore, "Although, I still made class on time" is a fragment, not a sentence.

• To make it a sentence, you could: (1) changed "although" to another word: "However, I still made it to class on time," (2) eliminated "although," which would leave "I made it to class on time," (3) or add the subordinate clause to a main clause: "Although I still made it to class on time, I had forgotten my book" OR "Although I was running late, I still made it to class on time."

• Also, there would not be a comma after "although" or any other subordinator (because, after, since, before, when, even though, as if, as long as, until, unless, etc.)

74