All over the world, people have noticed changes in local weather patterns. Some areas are experiencing more frequent and violent storms. Other areas are experiencing shorter and warmer winters. Others are going through longer droughts. Since the 1950s, there has been a huge increase in the number of dust storms worldwide. Climate change will have major impacts on people and settlements.

WARMER TEMPERATURESEarth’s average temperature is increasing. A warming climate can create an extended growing season for farmers in the mid-latitudes (latitudes that are 30 to 60 degrees north or south of the equator). Some areas can grow different food species. For example, in the past, farmers on the Canadian Prairies were not able to grow corn because the climate was not warm enough. Now, with warmer temperatures and a longer growing season, many farmers are able to grow new types of crops (Figure 2.14).

Warmer temperatures may allow more settlements farther north in Canada, Europe, and Russia. The increase in temperature may make transportation easier in places that are frozen most of the time, such as western Siberia in Russia. This may result in more people deciding to settle there. Warmer temperatures may also make transportation more challenging in places that rely on ice roads, such as human-made roads on lakes and rivers in cold regions.

Warmer climates farther north and south may also mean that employment opportunities could change. There may also be less skiing and more golf, longer seasons for people to camp outdoors, and more tourists. How do you think this will affect settlement patterns?

HOW IS

CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECTING SETTLEMENTS?

FIGURE 2.14 Climate change has made it possible to grow corn on the Canadian Prairies. Corn farmers may eventually move farther north in Canada.

FIGURE 2.15 Climate change will affect the amount of precipitation around the world. Some places will receive more heavy rain in a shorter time. More precipitation will be rain rather than snow.

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEANINDIAN

OCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

ASIA

AFRICA

ANTARCTICA

EUROPENORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AUSTRALIA

0˚30˚W60˚W90˚W150˚W 120˚W 30˚E 60˚E 90˚E 120˚E 150˚E 180˚180˚

0˚30˚W60˚W90˚W150˚W 120˚W 30˚E 60˚E 90˚E 120˚E 150˚E 180˚180˚

60˚N

30˚N

0˚

30˚S

60˚S

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30˚S

0˚

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Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

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N

2000 km0

0.50.40.30.20.10−0.1−0.2−0.3−0.4−0.5

Changes in Precipitation, in millimetres per day

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Figure Number C02-F05-G08SB

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Adapted from the PDF version of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis (Full Report) at http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_wg1_report_the_physical_science_basis.htm

(p.769) - permission and attribution may be requiredColors changed to match specs when possibleCoastlines and shorelines are 0.35 pt., 90%K, labels are either black or white to preserve legibility

CHANGING PRECIPITATION PATTERNSClimate scientists predict that the global climate will become much wetter overall. The map in Figure 2.15 shows the changes in precipitation that are expected across the world by 2099. The map is based on a climate model, which uses climate data collected over years to predict patterns. In this map, the areas coloured blue are expected to get more precipitation. The areas coloured red and yellow are expected to get less precipitation.

An increase in precipitation may either hurt or help agriculture, depending on when and where it happens. However, some areas may undergo a decrease in temperature, leading to less precipitation. Less precipitation increases the risk of drought and, potentially, desertification.

Climate scientists believe that southern Europe, for example, will get much less annual precipitation. You can see this in the map in Figure 2.15—darker yellow indicates that climate scientists predict less precipitation per day for this area. Italy, southern France, and Spain currently have hot, dry summers and warm, wetter winters. If those climates become drier, Mediterranean vegetation and agriculture could be affected. Industries built around grapes and olives, which rely on the Mediterranean climate, could suffer.

Note that climate models are always changing. It is difficult to predict what will occur due to the complexity of the different systems. Climate scientists constantly update their models using the latest climate data.

climate model a mathematical representation of Earth’s atmosphere, ocean, and physical processes, often displayed in a map

How will changes in precipitation affect settlements that are near mountains and

rivers?

Predicted Changes in Precipitation by 2099

0.50.40.30.20.10−0.1−0.2−0.3−0.4−0.5

Changes in Precipitation, in millimetres per day

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Figure Number C02-F05leg-G08SB

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I wonder if Canadian farmers will move to new areas as a result of climate change?

58 UNIT 1: Global Settlement: Patterns and Sustainability CHAPTER 2: Settlements and the Environment 59NEL NEL

RISING SEA LEVELSGlobal sea levels have risen 3.2 mm each year since around 1994. This rise is twice as fast as in the previous 80 years, and the trend is expected to continue. Sea levels are rising for two main reasons:• When ocean water becomes warmer, it expands, increasing in volume.• Ocean ice and glaciers, including the ice caps on Greenland and

Antarctica, are melting.

INCREASED FLOODING Climate scientists predict a rise of 1 m in sea levels by 2100. However, this prediction does not include all the water from melting ice caps in Greenland and Antarctica, which could add many more metres. As sea levels rise, the cities on coastlines will be affected—port lands, business districts, and residential areas will be flooded. About 600 million people live on ocean coasts that are less than 10 m above sea level. This could be disastrous for some settlements, especially in places such as Tuvalu, which you read about at the beginning of the chapter, and New Orleans.

LAND RECLAMATIONLand reclamation is the creation of new land in coastal areas by people. In some areas, settlements have been expanded through land reclamation. For example, Hong Kong, China, is densely populated with over 7 million people. About one-quarter of the developed areas of Hong Kong are built on reclaimed land (Figure 2.17). In Hong Kong and other places, these reclaimed lands are at or below sea level, so they are at serious risk from rising sea levels.

land reclamation the creation of new land in coastal areas by depositing materials such as sand, rock, concrete, and sometimes garbage in the water

FIGURE 2.16 When Hurricane Katrina struck, much of New Orleans was flooded.

FIGURE 2.17 An aerial view of a land reclamation project in Hong Kong, China.

MORE FREQUENT AND EXTREME STORMSThe number of severe and extreme storms has increased since the 1980s. Scientists think that climate change is the most likely cause. Coastal populations in lower-latitude countries are at greater risk because hurricanes form at lower latitudes. Hurricanes are strong storms with high-speed winds. Hurricanes are known as cyclones in the South Pacific and Indian Oceans and typhoons in the northwest Pacific Ocean.

Major storms can destroy settlements and people’s livelihoods. The high winds bring lots of water, which can lead to mudslides, landslides, and flooding in some areas. For example, nearly all of New Orleans, United States, is at or below sea level. When its levees (flood protection walls) were broken during Hurricane Katrina in 2005, much of the city was destroyed. Most of the flooded areas shown in Figure 2.16 are below sea level. After the hurricane, teams had to rebuild homes and the levees around the city.

As you have learned, climate scientists predict an overall increase in global precipitation. Increased precipitation could mean more and stronger storms in some areas. Cyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons can cover thousands of square kilometres. Typhoon Haiyan, which hit the Philippines in 2013, was the strongest typhoon on record, with winds over 300 km/h. More than 6000 people were killed. With more extreme storms and higher population densities, the risk of future damage to coastal settlements is high.

Communities can protect themselves from extreme weather by making changes to their homes, buildings, and communication plans. Many tropical areas have homes made from weak materials, such as thatch and poles, which are destroyed quickly in storms. By covering windows, using stronger building materials, and using early-warning systems and evacuation plans, many lives can be saved. Still, many countries cannot afford the costs of these strategies.

I wonder what will happen to New Orleans if hurricanes become more powerful?

I wonder how rising sea levels will affect settlement patterns in Hong Kong?

60 UNIT 1: Global Settlement: Patterns and Sustainability NEL CHAPTER 2: Settlements and the Environment 61NEL

A LAND-USE MAPWhen planning expansion in a city, the

city planners need to know how different

areas are going to be used. The planners

make land-use maps to help them

understand patterns of settlement. The

map in Figure 2.19 shows the dikes, newly

created land, water bodies, and major

roads in one area of the Netherlands.

Major roads are an example of land use.

In this activity, you will make a land-use

map using the satellite image of reclaimed

land in San Francisco, United States, in

Figure 2.20.

CREATINGLAND RECLAMATION IN THE NETHERLANDSOne country has a major concern with rising sea levels—the Netherlands. The Netherlands has a population of 16.8 million people in an area not much larger than southwestern Ontario. Approximately one-quarter of the land area is below sea level, with many homes as much as 7 m below sea level. For centuries, the Dutch have been reclaiming land and taking other steps to protect and expand settlement, for example, joining the town of Marken to the mainland by a levee, or dike (Figure 2.18).

They have been using a system of dams and dikes, as well as natural sand dunes, to successfully keep the North Sea out (Figure 2.19). The dams help control flooding. Dikes are used to protect against erosion. Similarly, natural sand dunes help protect the coastline and the communities that exist there.

The Netherlands is a shipping hub for Europe and the rest of the world. It is also an agricultural nation with an industrialized economy. However, if higher sea levels, combined with storms in the North Sea, flow over or break the dikes, much of the country will be flooded. There could be major loss of life. At the very least, millions of people may be forced to move. There is debate in the Netherlands about whether to spend money on raising the dikes for more protection. If the government chooses not to raise the dikes, they will have to find other ways to prevent flooding.

FIGURE 2.19 The reclaimed land in the Netherlands is protected by a 23 km outer dike called Afsluitdijk, which keeps the North Sea out. The reclaimed lands are called polders and are shaded green on this map.

FIGURE 2.20 Some of the debris left over from a major earthquake in 1906 was used in the reclamation of this area in San Francisco, United States.

FIGURE 2.18 The small town of Marken used to be on an island. In 1957, the Dutch built a dike and turned the island into a peninsula.

IJsselmeer

Markermeer

Wieringermeer

Noordoostpolder

Flevopolder

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Afsluitd

ijk

Houtreibdijk

Amsterdam

FRIESLAND

NORTHHOLLAND

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OL

AN

D

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9 km0

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Figure Number C02-F07-G08SB

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Attribution required: “© EuroGeographics. Original product is freely available at www.eurogeographics.org. Terms of the licence available at http://www.eurogeographics.org/form/topographic-data-eurogeographics”.

dikes

newly created land (polders)

existing land

major roads

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Figure Number C02-F07leg-G08SB

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I wonder how settlement in Marken changed when it was no longer an island?

STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

STEP 5

Place a blank piece of tracing paper over the image in Figure 2.20, or use an online map or digital image of your choice. Draw a border for your map.

Outline the major features on your map. Use the legend in Figure 2.19 to help you.

• Outline the area you are mapping.

• Add the bridges and major roads.

• Outline the settlements and other buildings.

• Outline any parks and natural areas.

• Outline other land uses you see.

Give your map a title.

HOW TO MAKE A LAND-USE MAP

Create a legend for your map. Assign a colour for each major land use. Classify the remaining land uses as “Other.”

STEP 4 Shade the outlined areas according to your legend.

FPOC02-P17-GO8SB

Reclaimed Land in Flevoland, the Netherlands

62 UNIT 1: Global Settlement: Patterns and Sustainability NEL 63NEL CHAPTER 2: Settlements and the Environment

Settlements built right on beaches are also at risk. On the Atlantic Ocean coast of Liberia, in Africa, coastal erosion is washing away thousands of homes. About 75 000 people live along the coast, mainly in tin roof homes (Figure 2.22). The sea level is gradually rising, and many people have lost their homes more than once.

Many risks to settlements are caused by climate change. The changing climate is also affecting where people choose to live. Individuals and governments need to take action to slow, and hopefully reverse, the processes associated with climate change that threaten human populations.

1. PATTERNS AND TRENDS Refer to the land-use map

you created using Figure 2.20. Which two land

uses cover the most area: residential, open space/

parks, transportation, or other? Describe the

pattern you see in the organization of the area

shown in the photo. What advantage is there in

the pattern?

2. GATHER AND ORGANIZE Identify the climate-change

threats covered in this chapter, and explain the

effects of each threat on settlements. Decide

how you will present your information.

3. PATTERNS AND TRENDS How might coastal

settlement patterns change with increasing

coastal erosion?

4. EVALUATE AND DRAW CONCLUSIONS In a presentation

format of your choice, show how one physical

process related to climate change may affect a

settlement in the future.

5. SPATIAL SIGNIFICANCE Describe how the area

where you live would change if it were affected

by climate change. Do you think people would be

more likely to move into or away from your area?

Explain your reasoning.

CHECK-IN

COASTAL EROSIONAs sea levels rise, and as storms become more frequent, more erosion can occur. Erosion is the gradual wearing away of Earth’s surface by wind, water, or movement of ice. The erosion of beaches and cliffs threatens people living along coastlines all over the world. Erosion may occur quickly or more slowly, depending on what the land is made of. Settlements can disappear in an instant—if soft cliffs erode, homes can fall into the water.

Many people like to live near coastlines for the view and to be close to the ocean. However, construction near shorelines can stop sand from building up on beaches that protect the shore. Settlements on bluffs and cliffs, such as the ones in California, United States, shown in Figure 2.21, have collapsed due to coastal erosion. In some areas, the beaches are eroding by several centimetres or even metres each year. Protecting beaches, cliffs, and bluffs can be expensive.

erosion the wearing away of Earth’s surface by wind, water, or glacial action

FIGURE 2.21 Many coastlines, such as this bluff in California, United States, are undergoing increased erosion and even collapse.

FIGURE 2.22 Many people live in homes like this on beaches in West Point, Liberia, because they cannot afford the rents in nearby Monrovia, the capital.

I wonder if building on a cliff is worth the risk?

I wonder what governments can do to help communities at risk from coastal erosion?

64 UNIT 1: Global Settlement: Patterns and Sustainability CHAPTER 2: Settlements and the Environment 65NEL NEL