Intensive and Critical Care Nursing (2005) 21, 258—261

Clinical Research 6: Writing and research

Ruth Endacott ∗,1

La Trobe University/The Alfred Hospital Clinical School of Nursing, The Alfred Hospital,Melbourne, Australia

Accepted 19 May 2005

KEYWORDSResearch proposal;Grant writing;Publication;Research funding

Summary This six-part research series is aimed at clinicians who wish to developresearch skills, or who have a particular clinical problem that they think could beaddressed through research. The series aims to provide insight into the decisions thatresearchers make in the course of their work, and to also provide a foundation fordecisions that nurses may make in applying the findings of a study to practice in theirown Unit or Department. The series emphasises the practical issues encounteredwhen undertaking research in critical care settings; readers are encouraged to sourceresearch methodology textbooks for more detailed guidance on specific aspects ofthe research process.© 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

This paper provides an overview of four types ofwriting associated with research:

1. Proposal2. Funding submission3. Research report or thesis4. Academic publication

Particular emphasis is placed on funding submis-sions as this is often uncharted territory for clini-cians.

Central to all four of these is critical pre-sentation of other sources of evidence. A well-constructed literature review meets two criteria:

∗ Tel.: +61 3 5444 7814; fax: +61 3 5444 7777.E-mail address: R.Endacott@latrobe.edu.au.

1 Present address: P.O. Box 199, Bendigo, Vic. 3552, Australia.

first, the literature is used to build an argument(see Fig. 1) and second, it achieves an appropriatelevel of critique (see Fig. 2).

The literature review should provide a criticalreview of all variables to be investigated in thestudy and distinguishes what has been done fromwhat needs to be done.

Writing a proposal

The headings used for a research proposal varyaccording to purpose, for example, ethics commit-tees or funding bodies may provide a proforma thatmust be followed. In all cases, the focus of a pro-posal is to convince others that the work is neces-sary, soundly constructed and expects to generateoutcomes worthy of pursuing. Sample headings areprovided at Fig. 3.

0964-3397/$ — see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2005.05.006

Clinical Research 6: Writing and research 259

Figure 1 Building an argument through the literaturereview.

The following issues should be addressed whena proposal is constructed for ethics committeereview: autonomy, informed consent, anonymityand confidentiality, use of results, harm and risk,possible conflicts. Further discussion regarding eth-ical issues to be considered is found in an earlierpaper in this series (Endacott, 2004).

If considering undertaking a Ph.D., Universitiescommonly expect a proposal as part of the appli-cation process. This serves two purposes: to estab-lish the academic standard of the applicant and tomatch the proposed study to appropriate supervi-sors.

Seeking funding

A submission for funding would include an indica-tion of the track record of the applicant(s). Thedetail required depends on the level of funding,however, track record should include evidence of:

• previous management of studies at the samefunding level;

• previous work with co-applicants (grants or pub-

•

Figure 3 Standard headings for a proposal/protocol.

• outcomes from previous studies (publications);• indicators of esteem/international reputation(e.g., journal editorship, invited speaker at aninternational conference).

This latter criterion is essential for national com-petitive grant schemes where track record of theapplicants is a key component in the ranking pro-cess.

Four levels of funding are available: ‘in kind’funding, internal grants, small external grants andlarger external grants. The researcher’s employermay provide ‘in kind’ funding for early work (fundedtime, travel or consumables). Preliminary workis often funded at this level and can be usedto develop larger studies through: providing datafor sample size calculations; identifying researchquestions or developing the research intervention.Scholarships can also be useful for this stage ofresearch development.

Internal grants are often awarded for researchthat will have direct benefit for the organisationand your own workplace. Small external grants areoften targeted to specific priority areas and largerexternal grants are linked to government healthpc

in cr

lications);previous work by the applicants in the same field;

Figure 2 Typical language used

riorities or identified ‘problems’ in the healthare system. These larger grants place particular

itical presentation of literature.

260 R. Endacott

emphasis on the feasibility of the study and thelevel of ‘risk’ to be taken by the funding body.At this level of funding, evidence available frompreliminary work undertaken by the applicants iscrucial. This provides evidence of: credibility inthis field of research and the ability to manage,and publish from, funded research. Decisions aboutfunding at this level are usually dependent on: theprofile and track record of the chief investigator,the research topic/significance and the feasibilityof the study.

Before applying for funding, it is essential toidentify what type of research has been previouslyfunded and submission guidelines. These vary enor-mously in the level of detail required, and notnecessarily in relation to the size of the grant.Reviewers will often be lay people with no back-ground in health care, particularly for the smallerphilanthropic trusts. It is also important to identifythe expectations of the funding body for outcomes(results) and outputs (for example, a clinical guide-line or protocol for implementation in other areas).

Research report or thesis

theory, a methodology paper (if you’ve successfullyadapted a method to suit a particular situation) anda results paper. However, it is important to avoidthe ‘salami slicing’ sometimes seen in academicjournals.

Collaborative writing with other authors is themost common approach; research is rarely under-taken by a person alone, even for academic studies.Conventions about supervisors co-authoring papersvary from institution to institution. In general, thisis a more common expectation in Australia than inthe UK. Writing as a team inevitably takes longerand needs agreement between the authors at theoutset. Excellent advice regarding writing papers isfound in Street and Higgs (2005) and also on theJournal of Advanced Nursing website, much of thisadvice applies regardless of the journal to whichyou will submit.

Much advice regarding conference postersechoes that of any publication (for example, fol-low the author guidelines, write in an appropriatestyle for the audience). In addition, presentationaspects need to be considered: the poster shouldbe legible from six feet away, in a typeface thatit easily read, organisation is crucial—–is it clear in

Findings of research are often written in the form ofa formal report for the funding body. The expectedformat may not be advised by the funding body,however, it is important to clarify whether theresearchers are required to make recommendations(this is not required by some government bodies).Regardless of format it is good practice to providean executive summary—–this should make sense onits own. Also be aware that your report may be putonto the website of the funding body.

Those writing a thesis will no doubt be aware ofthe many texts available (for example, Rudestamand Newton, 2000; Phillips and Pugh, 2000) and willhave the advantage of guidance from an academicsupervisor. A useful overview of the characteristicsof academic writing can be found at Higgs et al.(2005).

Writing for publication

There are many papers and whole textbooksdevoted to this topic. Underlying principles are to:identify what your message is and who you needto communicate it to; select an appropriate jour-nal; carefully review the guidelines for authors andprevious papers submitted to the journal. Someresearch studies can justifiably result in more thanone publication, for example, a paper regarding

which order the information is to be read? Contentsshould be absorbed in 5min and the main messageshould be obvious. More detailed advice regardingposter design is provided by Gray (1995) and Hayand Sefton (2005). Conferences increasingly includea poster presentation session; consider how you canmost effectively use a 5-min oral presentation.

Other types of writing encountered in researchinclude media releases—–either when the grant isawarded or on completion of the study. It is wise toseek approval from the funding body prior to anymedia activity.

Each of the above writing adventures requiresclear and concise use of the English language. Auseful website with resources for those writingin English as a second language can be foundat http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl(accessed on 20 April 2005).

Conclusions

The most ground-breaking research can falter atthe writing stage, resulting in funding being denied,prolonged discussion with ethics committees andrejected publications. These can (and do!) happento the most experienced researchers, however, theadvice contained in this paper may help you getstarted. Remember also that you have an ethicalobligation to disseminate research results via pub-lication or conference presentation.

Clinical Research 6: Writing and research 261

References

Endacott R. Clinical Research 2: legal and ethical issues inresearch. Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2004;20(5):313—5.

Gray M. Giving a poster presentation; a personal view. NurseResearch 1995;3(1):74—81.

Hay I, Sefton A. Preparing posters. In: Higgs J, Sefton A, Street A,McAllister L, Hay I, editors. Communicating in the health andsocial sciences. Melbourne: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Higgs J, McAllister L, Rosenthal J. Learning academic writing.In: Higgs J, Sefton A, Street A, McAllister L, Hay I, editors.

Communicating in the health and social sciences. Melbourne:Oxford University Press; 2005.

Phillips EM, Pugh DS. How to get a Ph.D.: a handbook forstudents and their supervisors. 3rd ed. Buckingham: OUP;2000.

Rudestam KE, Newton RR. Surviving your dissertation: a guide tocontent and process. 2nd ed. California: Sage; 2000.

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