Clues for the Arabian Influence on European Musical Theory by Henry George FarmerReview by: George SartonIsis, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jul., 1926), pp. 508-511Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/223921 .

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the date-palm properly. But the term (( male ) is applied to a,Slu

(cyperus), namtar (mandrake) and (( male ) and (( female ) nikibtu

(liquidambar orientalis); the < male > aslumay have been so specifi- ed when a particular kind of this rush was needed to plait in a charm, the mandrake has a fruit which leads the Arabs to call it ( Devil's testicles ), which explains the . male (" definition; and,

finally, we must see in ((male)) and (( female)) liquidambar the shape of its gum, just as frankinsense is so defined in PI,NY. >

The work is concluded by a series of indexes: Assyrian, Syriac, Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin and English and

by abundant addenda (p. 251-90). We can not consider it a com-

plete study of Assyrian botany, but it is a fundamental contribution towards that study; it is a ipity that the author did not add to his elaborate analysis a chapter of synthesis for the sake of the histor- ians of botany who do not care for Assyriological niceties and will be rebuked by them. The book was printed from stencils partly written by the author himself; some of the pages are very legible, others less so. GEORGE SARTON.

Henry George Farmer. - Clues for the Arabian influence on Euro-

pean musical theory. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 61-80, January 1925.

Arabian influence was felt in two ways : (1) in popular music,

being brought about by political contact which began in the vmIth century and (2) in artistic music, brought about by the literary contact which began in the x-xith century.

I. Popular music. - The first Arabian influence was spread abroad by the wandering jongleuzr, Nhho carried with him the new instruments and musical devices of the Arabian ghanna'i ). These

jongleurs introduced the following instruments: lute (al-'ud), gui- tar (qitar) rebec (rabab), naker (naqqiara) and possibly also the

sonajas (sunuj, cymbals), adufe and pandere (al-duff and bandair, tambourines); quesse, modern caisse (qas'a. drum), tabel, taber or tabor (tabl, drum); anafil (nafir, trumpet; plural anffr, hence fan-

fare); shawm, dulcayna (zamr, al-surna, reed instruments); canon

(qanun, zither), eschaquiel or exaquir (mishqar or al-shaqira). < Finally, the revival of interest in the hydraulis in Europe appears to have been due to the Arabs. From the sixth to the ninth century there is no mention of the ancient hydraulis in Europe, but in the ninth-twelfth century the Arabs were actually constructing both the pneumatic and the hydraulic organ... The most important of the early influences upon Europe from the Arabian contact was the za'ida. This was the "gloss' or Cornament' upon the melody, known

the date-palm properly. But the term (( male ) is applied to a,Slu

(cyperus), namtar (mandrake) and (( male ) and (( female ) nikibtu

(liquidambar orientalis); the < male > aslumay have been so specifi- ed when a particular kind of this rush was needed to plait in a charm, the mandrake has a fruit which leads the Arabs to call it ( Devil's testicles ), which explains the . male (" definition; and,

finally, we must see in ((male)) and (( female)) liquidambar the shape of its gum, just as frankinsense is so defined in PI,NY. >

The work is concluded by a series of indexes: Assyrian, Syriac, Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin and English and

by abundant addenda (p. 251-90). We can not consider it a com-

plete study of Assyrian botany, but it is a fundamental contribution towards that study; it is a ipity that the author did not add to his elaborate analysis a chapter of synthesis for the sake of the histor- ians of botany who do not care for Assyriological niceties and will be rebuked by them. The book was printed from stencils partly written by the author himself; some of the pages are very legible, others less so. GEORGE SARTON.

Henry George Farmer. - Clues for the Arabian influence on Euro-

pean musical theory. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 61-80, January 1925.

Arabian influence was felt in two ways : (1) in popular music,

being brought about by political contact which began in the vmIth century and (2) in artistic music, brought about by the literary contact which began in the x-xith century.

I. Popular music. - The first Arabian influence was spread abroad by the wandering jongleuzr, Nhho carried with him the new instruments and musical devices of the Arabian ghanna'i ). These

jongleurs introduced the following instruments: lute (al-'ud), gui- tar (qitar) rebec (rabab), naker (naqqiara) and possibly also the

sonajas (sunuj, cymbals), adufe and pandere (al-duff and bandair, tambourines); quesse, modern caisse (qas'a. drum), tabel, taber or tabor (tabl, drum); anafil (nafir, trumpet; plural anffr, hence fan-

fare); shawm, dulcayna (zamr, al-surna, reed instruments); canon

(qanun, zither), eschaquiel or exaquir (mishqar or al-shaqira). < Finally, the revival of interest in the hydraulis in Europe appears to have been due to the Arabs. From the sixth to the ninth century there is no mention of the ancient hydraulis in Europe, but in the ninth-twelfth century the Arabs were actually constructing both the pneumatic and the hydraulic organ... The most important of the early influences upon Europe from the Arabian contact was the za'ida. This was the "gloss' or Cornament' upon the melody, known

isis, vIII. 1926 isis, vIII. 1926 508 508

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to European musical theorists as discant. Prior to the Arabian mu- sical contact, European music, as exemplified in Gregorian Song or Plain Chant, used notes of equal value. With the Arabs it was quite different, and whilst one performer might play the melody in its plain form, an accompanying performer would figurate the melody by means of appoggiatura, acciaccatura, grace note, etc. Harmony was unknown before the xth century, but about that time we find a distinct reference to organizing, that is, the performance of concords, not only in the older classical melodic sense, but as simultaneous sounds. This was a development of the Greek system of magadizing, and it is probable that the passage from magadizing (doubling with the octave) to organizing (doubling with the fourth or fifth) was done by Muslims. Both systems are dealt with by IBN StN, in the Shifa; and probably AIrFARABI (d. 950) dealt with

them, too. The art of organizing was taught in the musical schools of Andalus. Instrumental tablature and possibly solfeggio are also of Muslim origin.

II. Artistic music. - ( Between the eighth and eleventh centuries the Arabs had transladed from the Greek many musical treatises hitherto unknown to Western Europe, and among them: ARISTOXE- NOS (Harmonics and Rhythmics), ARISTOTLE (Problems), EUCLID

(Harmonics and Canon), PTOLEMY (Harmonics), NICOMACHOS (Har- monics), and others. Besides these, numerous original treatises on music appeared from the pens of Arabian writers like AL-KINDI, AL-SARAKHBS, the BANt MYsA.. THABIT IBN QURRA. ZAKA-

RIYA AL-R1AZ, QUSTA IBN LYQA, AL-FARAiBt, the IKHWAN AL-SAFA, IBN

SiNA, and IBN BAJJA. When we compare the musical writings of

Europe at this period with those of Arabian contemporaries, one feels abashed at Western mediocrity. The musical works of AL- FARABI (Kitab al-Musiqi) and IBN SINi(in the Shifa) are like oases in a desert. Europe soon began to feel the intellectual superiority of the Arabs, and its scholars were busy studying under Arabian masters at the Andalusian universities or Spanish schools both the Greek musical theorists only to be found in Arabic, and the writ- ings of the Arabian theorists themselves. Among those students who carried the results of their musical studies back to West- ern Europe were GERBERT, HERMANN CONTRACT, CONSTANTINE THE AFRICAN, JEAN OF SEVILLE, GUNDISALVI, GERARD OF CREMONA, and PLATO OF TIVOLI. , The transmission of Muslim music was probably accomplished to some extent by Jews, such as ABRAHAM IBN ESRA. We have a Hebrew translation of AL-FARABi'S Ihsa al-'cUlfm. In the Vatican (400,5) there is a Hebrew work on music attributed to ABRAHAM IBN HIJJA (d. 1136), it being a translation from the Arabic.

REVIEWS 509

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isis, vIII. 1926

HERMAN CONTRACT (1013-54) introduced a definite pitch notation which the Muslims knew at least since the time of AL-KINDI (d. 874). Mensural music, which was the outstanding musical innovation of the xnith century was in all probability of Muslim origin : indeed it was known to AL-KHALIL (d. 791), to AlL-FARABI, to the IKHWAN AL-

SAFA and to IBN SINK. < The music school at the University of

Cordova, one of the most famous in the world in its day, was the Alma Mater of many of the rising musicians of Europe, such as the Jew ELIAS, and the Christian PEDRO CANCIOTOR. Students flocked to the Andalusian universities, where they studied and translated the Arabian arithmetician, AL-KHWIRIZMI, the geometrician, IBN AL-

IIAITHAM, the astronomer, AL-BATTANI, and the music theorists, AL- FAIRAB and IBN SINA. )) < The earliest Latin translation of any musical work of AL-FiARBI that has been preserved dates from

1130-50, when JEAN OF SEVILLE and GUNDISALVI made their transla-

tions from AL-FARAsB's Ihsa al-?Ulum. > But the musical section of that book is really insignificant. AL-FARABI'S Kitab al-muisiqi was far more important but we have no trace of it in Latin in spite of FETIS' statement to the contrary. Neither have we any Latin ver- sion of IBN SINA'S music:al writings. The earliest mentions of mensu- ral music in Latin literature are found in FRANCO OF COLOGNE (c. 1190), JOANNES GARLANDIA (c. 1210-32), in the De mensuris et discantu (Coussemaker's Anonymous IV; 1273-80), etc. ? Laws

regulating time values already existed with the Arabs in their iqacat or crhythms'. At this period, whilst Europe only used two note

values, the longa and brevis, the Arabs had six. FRANCO OF COLOGNE knows of four note values, which is the first big sign of improve- ment. Rhythmic modes immediately arose on the introduction of the new ideas, and five or six of these rhythmic modes are used by FRANCO. Europe did not adopt all the peculiarities of Arabian

rhythm. One feature, the truncation, was classified separately by European writers as the ochetus, hoketus, or hoquetus, which word, in spite of the fanciful derivations of antiquaries and musicians, is

merely the Latinized form of the Arabic iq'acit. JOANNES GARLANDIA deals with the ochetus. ? For further development of these ideas in the Latin West I must refer to FARMERS'S admirable paper. The Arabic contributions did not cease with IBN SiNA < A great name

among the later theorists was SAFI AL-DIN 'ABD AL-MU'MIN (thir- teenth century), one of the first of the theorists of the so-called

cSystematist' school. Sir HUBERT PARRY considers the 'Systematist' scale "the most perfect scale ever devised' (Art of Music, 29). HELMHOLTZ who believes that the 'Systematists' influenced Europe, says that their use of the major 7th of the scale as a leading note

510

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to the tonic, cmarks a new conception, which admitted of being used for further development of the tonal degrees of the scale, even within the domain of purely homophonic music'. > I believe that the author has given ample proof of Muslim influence upon Europe- an music and of the great part played by English writers in the transmission of that influence. With respect to this, a final remark

may be quoted: ' England led the way in the world's musical cul- ture until the opening of the sixteenth century. One is inclined to ask how much the fame of Dunstable's school was due to the

advantages which the earlier English school took of the new Arabi- an musical science. > This paper is a very important addition to our knowledge of Muslim civilization. GEORGE SARTON.

Oeorges Potonnide. - Histoire de la decouverte de la photographie. 322 p gr. 80, 99 fig.. PAUL MONTEL, Paris, 1925.

Nous n'avions pas encore en France d'histoire de la decouverte de la photographie, mais seulement des histoires fragmentaires, des

ouvrages sur J. N. NIFPCE, des notices sur L. J. M. DAGUERRE, OU des resunms ouvrant les traites de photographie. C'est cette lacune qu'a voulu combler G. POTONNIEE avec un ouvrage important dont la

premiere partie seule vient de paraitre. L'auteur s'occupe d'abord (le la chambre noire, dont l'intervention est si souvent attribu6e A

J. B. PORTA ou a GALILIE, et il n'a pas de peine A montrer apr/s P. DUHEM, que la chambre noire etait connue au XIIle sicle : DUHEM (le Systeme du monde, t. 3, pp. 499 et suiv.) en attribue l'invention

a ROGER BACON; POTONNIEE est moins affirmatif: en presence des

textes de BACON, de WITELO, de GUILLAUME DE ST. CLOUD, et d'autres

tires de MSS. anonymes de la meme epoque, il ne peut se resoudre

La etablir la paternite de la trouvaille, et c'est fort sage, car elle pour- rait bien avoir plusieurs peres. Entre le XIIIe siiecle et LEONARD DE

VINCI qui le premier dit clairement que les objets exterieurs viennent se peindre dans la chambre : rien; deux siecles de silence sur la

chambre noire, deux siecles de silence vraisemblablement parce que nous n'avons pas encore retrouve les ecrivains qui en ont parle. Sont ensuite decrites les chambres noires, de plus en plus compli- quees, du xvIIe et du xvIIin siecle, puis les instruments et les pro- ce'des mecaniques imagines pour dessiner, agrandir ou diminuer, avec le plus d'exactitude possible : c'est ALBERT DURER qui le pre- mier construit une machine a dessiner, avec un point fixe servant de point de vue. On a voulu trouver chez le normand G. F. TIPHAI- GNE DE LA ROCHE (1729-1774), dans un petit volume intitule <Giphan- tie > (anagramme de TIPHAIGNE), date de 1761, et retrouve en 1846,

l'inventeur de la photographie; POTONNIEE cite les passages sur les-

to the tonic, cmarks a new conception, which admitted of being used for further development of the tonal degrees of the scale, even within the domain of purely homophonic music'. > I believe that the author has given ample proof of Muslim influence upon Europe- an music and of the great part played by English writers in the transmission of that influence. With respect to this, a final remark

may be quoted: ' England led the way in the world's musical cul- ture until the opening of the sixteenth century. One is inclined to ask how much the fame of Dunstable's school was due to the

advantages which the earlier English school took of the new Arabi- an musical science. > This paper is a very important addition to our knowledge of Muslim civilization. GEORGE SARTON.

Oeorges Potonnide. - Histoire de la decouverte de la photographie. 322 p gr. 80, 99 fig.. PAUL MONTEL, Paris, 1925.

Nous n'avions pas encore en France d'histoire de la decouverte de la photographie, mais seulement des histoires fragmentaires, des

ouvrages sur J. N. NIFPCE, des notices sur L. J. M. DAGUERRE, OU des resunms ouvrant les traites de photographie. C'est cette lacune qu'a voulu combler G. POTONNIEE avec un ouvrage important dont la

premiere partie seule vient de paraitre. L'auteur s'occupe d'abord (le la chambre noire, dont l'intervention est si souvent attribu6e A

J. B. PORTA ou a GALILIE, et il n'a pas de peine A montrer apr/s P. DUHEM, que la chambre noire etait connue au XIIle sicle : DUHEM (le Systeme du monde, t. 3, pp. 499 et suiv.) en attribue l'invention

a ROGER BACON; POTONNIEE est moins affirmatif: en presence des

textes de BACON, de WITELO, de GUILLAUME DE ST. CLOUD, et d'autres

tires de MSS. anonymes de la meme epoque, il ne peut se resoudre

La etablir la paternite de la trouvaille, et c'est fort sage, car elle pour- rait bien avoir plusieurs peres. Entre le XIIIe siiecle et LEONARD DE

VINCI qui le premier dit clairement que les objets exterieurs viennent se peindre dans la chambre : rien; deux siecles de silence sur la

chambre noire, deux siecles de silence vraisemblablement parce que nous n'avons pas encore retrouve les ecrivains qui en ont parle. Sont ensuite decrites les chambres noires, de plus en plus compli- quees, du xvIIe et du xvIIin siecle, puis les instruments et les pro- ce'des mecaniques imagines pour dessiner, agrandir ou diminuer, avec le plus d'exactitude possible : c'est ALBERT DURER qui le pre- mier construit une machine a dessiner, avec un point fixe servant de point de vue. On a voulu trouver chez le normand G. F. TIPHAI- GNE DE LA ROCHE (1729-1774), dans un petit volume intitule <Giphan- tie > (anagramme de TIPHAIGNE), date de 1761, et retrouve en 1846,

l'inventeur de la photographie; POTONNIEE cite les passages sur les-

511 511 REVIEWS REVIEWS

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