climate change and us · major examples from chennai flood and recent kerala disaster making it...
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We t l a n d s
Climate Change and Us
World Wetland Day February 2, 2019
Ecosystem Acumen
IUCN CEM South Asia
Wetlands Day Special Edition
“Wetlands, Climate change and Us”
Special Edition Newsletter ‘Ecosystem Acumen” of
IUCN CEM South Asia on
World Wetlands Day, February 2, 2019
Issue on: February, 2, 2019
All copyrights © IUCN CEM South Asia
Dr. Madhav Karki, Deputy Chair,
IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management
Wetlands for Human Wellbeing
“Wetlands and Climate change” is the theme for World Wetlands Day in 2019. On this
occasion, on behalf of the IUCN CEM, South Asia let us raise awareness about the increasing
role of wetlands to address our regional, national and local challenges. Especially let’s increase
our understanding of how wetlands contribute to the future of sustainable and resilient human
communities in face of Climate change. Wetlands if managed well can reduce the impact of
flash floods, supply drinking water, filter waste, provide urban green spaces and act as a source
of livelihoods for poor. Fresh water Wetlands are not only sources of drinking water but they
are also support to other living beings and other ecosystems. These water bodies are needed
for both sustaining aquatic lives and meeting general needs for irrigation, recreation, water
sports and navigation and in recent years, as energy from the micro and macro hydro powers.
Many of these wetlands are also culturally significant ecosystems in South Asian context.
Many festivals and traditions can also be seen to be in sync with the seasonal cycle and changes
in the wetlands. In Nepal and India, more than 12 major religious celebrations and festivals are
connected to the wetlands and rivers. In the festival time, people go to wetland areas to: bathe,
collect water, worship, have cultural fairs on the river banks and preserve their traditions in
various ways. Many wetlands have been given the designation of Ramsar sites.
The main objectives and general requirements to remain as Ramsar site are as that the wetland
should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique
example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic
region; A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable,
endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities or if it
supports populations of plant and/or animal species crucial for maintaining the biological
diversity of that region. However, many of South Asia’s Ramsar sites are having many
environmental, social, economic and governance problems.
Due to increasing demand for water and other human pressure, the carrying capacity of
Wetlands is not adequate to adapt. This has led to huge changes in wetland ecosystem.
Various types of pollution are also affecting the Wetlands. Especially during religious festival,
FOREWORD
the paraphernalia used by the pilgrims to worship is dumped in the waters, the runoffs of
fertilizers and pesticides from the surrounding farms have also led to the wetlands becoming
much polluted. Wetlands are also increasingly being used for other purposes including
conversion into agricultural land which has led to decline of the biological diversity. We can
also see that vegetation growth has also dried up in many of the wetlands designated as
Ramsar sites. Wetlands also suffer from many invasive species of plants that are creating
serious problems by covering up the wetlands. Furthermore, due to the release of alien invasive
species of fish, the local species of fish are being replaced or wiped out completely. Due to
land encroachment, wetland regions are being lost. People have started converting the wetlands
building houses, roads and doing other activities. Soil erosion and floods have become
extremely harmful to wetlands of South Asia. Heavy siltation is causing drying of the wetlands
due to the annual deposition of pebbles, sand and soil mixture following with the incoming
flood water from the surrounding eroded catchments, true in the high altitude Himalayan as
well lowland lakes. Siltation and pollution are becoming a real threat to Ramsar sites.
Climate change is creating havoc in health of these Wetlands, which are unable today to
absorb and remain resilient to flash and seasonal floods and landslides due to increasing
frequency of intense natural disasters and abnormal amounts of water in-flow as run-off. All
indicators of problems for the wetlands arise from unsustainable catchment management.
While wetlands are crucial for climate change adaptations, due to climate change and rapid
glacier melting, many wetlands are being created as well which rather pose hazardous due to
the possibility of glacial lake outburst floods or GLOFs. These emerging wetlands are in
urgent need of new kind of management in today’s climate change context.
Photo: Oindrila Basu
Dr. Madhav Karki is Executive Director at CGED-Nepal
He is the Deputy Chair, IUCN/Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM)
He is a Member in Multidisciplinary Expert Panel (MEP), IPBES/UN and
Member in IPBES Task Force on Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK TF)
He is Expert Member, Environment Protection Council, Govt. of Nepal
Message from Dr. Shalini Dhyani
Regional Chair, IUCN CEM South Asia
On World Wetland Day, 2019
The South Asia CEM and as members of IUCN Commission
on Ecosystem Management, we have been putting huge emphasis
on awareness on ecosystem conservation and ‘Wetlands’ being
crucial for healthy environment. We planned this special issue of
our Newsletter dedicated to Wetlands and also to the
champions of Wetlands. The idea is to not only sensitize you but will also give you a reason to
look around the Wetlands, understand their ecosystem, constraints and pressures. The entire
planet and humanity is going through a phase where degradation of ecosystems and nature has
been well observed and are at a very rapid pace due to different climatic and mostly non
climatic/anthropogenic drivers. Loss of ecosystems and ecosystem services, that are precious for
our survival are being severely affecting the socio-economic wellbeing of the human community.
Water is one of the vital requirements for all and Wetlands secure our vitality. They play a very
strategic role by providing provisioning, regulating, supporting and also significant cultural
services. These Wetlands are also habitat to many flagship, keystone and threatened species.
Recharging the aquifers and securing ground water, providing surface water, controlling storm
water, reducing heat islands and improving microclimate are some highly significant functions of
wetlands and much needed benefits of ours, that we will be requiring more in changing climatic
conditions, in the era of growing urbanization.
South Asia is home to many Wetlands including almost 47 important RAMSAR Wetlands
located in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Bhutan and Maldives. The economic benefits from
Wetlands are immense. Kolkata locals getting cheap vegetable and fishes in the metropolis are
hugely because of East Kolkata Wetland, a significant Wetland area, used to treat waste water
and providing livelihood to thousands. I am sure, there are several such examples we get to hear
from people in different cities and smaller towns. South Asia has undergone many urban disasters
that were result of human negligence and ignorance towards Wetlands. In last few decades these
unique ecosystems across the entire South Asia have been shrinking due to human encroachment.
Their pollution are resulting in loss of ecosystem services that earlier supported human well-
being. Deterioration of these Wetlands has led to loss of many species and has monstrously
affected the ecology and arrival of migratory birds in many Asian Wetlands. Encroachment of
CEM South Asia and Wetlands
Wetlands for infrastructure development in last few decades has led to many disasters, with
major examples from Chennai flood and recent Kerala disaster making it very clear. On the other
hand, Climate change, coupled with anthropogenic interferences, is affecting these Wetlands with
infestation of invasive species and deterioration of water quality to large extent.
In the changing world Wetlands have a very significant role by helping to adapt and mitigate the
impacts of climate change, if they are protected and managed strategically. They are huge sinks of
carbon and can help protecting biodiversity and supporting human well-being. Red list or
Montreux Record for the Wetlands by RAMSAR is a register of Wetland sites, that are listed as
Wetlands of International Importance, where changes in the ecological characters of the wetlands
are being continuously observed, which are happening, or may happen due to different
technological developments, pollution or other anthropogenic disturbances
.
Presently, Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan and Loktak Lake, Manipur in India are in this list.
Both these Wetlands are sensitive ecosystems and habitat to many threatened birds and dancing
deer respectively. Chilika Lake has been removed in 2002 because of efforts by government and
local communities after improved conditions of the lake. Chilika lake also happens to be the first
Ramsar site in Asia that was removed from the Montreux record, with growing interest and
concern of not only scientists but also local communities who are now understanding the
importance of Wetlands.
On this Wetland day with the theme on climate change, it is required that acknowledge the role
of these Wetlands in changing climate conditions and also their role in adapting and mitigating
climate change and efficiently reducing disaster intensity that we will face due to increasing
frequency of extreme weather conditions. We have a reason to act more at local level generating
awareness to address and realise SDG, Aichi Targets 2050, Bonn Convention and also Sendai
Framework of DRR. Most of these international agreements are based on local actions and have
a clear interlinkage with Nature based Solutions, EbA and EcoDRR.
Our CEM members are our ambassadors who are leading conserving efforts for different
ecosystems. I would especially higlight and thank our Wetland Champion Mr. Xavier Benedict
who is working for the conservation of Pulicat Lake in down south and his efforts are praise
worthy. His dedication on ground is sensitizing people and also helping to train next generation
of leaders in Wetland conservation so, more power to him and many more leaders of Wetland
conservation in the region.
With this, I wish you all a very happy reading.
And please do write to us your feedback and comments !!
Dr. Shalini Dhyani is Scientist in Critical Zone Group,
Water Technology and Management Division, CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur, INDIA
She is Chair, IUCN CEM South Asia
She is Lead Author IPBES 2(b), and also an Expert in UNDP B-ES Network
Photo: Oindrila Basu
Message from Wetland Specialist
Dr. Ritesh Kumar
on World Wetlands Day, 2019
Geetings from Dr. Sonali Ghosh,
renowned conservationist and
Indian Forest Service Official
Messages from experts
Wetlands and Climate Change
Wetland Specialist Dr Ritesh Kumar
Speaks for this World Wetland Day, February, 2019
2 February of each year is celebrated as World Wetlands Day to mark the date of adoption of
the Convention on Wetlands, also called the Ramsar Convention. The Ramsar Convention is
an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international
cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The Convention
was adopted in 1971 at the Iranian City of Ramsar. India is a party to the Convention since
1982 and committed to the Ramsar approach of wise use of wetlands.
The 2019 theme for World Wetlands Day – Wetlands and Climate Change brings to fore the
essential role wetlands have in mitigating climate change as well as assisting humanity in
adapting to the climate change impacts.
India is endowed with a rich diversity of wetlands. The country’s wetlands range from high
altitude lakes in the Himalayas, marshes and swamps in the Terai, floodplains and ox-bows in
the Gangetic–Brahmaputra alluvial plains, saline flats in the Great Indian Desert, tanks and
reservoirs in the Deccan region and extensive mangrove marshes and coral reef areas interspersed
along the country’s over 8,000 km long coastline. These ecosystems range in areas from small
village ponds (having areas less than an acre) to large lagoons such as Chilika and Vembanad
backwaters having an expanse of over a thousand square kilometres. The 2011 National
Wetland Atlas, places the national extent of wetlands as 15.26 million ha, equivalent to 4.63
percent of the country’s geographical area.
Wetlands help in the mitigation of climate change by acting as natural carbon sinks. They are
touted to contain as much as 12% of the global carbon pool and play an essential role in the
global carbon cycle. Coastal wetlands – mangroves, tidal mudflats, seagrass beds, famed as “blue
carbon ecosystems” act as significant carbon sinks. Seagrass beds are known to sequester up to
10 per cent of all ocean sequestered carbon annually. Coastal wetlands have an essential role in
reducing the vulnerability of communities to rising seas and coastal hazards, through their role
in sediment capture, vertical accretion, erosion reduction and wave attenuation.
Wetlands underpin societal wellbeing in a number of ways, yet are under threat from a range of
anthropogenic and non–anthropogenic drivers and pressures. As public goods, a large category
of wetland ecosystem services and biodiversity values are not factored in decision-making,
thereby resulting in wetlands being converted for alternate uses. As per estimates of Wetlands
International South Asia, nearly 30% of natural wetlands have been lost in the last three decades
alone. The resultant losses in ecosystem services and biodiversity have direct economic
consequences, which are unfortunately underestimated. Declining water availability, increasing
floods and droughts, stresses on wetland-dependent livelihoods, reduced landscape aesthetics
and declining diversity of wetlands dependent species are consequences of wetlands loss and
degradation. As wetlands degrade, their capacity to mitigate climate change and support
adaption goals is also compromised.
Mainstreaming full range of wetlands ecosystem services and biodiversity into developmental
policy and planning processes, including climate change is the pressing need of the hour. The
multiple benefits and services provided by wetlands are essential in achieving the ambitious
agenda to effectively respond to climate change impacts as set by Paris Agreement, and eradicate
poverty and achieve sustainable development as set by 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development Goals.
Dr. Ritesh Kumar is a Natural resource economist with long experience in Wetland ecosystem.
He is the Conservation Program Manager at Wetlands International South Asia and also an
IPBES Lead Author.
Photo: Oindrila Basu
The World Wetland Day
Sonali Ghosh
The world wetlands day is around the corner. It brings me back
to beautiful memories of field days as a Divisional Forest
Officer in Assam, a state blessed with numerous waterbodies
that come alive with a riot of winged visitors.
I recall, the voluntary initiatives colours in the form of fresh water lily blooms upon
water or in the many sunlit and shadowy images of our sprightly taken up by small
NGOs and local colleges that encouraged the young school and college students to pick
up their binocular and bird lists and gear up for a day long vigil in country boats for
conducting the annual Asian Water bird census. This is a joint collaborative activity (as
coordinated by Bombay Natural History Society and Wetlands International) that has
generated exhaustive datasets of migratory and resident water birds in the country for
many years now.
While the conservation benefits of such as massive ‘crowd-sourced’ initiative is beyond
doubts, the fact that such exercises have helped create a cadre of young researchers and
nature lovers has been an exemplary after-effect.
Let the wetlands be commemorated as a collective conscience of humanity towards
protecting its wild flora and fauna. Let this day be celebrated in all its splendour of
respecting our water sources, the cultural and aesthetic values that help its sustenance.
Photo Credit: Shri Arnab Bose, Nature’s Foster NGO, Bongaigaon Assam
Author’s photo: Sanctuary Asia.
Dr. Sonali Ghosh is an IFS officer, working tirelessly for
conservation of ecosystems and nature.
Wetlands are “Kidneys of Earth”!! Just as the intricate network of nephrons filter out the unwanted materials from the human organ system, wetlands, with their labyrinth of streams, above and under the ground, serve as the most efficient systems to cleanse the hydrological cycle off the pernicious ingredients running down from the anthropogenic and biotic interface of the ecosystem.
These wetlands, complex ecosystems with intimate interaction between the abiotic and biotic components further act as cushions to the human – ecosystem from various natural hazards which otherwise have long-lasting impacts. So many living organisms are dependent on these wetlands, for their food, cover, water and habitat.
Wetlands can be vulnerable to climate change, being impeded by changes in temperature, rainfall, sea level rise and extreme events. Wetlands also play a major role in capturing and storing carbon, in a much higher rate than other ecosystems.
They serve a great deal in our approach to climate change mitigation and adaptation, through reducing atmospheric greenhouse gases, and providing resilience to hazards such as flooding, storm surge and sea level rise.
These beautiful landscapes are Never “WASTE LANDS”. It is our lack of awareness, education, to undermine their enormous values. Humans have done more damage to the wetlands than climate change could.
It is time that we act. It is time we no more keep our wetlands powerless against Climate change. It is our turn to back them up who always stand by us. Let the scientific knowledge spread out to all. Let us act together to keep our wetlands.
Nepal shows us the way as Centre for Green Economy Development, Nepal under
the leadership of Subash Karki has developed a Video for undertaking a month long
campaign on raising public - especially youth - awareness about the wetlands.
Here goes the link https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=-U1OeNKBzHQ
Let us too follow the footsteps, “Think Global, Act Local”.
Editor’s Note
Wetland Stories
Wetlands harbour lives, directly and indirectly.
Their ecosystem services are Key to Sustainability.
Dr. Anil Kumar Gupta emphasizes on the values of
these essential ecosystems
Dr. Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi
& Shashwat Gupta
Bring Climate change’s message to us
from COP24, Katowice
What is the status of our Wetlands amidst
Climate Change scenario? Dr. Deepu Sivadas notes on resilience of our wetlands
Wetland Stories
The Kidney of Indian city Kolkata,
a Ramsar site, the East Kolkata Wetland is
losing out to human greed
Dr. Jyotirmay Shankar Deb questions its future
A unique back-water lake, with long history,
the second largest lake of India
Dr. Xavier Benedict writes about
The Pulicat lake.
The UNESCO World Heritage Wetland
Sunderban Mangroves, are dwindling under
anthropogenic pressure and Climate Change.
Dr. Abhijit Mitra emphasizing on their Carbon
Scrubbing abilities suggests restoration
opportunities
Unawareness, Greed, Climate Change Vs
Scientific education & Ecosystem based management
The onus is on us to decide the fate of mangroves which may not see the next century
Oindrila Basu voices the environmentalists’ fear
Reaping the Values of Wetland Ecosystems For Green - Disaster Free Growth
Anil Kumar Gupta
Recent times witness great dichotomies in this living world. The transit generations we belong to witnessed greatest technological evolutions and revolutions in almost all sectors. On the contrary, the world is facing continuous economic slowdown past two decades or so. It brings critical questions on our developmental approaches particularly while we want to achieve happiness for each (i.e. SDGs) along achieving climate change free and disaster safe world. The
caution “ecological slowdown” – less emphasized, less understood, less valued, but cause of increasing complex miseries. Disasters especially the ones related with flash flood, urban flooding, landslides, droughts, storms and also the associated conflicts faced especially by the developing and smaller nations call for mainstreaming ‘ecosystem services’ concept in their developmental processes. How the sectoral plans and national / sub-national flagship programmes or schemes of employment, skill development, education and disaster risk reduction can utilize wetland benefits? is the current task on the table. There is huge scope of harnessing wetland benefits in strides of national goals of resilient agriculture along doubling farmer’s income, smart city
We know the wetlands as our kidneys of the cities but we tend to devalue their significance for our own sustainability. Loss of wetlands and its allied ecosystems especially in urban and per-urban areas has been un-countered in India in the wake of past urbanization pace and real estate boom. Series of major urban and peri-urban flooding like the recent ones – Srinagar, Chennai, Guwahati, call for systematic approach to land-use and developmental planning integrating ecosystem values and functions as core component of green growth strategies for disaster safe and climate resilient programme, skill India programme, Clean India mission, etc. but the challenge lies due to huge capacity gaps especially at sub-national and local levels.
Let this world wetland day, we take the mission in hand to make each and every one of us knowing our wetlands in our own vicinities and grasp on their benefits.
Dr. Anil Kumar Gupta is Head of the Division of
Environment, Climate and DRM,
In-Charge – National / International Cooperation,
Advisory Services,
Ministry of Home Affairs,
National Institute of Disaster Management, New
Delhi, India
Religious and Spiritual Values of Rivers: A glimpse of river Ganga being worshipped by local communities
Photo: Dr. Shalini Dhyani
Mine voids fill with rain water are important wetlands providing significant ecosystem services
Photo: Dr. Shalini Dhyani
Services by our Wetlands
Let’s move forward
– A message from COP24 at Katowice
Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi and Shashwat Gupta,
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Birla
Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, K K Birla
Goa Campus, Goa, India write
Towards the end of the year 2015, 196 parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change negotiated a new global Climate Change
Agreement for the period 2020 to 2030, popularly known as the Paris Agreement (PA). PA
adopted an ambitious goal of holding global warming to below 2°C and further, for the first
time, agreed to pursue efforts to limit warming at 1.5°C. This landmark global climate
Agreement received mixed response from global leaders, scientists and practitioners. The UN
Secretary General hailed it as a “Monumental triumph for the Earth”, and President Obama
termed it as the “best chance to saving the planet”. Professor James Hansen, a prominent
climate scientist on the other hand described the Agreement as “worthless words,…. with no
action, just promises”, one of the foremost climate advocacy groups in India Centre for Science
and Environment too described the Agreement to be “weak and unambitious”. In the heart of
these assessments lay the realisation that the PA indeed was a historic effort and an opportunity
where countries announced voluntary emission reduction commitments, across geographic and
annex divides. Different science based assessments concluded that as a result of PA GHG
emission projections for the 21st century are significantly lower compared to the Business as
usual. However, on the downside many scientific assessments too pointed to the fact that the
country commitments as submitted in the run-up to the Paris Agreement are not enough to
meet the stated goal of the Agreement i.e. limiting warming below 2°C, and are indeed on the
course to take the global temperature rise to 3°C (at 66% probability). One of the assessments
carried out by our team and published by the Financial Times, London (Figure 1) in the run-up
to the Paris Conference concluded, that the emission reduction commitments made in the run-
up to the Paris Agreement put the world on a risk where the average global temperatures may
rise by up to 4°C in 2100 (at lesser probabilities).
Forest and land-use sector has a large role to play in the global climate change mitigation
efforts, as forests store carbon in biomass, and are also capable of absorbing CO2 from the
atmosphere with the growth of trees and forests. A recent study published in the Journal Nature
Climate Change concluded that forest sector contributed to about 25% of the total emission
reduction commitments of the PA. It further reported that out of the total emission reduction
commitments of 15.8 GtCO2e at the PA, the Forest sector commitments contribute to a total
saving of 3.8GtCO2e in terms of emission per year in 2030.
Fig !: Projections of global temperature rise towards the end of the 21st century, while considering the country
commitments as agreed at the PA (based on Chaturvedi and Woods 2015)
Coastal Forest Ecosystem, Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
Coming after three years of the Paris Agreement, conference of parties to the UNFCCC
(COP24) at Katowice carried the heavy burden of global environmental expectations. COP24
at Katowice was supposed to write down the rule book for operationalization of the Paris
Agreement which comes into effect from next year, i.e. 2020. Katowice meeting was also
supposed to find ways to entice parties to step-up and enhance their climate mitigation
ambitions so as to bridge the gap to the goal of limiting warming below 2°C.
Operationalizing Paris Agreement required clear rules for measuring, reporting and verification
(MRV) of emission reduction commitments from the parties to UNFCCC. One of the key
achievements at Katowice meeting has been the evolution of understanding and agreement
around MRV related issues that are critical to put the Paris Agreement in to Practice. This
outcome was aptly summed up by the tagline that we did make progress at Katowice and “we
can move forward now”. However, discussions on the rule book for the forests, and land-use
sector ran in to rough weather as doubts were raised over possible double counting of carbon
credits from forest sinks. In a setback, discussions on forest carbon sinks and how to standardise
the monitoring, reporting and verification of these mitigation measure has been deferred to the
next year.
However, for concerned
environmentalists what has been
the most disappointing is the
fact that no further emission
reduction commitments are
announced at Katowice. Since
the Paris Agreement, the United
States (US), second top GHG
emitter in the World has walked
away from the Paris Agreement,
putting enormous strain on the
already weak global climate
agreement. While US
withdrawal has been hotly debated at different forums, there is another emerging issue that too
deserves our attention in context of global climate mitigation efforts. As discussed above,
emission reduction commitments from the forestry and land-use change sector account for
about 25% of the total emission reduction commitments at the PA. It is important to note that
much of the emission reduction commitments in the forest sector are coming from tropical
rainforest countries of Amazon rain forests, and South-east Asia. As the forest conservation
efforts falter in Brazil and elsewhere, it is an important and emerging question, whether we will
we be able to meet our forestry commitments, and this poses another major challenge to the PA
commitments.
The global mean temperatures have already risen by about 1°C. Even this level of warming is
already impacting the natural and production systems across the world. The recent report on
1.5°C by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that humanity have only
12 years left to limit ‘climate change catastrophe’. However, what surprises us is that still major
economies of the world are not serious about climate change issue. At the 24th meeting of the
parties of UNFCCC at Katowice, Brazil in an overt display of its climate scepticism, withdrawn
its offer to host next year’s talk. So long World leaders and global public do not realise the
urgency to act on climate change and other environmental issues, gains in meetings, workshops,
and conferences will be limited as exemplified by the COP24 outcomes in Katowice. However,
we need to move ahead and continue making efforts to make our world safe and green.
Dr. Rajiv Kumar Chaturvedi is Assistant Professor at BITS Pilani, KK Birla Campus, Goa
He is a core member of CEM and Co-Chair of Forestry Ecosystems Group at CEM-IUCN)
Wetlands and grasses are the provider of water to other ecosystems -Sholas, India. Photo: Oindrila Basu
One Day Brainstorming
Our planet is in dire need of a radical transition in our thinking
process how we interact with nature and biodiversity. We need
paradigm shift in our approach from sustainable development to
sustainable co-existence. Anthropogenic interferences leading to
biodiversity loss have polluted the air we inhale, water and
nutrition security, while affecting our ecosystems and finally to
climate. Real transformations to overcome these challenges will
only happen if science, technology, business, government, and
civil society works together in an approach that heals biodiversity
and nature by responsible conservation and restoration efforts.
CSIR-NEERI, Auditorium
4th February, 2019
10:00 am to 6:00 pm
Calling responsible people to search for the answer to
Biodiversity loss and climate change
Contact: Dr. Hemant J. Purohit, Chief Scientist and Head EGBD
Dr. Shalini Dhyani, Scientist, WTMD
Dr. Lal Singh, Scientist, EGBD
Email: [email protected]
ARE WETLANDS RESILIENT
What is the PRESENT STATUS
Deepu Sivadas takes a plunge to find out the answer
ealthy, natural wetlands are critical for human survival. Yet they face many
challenges. They include some of the world’s most productive ecosystems and
provide ecosystem services leading to countless benefits (MEA, 2005; Russi et al.,
2013). The Convention on Wetlands (the Ramsar Convention) is the only international legal
treaty primarily focused on wetlands, signed in 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar, which
entered into force in Switzerland on 16 May 1976 and presently with 170 Contracting Parties
and 2,336 Ramsar Sites with a total surface area of 251,749,767 ha. Ramsar Sites likely cover
13–18% of the global area of terrestrial and coastal wetlands, demonstrating considerable
commitment from Contracting Parties (Davidson & Finlayson, 2018). The importance of
wetlands in building resilient communities is emphasized in The Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction, noting their role in reducing flood risks and attenuating storm
damage.
Data on the extent,
distribution, and trends of
wetland types are still
incomplete. The most recent
estimate of global inland and
coastal wetland area is more
than 12.1 million km2. The
Global Biodiversity Outlook
(Convention on Biological Diversity, 2014), Global Land Outlook (UNCCD, 2017), Land
Degradation and Restoration Assessment (IPBES, 2018), Global Wetland Outlook (Ramsar
Convention on Wetlands, 2018) and The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (Russi
et al., 2013), had noted the loss and degradation of wetlands and the importance of wetlands
for ecosystem services and supporting local communities.
Wetland quality and quantity are continuing to decline, with immediate and long-term
impacts on biodiversity, and reduction of ecosystem services with adverse outcomes for human
livelihoods, such as through declining food and water security. Wetland Extent Trends
(WET) Index in 2017, shows a continuing progressive decline (UN WCMC, 2017). It
? H
Regional distribution (%) of wetland area (from Davidson et al. 2018)
suggests a decline of about 35% in both marine / coastal and inland natural wetland areas
studied between 1970 and 2015. The average annual rate of natural wetland loss estimated by
the WET Index is -0.78% a year; over three times faster than the average annual rate of loss of
natural forests (-0.24% a year).
Drivers of Wetland degradation: Wetlands continue to be lost and degraded through
drainage and conversion, the introduction of pollution and invasive species, extraction
activities, and other actions affecting the water quantity and frequency of flooding and drying.
Indirect drivers relating to the supply of energy, food, fibre, infrastructure, tourism, and
recreation also adds to this. Climate change is a direct and indirect driver of change.
Wetland-dependent species: Recent assessments support earlier analyses suggesting that many
populations of wetland-dependent species are in long-term decline and threatened with
extinction. Red List Index (RLI) trends are negative for all four-wetland dependent
taxonomic groups with available data (mammals, birds, amphibians, and corals), indicating
that species are increasingly moving towards extinction. 25% of inland wetland-dependent
species (of over
18,000 species
surveyed) are globally
threatened, with 6%
being Critically
Endangered. In the
Eastern Himalaya and
the Western Ghats
regions, threats to fish
are high (18% and
37% respectively) and
amphibians in the
Western Ghats
(41%), although
other taxa are less
threatened than in
Europe and Africa.
(Molur et al., 2011).
Water quality trends
Water quality trends are mostly negative. Major threats include untreated wastewater,
industrial waste, agricultural runoff, erosion and changes in sediment. Erosion transports 23-42
million tonnes of nitrogen and 15-26 million tonnes of phosphorus (FAO & ITPS, 2015). 25
to 40 billion tonnes of topsoil erode every year, mainly from farmland. Globally, nutrient
loading and eutrophication of wetlands remain the largest water quality challenges. Early
findings from the global water quality monitoring programme show severe pathogen pollution
already affects one-third of all river stretches in Latin America, Africa and Asia (UNEP, 2016).
For two decades loadings of fecal coliform bacteria have generally increased. Microbial
contamination of wetlands is a serious health risk (Santo Domingo et al., 2007), responsible for
diseases such as cholera and giardiasis (Horwitz et al., 2012).
Contaminants of emerging concern – pharmaceuticals, hormones, industrial chemicals, personal
care products, and many others – are continually evolving and often detected at concentrations
higher than expected (Sauve & Desrosiers, 2014). At least 5.25 trillion plastic particles,
weighing over 260,000 tonnes, are afloat in the world’s oceans (Eriksen et al., 2014). About
88% of reported incidents between biota and marine debris are associated with plastics (GEF,
2012); in the Mediterranean, plastic has been found in 18% of the stomachs of larger pelagic
predatory fish (Romeo et al., 2015), and microplastic pollution is increasing in many inland
systems such as the Great Lakes (Eriksen et al., 2013) and remote mountain wetlands (Free et
al., 2014).
Indian Scenario
India became a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention in 1981. The Chilika lagoon in
Orissa and the Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan are the first two wetlands designated as
Ramsar sites in 1981. Since then total 26 wetlands in the country have been designated as
Ramsar sites by 2012, together representing 2.64 % of the total area. The latest one in the
series is the Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary in Gujarat designated during 2012.
Vembanad - Kol Wetland of Kerala: The Vembanad-Kol wetland is a large complex aquatic
ecosystem covering 2.5% of the geographical area of Kerala State. With a total area of
1,51,250 sq. km is the largest Ramsar site declared in India. The wetland is typically divided
into two distinct segments, the freshwater dominant southern zone, and the salt-water dominant
northern zone. The wetland system functions as a receptacle to the monsoon flood flow. It is
estimated that such monsoon flows into the Vembanad lagoon vary from 10000 Mm3 to
18000 Mm3 and the lagoon protects the areas west of it from severe floods. The major
interventions in the river basins of the wetland systems are irrigation and hydroelectric schemes
and a network of roads with several bridges in the Kuttanad region, followed by the reclamation
of land for agriculture and plantation, pollution due to industrial effluents, agrochemicals,
sewage and over-extraction of the lime shell. Reclamation and bunding activities in the river
mouth are affecting the natural facility for breeding and migration of species. This wetland
serves as a vessel for the effluents of several industries and domestic sewage from the city of
Kochi and from many smaller towns.
Every year, 44,000 MT of liquid insecticides, weedicides, fungicides and chemical fertilizers
(21,000 MT) reach this wetland. The water quality in the lake, particularly in the southern
part of the lake and in the lead canals, appears to be too bad for supporting any useful flora and
fauna (Planning Commission, GoI report 2008). Vembanad is a world-renowned tourist
attraction of Kerala. Currently, the area is being overexploited in the form of tourism activities,
due to the added demand, many hotels and resorts are coming up newly without any care and
concern to the natural environment. The shrinkage of Vembanad Lake because of land
reclamation, has been the most important environmental consequence of various human
interventions. The water carrying capacity of the system is reported to have reduced to an
abysmal 0.6 km³ from 2.4 km³.
(Source: Global Wetland Outlook, 2018; National Wetland Atlas, 2013; Planning
Commission, GoI report, 2008)
Vembanad Lake, Allappuza, Kerala
Photo: Oindrila Basu
Author, Dr Deepu Sivadas, is an active member of IUCN
Commission on Ecosystem Management, South Asia. He is a Post-
Doctoral Fellow at Plant Systematics & Evolutionary Science Division
of Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute,
Thiruvananthapuram, India.
The Threats to our Lakes
Our Lakes are getting eutrophicated and infested with weeds: A serious state of concern of high altitude Dal Lake in Kashmir
Photo: Dr. Shalini Dhyani
Fractured and disturbed catchment area with intensive agriculture is a common story: A case of Khurpatal in Nainital, India
Photo: Dr. Shalini Dhyani
The East Kolkata Wetlands
a forgotten Ramsar Site?
Jyotirmoy Shankar Deb pays a tribute to Dr. Dhrubajyoti Ghosh, the Wetland Warrior of Kolkata
“I think I now know how to know ecology that saves people in
ecological distress.” – Dr. Dhrubajyoti Ghosh
Wetlands are the most threatened ecosystems in the world, nowadays.
Because, it can be easily converted to other type for our own requirement –
for agriculture, for aquaculture, for real estate, for so-called infrastructure
development, etc. Sometimes, the people can realize it, and most of the
times they can’t. Ecologists and Nature lovers have been struggling for
decades to save these ecosystems. The RAMSAR Convention(1971) has
framed the guidelines to protect the important wetlands around the world
by declaring “Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR sites)”;
India has 26 such sites till date. There are 115 wetlands in India which
have been identified as “National Wetlands”, including these 26 Ramsar
sites. East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) is the only Ramsar site (Site No.
1208) in the state of West Bengal that falls under Freshwater category.
This is the largest wetlands area (12,500 ha) in the world having both
freshwater and sewage-fed aquaculture ecosystems.
Almost 200 years ago, the British Authority of Kolkata (then Calcutta)
City planned to drain away the sewage of the city. Mr. William Clarck,
Chief Sanitary Engineer, prepared a detailed drainage scheme in the year
1853 to facilitate the plan. To carry out the removal of city wastes and
sewage water, the authority excavated some canals (Khals), and finally
those were connected to river Ganga. All these happened by the end of
1910. Successful commercial fish culture was started by a fish farmer in
the year 1929 in the low water bodies. After the Independence of India,
the whole area of this category became the center of attraction of the West
Bengal State Government to expand the Calcutta Metro towards its eastern
territory. Some water bodies became vanished permanently for
construction of Salt lake City and some were transformed into agricultural
fields. In the meantime
Dr. Dhrubajyoti Ghosh (1947-2018), a young engineer cum
ecologist accidentally discovered this wetland area as well as it’s
traditional ecosystem management practices, while doing a
survey in that area in early 1980s. He uncovered the sewage-fed
aquaculture system as well as natural freshwater recycling system
in that area during his first visit. He was the Chief Environment
Officer of West Bengal Government, and he had been fighting
for more than 3 decades to save this wetland till his last breath.
It is him, for whom this area has been declared as a Ramsar site.
At present there are more than 250 Bheris (large water bodies)
where sewage-fed aquaculture is practiced. The area is also rich
in some important floral and faunal biodiversity.
The sewage water comes from the Kolkata Metro city carrying
huge amount of organic foods with it. This water has a very
high BOD value due to the presence of nitrogen and phosphorous. This sewage water gets
treated in the fisheries here and returned back to the rivers through several canals away from the
wetlands. The sewage water comes through underground drainage system and reaches 6
pumping stations situated at the eastern territory of the city, nearby the wetlands area. Almost
80% of the BOD is decreased by the treatment. The heavy materials are deposited as sediment
on the bottoms. Hence, the sewage water becomes almost clean while expelled out from the
wetlands.
The organic pollution of the waste water is lowered down by the fish culture ponds. This is a
unique example of pollution control by natural process. The sewage fed aquaculture is practiced
here by using traditional methods.
Of the total East Kolkata Wetland area under
study, 47% is substantially water body area,
38% is agriculture area, 5% is garbage farming
area, and 10% comes under settlement area as
recorded in EKWMA record. The settlement
area is further divided into rural and urban
parts. But, the actual scenario is something
different from the record. The water body area
is less than the record, while the settlement area
is elevated from it’s earlier value. Specifically,
the urban settlement area is increasing day by
day at the cost of water body and rural
settlement areas.
Dr. Dhrubajyoti Ghosh (Photo credit: Tishwampati Ghosh)
Constructon by Plugging the East Kolkata Wetland,
Photo: Pravash Mallick; Source: Article on “Down to
Earth” by Tiasa Adhya, of HEAL, Kolkata
Threats to the East Kolkata Wetlands
1. Acquisition of bheri and land for infrastructure development:- The main threat of the East
Kolkata wetland area today, the acquisition of bheris and associated lands for so-called
infrastructure development purpose. The Government itself has already acquired hectares of
area for the same. A flyover is being planned to be constructed through the wetlands area which
will hamper the ecological balance of the area. Regular and sudden road expansion also acquires
some area concerned.
2. Acquisition/Utilization of water and/or land area for tourism or entertainment: - Some areas
had/are also been acquired for tourism, entertainment as construction of eco-park, guest house,
office building, Water Park etc. which in turn hampers the status of the wetland area.
3. Filling up of bheri area for agriculture purposes:- Some bheri areas are also being filled up
slowly to expand agricultural fields which is a major threat to the wetlands. This activity is
increasing day by day.
4. Illegal construction inside the wetlands:- Nowadays, a serious activity is found in the bheri
areas, in the form of real estate business. The bheris are filled up from the sides by garbage, soil
etc. and buildings are constructed by real estate mafias/ local musclemen. The land areas are
also acquired by private constructors to build high rises. Due to open areas surrounding the
buildings, the apartments are sold very fast at high price. This is the most serious threat to the
wetlands today.
It is evident from scientific studies that the EKW is essential for Kolkata city.
It is serving as the kidney of Kolkata. If it is gone, the people of Kolkata city
will be submerged under waste water. It is ecologically important for the
biosphere. We are already late. Let us do whatever is required to save this
area and fulfil the dream of it’s father, Dr. Dhrubajyoti Ghosh.
East Kolkata Wetlands Crippled by Pollution
Photo: Biswarup Ganguly, Source: Article by Sahana Ghosh in Scroll.in
Author, Prof. Jyotirmoy Shankar Deb, is an avid environmentalist. He is a Faculty of Zoology, Barasat College, Kolkata, India.
He is Member of IUCN CEC, CEM and SSC (Multiple Expert Groups)
Life Member,The Zoological Society, Kolkata.
Reviewer of Indian Journal of Fisheries, ICAR, Govt. of India.
Dr. Deb is a devoted disciple of Late Dr. Dhrubojyoti Ghosh and carrying forward his values.
ULICAT The Second Largest Waterbody of India
Writes Xavier Benedict Pulicat Lagoon is the second largest water body covering an area of 757 sq.km located on
North of Chennai is a testimony to living heritage integrating monsoon heritage and cultural
values of South India. The lagoon was divided by the road constructed to connect Sriharikota
island making the large landscape into a lake on the south and marshy land on the north.
Tamilnadu and coastal Andhra Pradesh come are the only region get rain from Northeast
Monsoon in India. Unlike the Western-Ghats, the South East coast of India has only wetlands
to attracts rain clouds. The historical data analysed by IIT-Khadagpur research proves that the
eye of cyclones in the last forty-five years had fallen on or closer to five important and largest
wetlands of the coast. It proves that the linkage between the health of the wetland and
sustainability of this part of India.
Pulicat Lagoon has a unique
environmental management system
followed by the local fishing
community for more than three
centuries called Paadu, meaning ‘to
share’. It is a traditional system
followed by the lagoon fishermen
for last several centuries of
granting entitlements to eligible
members to fish in certain
designated fishing grounds.
This rotational fishing right has
become an estuary environment
management system. The practice has protected the lagoon from all destructive intrusion by the
government or industrialization, showing the direct link between biodiversity, economic
activity, and vernacular sustainable management.
The lagoon is visited by more than eighty thousand winged migrants every winter-monsoon. As
per BNHS, there are more than seventy-three species of birds are sighted in the lake. The visit
of the birds is very important for the livelihoods of the fishermen. The algae formed from the
P
Migrants visiting Lake Pulicat, Source: www.conservationindia.org
droppings of the birds are food for fishes, prawns, and mud-crabs. According to the vernacular-
knowledge of inhabitants, a good rain season could be judged by the movement of winged
migrants. The pattern is easily identifiable from the early visitors called pilot-birds, who pass on
the information to large number migrants for post-monsoon period visit. This clearly makes a
link between birds, monsoon, lagoon, and livelihoods of inhabitants are directly and
proportionally related.
Pulicat is an anglicised word derived from azhaverkadu, which is a combination, three Tamil
words; பழை_ய Pazha=old, வே_ரக் ள் aver=root, காடு kadu=forest. Pulicat through
centuries was called in different names. The use of name ‘Pulicat’ is first recorded around the
time of the British acquisition of the place from the Dutch (1825AD). Over the centuries, the
place adopted various statuses as a city, port, territory, village, etc., with its corresponding
associate names. Pulicat Lagoon has been a centre of maritime trade for more than two
thousand years attracting traders from Burma (Myanmar) to Japan on the eastern side and
Arabs to Dutch on the western side of India. It is one of the very few water bodies to have
influenced history, culture, and lifestyle of this country. The Lagoon played an important role
in the creation of Madras [Chennai], which acted as the base for development of modern India.
Influence of Pulicat culture, language, textile, and food can be traced in South East Asian and
European countries due to its trade links.
The arrival of Arab traders expanded the popularity of cotton and its market since 8th CE
making this part of the country as the central to Cotton-Route of the world. The value of
textile trade in the whole of all European maritime trade was 70%, which is very significant for
any influence. Archival records show that more than 4500 ships passed through Pulicat between
16th to 18th century not only impacting the coastal region but also hinterlands. Gold was the
Lake Pulicat Photo Credit: B_Jothi Ramalingam, The Hindu (https://www.thehindu.com)
standard medium of exchange in this region for textile purchase. The word Palaykat [Pulicat],
as once called by the Portuguese and Dutch, later became conventional as description for fabric
quality. This popular textile exporting port became an international fashion trend. Palaykat as a
fabric is called sarong or lungi in South and South East Asia which are worn by women or men.
The handkerchief or bandanna in Mexico and South America is still called as Pallaecatta
[Pulicat] without knowing the origin of the material introduced by Spanish and Portuguese.
This famous fabric with a particular style of a pattern of weaving and dyeing is later
popularised by the British as Madras Checks.
The Pulicat lagoon shaping and protecting the Coromandel coast of India was once far ahead in
development. The trade and commerce along the Coromandel coast for centuries was forefront
in influencing India’s post-independence growth. The historical influence can be realized even
today. However, thus strong nature-culture linkages are destroyed by modernisation and
industrialisation. Siltation, not-place-based legislation, ports, industrial pollution, ports oil
spillage, encroachment, modern fishing methods, political influence, and aqua-farming have
drastically reduced the economic and environmental values of the lagoon. The natural shock
absorber is facing a very bleak future. It needs immediate attention by forming Pulicat
Conservation Authority.
The Author, Xavier Benedict, is an Architect by
Profession, Environmentalist by passion.
The Heritage Activist, involved in the conservation
of Pulicat Lagoon through his not-for-profit Trust
AARDE Foundation for over a decade is an active
IUCN CEM Member.
An ardent Academician – teaching at MIDAS
Architecture College, the author writes regularly in
Newspapers, Journals, and social media to spread
the scientific awareness among common people.
MANGROVES
Best Carbon
Storage Devices
Abhijit Mitra looks at
restoration possibilities in
Indian Sunderban Mangroves
Mangroves, one of the most productive plant communities, are dwindling globally from
anthropogenic degradation coupled with erratic climate picture. Sunderban, an archipelago of
islands, at the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta, shared by India and Bangladesh is home to
this specialised group of salt-tolerant plant communities capable of adapting in the tidal
environment. This UNESCO World Heritage site is the world’s single largest stretch of natural
mangrove ecosystem (Danda et al, 2011). The Indian Sunderbans with an area of approximately
4,250 sq. km (Chaudhuri & Choudhury, 1994; Mitra & Pal, 2002) contribute to 46.2% of the
total mangroves of India (FSI, 2015).
The mangrove forest famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigiris), is a vibrating
ecosystem rich in diverse mangrove vegetation. While Avicennia spp., Excoecaria agallocha,
Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Phoenix
paludosa (Mitra et al, 2004) are commonly found, the presence of threatened species Sonneratia
apetala, Heritiera fomes makes the ecosystem even more valuable. A total of 34 true mangrove
species have been recorded on studying only Indian Sundarbans.
Extreme anthropogenic disturbances in form of overexploitation and unchecked land use
changes to convert these wetlands for agriculture, shrimp aquaculture, salt extraction, urban
development and infrastructure, and diversion of freshwater for irrigation3 has led to extensive
loss of these ecosystems worldwide. Ninety percent of mangrove forests are found in developing
countries and are in verge of extinction in 26 countries due to overexploitation for ecosystem
goods and fragmentation due to huge developmental activities (Bhatt & Kathiresan, 2012). The
greatest human threat to mangroves is that they are often viewed as wastelands (Howard et al,
2014), a barrier to development and economy. Shrimp aquaculture, alone accounts for 20 to 50
percent mangrove losses worldwide5. According to (FAO, 2007), the global area under
mangroves decreased to 15.6 million hectares from 16.1 million hectares found in 1990. Bhatt
and Kathiresan (2012) reported that their depletion at the rate of 0.66% a year may lead to the
loss of the entire ecosystems within 100 years.
Sunderban Mangroves
Photo: Oindrila Basu
Source: Oindrila
Basu
These highly productive estuarine halophytes have carbon production rates equivalent to
tropical humid forests. Mangroves, with more intricate and specialised root system, sequester
more carbon below the soil, and have higher below- to above-ground carbon mass ratios than
found in terrestrial ecosystems. The soil organic carbon content in mangrove ecosystems have an
average of 937 t C per ha and these carbon-rich biomes account for 14% of carbon
sequestration by the global ocean (Alongi, 2012).
In an overpopulated agrarian country like India, lack of awareness and opportunity has been
taking toll on the health of the mangroves. Urbanisation in addition, increase commercial
activities and are leading to the rapid conversion of mangrove forests at the Sunderbans. The
Indian Sunderban mangrove forest, widely destroyed, is now largely confined to few islands
situated on the east of the Matla River (Scott, 1989). Mangrove restoration has become an
essential step to protect these islands from further adversities. To further instigate the
restoration activities, scientific studies have been emphasising on the carbon storage of the
Sunderban mangroves.
The current study documented the proportional carbon storage by the different dominant
species of mangroves over the Sunderban delta to study their role as carbon sink. The carbon
stocking ability of mangroves in a particular site depends on the relative abundance, biomass of
each species and the age of the vegetation. The interaction between edaphic, climate and
topographic factors of an area play a major role in Carbon sequestration of plants which
depends upon biomass production capacity.
The results of carbon stock in the
selected species shown species wise
carbon content are in the order of
Sonneratia apetala > Avicennia alba >
Avicennia marina > Excoecaria agallocha
> Avicennia officinalis.
Although Sonneratia has the highest
productivity, it is extremely vulnerable
under increasing salinity from rising sea
level due to climate change (Mitra et al,
2015). Avicennia, Excoecaria on the other hand would not be impeded by increasing salinity
(Alongi, 2015). Sonneratia hence must be considered to eco-restore the hypo-saline western
zones of Indian Sundarbans instead of hypersaline central zone (Mitra et al, 2015), which will
serve beneficial, both for the concerned species’ rehabilitation and conservation of Sunderban
mangrove ecosystem. Amidst the climate change scenario the current study, certainly reveals the
necessity and species suitability for mangrove plantation programmes to minimize atmospheric
carbon.
47.82
32.01 26.37
10.57 4.47
Sonneratiaapetala
Avicenniaalba
Avicenniamarina
Excoecariaagallocha
Avicenniaofficinalis
Total Carbon Stock (t/ha)
Total Carbon Stock (t/ha)
References: Alongi, D. (2012). Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Management, 3(3), 313–322.
Alongi, D. M. (2015, January 30). The Impact of Climate Change on Mangrove Forests. Curr Clim Change Rep, 1, 30–39.
Bann, C. (1998). The Economic Value of Mangroves: A Manual for Researchers. Singapore: Economy
and Environment Program for Southeast Asia.
Bhatt, J. R., & Kathiresan, K. (2012). Valuation, carbon sequestration potential and restoration of
mangrove ecosystems in India. Sharing Lessons on Mangrove Restoration Proceedings and a Call for Action from an MFF Regional Colloquium, (p. 19). Mamallapuram, India.
Chaudhuri, A., & Choudhury, A. (1994). Mangroves of the Sundarbans (Vol. 1). India: IUCN, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Danda, A., Sriskanthan, G., Ghosh, A., Bandyopadhyay, J., & Hazra, S. (2011). Indian Sundarbans Delta: A Vision. New Delhi: World Wide Fund for Nature-India.
Danda, A., Sriskanthan, G., Ghosh, A., Bandyopadhyay, J., & Hazra, S. (2011). Indian Sundarbans Delta: A Vision. New Delhi: World Wide Fund for Nature-India.
FAO. (2007). The world's mangroves 1980-2005. A thematic study prepared in the framework of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005,. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations.
FSI. (2015). India State Of Forest Report. Dehradun: Forest Survey of India.
Howard, J., Hoyt, S., Isensee, K., Telszewski, M., & Pidgeon, E. (2014). Coastal Blue Carbon: Methods for assessing carbon stocks and emissions factors in mangroves, tidal salt marshes, and seagrasses. Arlington, Virginia, USA: Conservation International, Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Mitra, A., & Pal, S. (2002). The oscillating mangrove ecosystem and the Indian Sundarbans (1 ed.).
West Bengal State Office: WWF- India.
Mitra, A., Banerjee, k., & Bhattacharyya, D. (2004). Ecological profile of Indian Sundarbans: pelagic primary producer community (Vol. 1). West Bengal State Office: WWF- India.
Mitra, A., Pramanick, P., Zaman, S., Fazli, P., Pal, N., & Mitra, A. (2015). Response of Sonneratia
apetala to Salinity in the Frame Work of Indian Sundarbans. International Journal of Innovative Studies in Aquatic Biology and Fisheries (IJISABF), 2(1), 1-5.
Scott, D. (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN.
Photo: Oindrila Basu
Author, Dr. Abhijit Mitra, is Associate Professor and former Head, Dept. of Marine Science at University of Calcutta and has been active in the sphere of Oceanography since 1985, presently serving as the advisor of Oceanography Division of Techno India University, Kolkata. Dr. Mitra is presently the member of IUCN, SIOS, Mangrove Society of India etc. He has successfully completed about 18 projects on biodiversity loss in fishery sector, coastal pollution, aquaculture, alternative livelihood, climate change and carbon sequestration.
Mangroves, Us and a Century
In face of Climate Change
Perspective of a budding sylvan, Oindrila Basu
They dominate where the lands meet the sea. They are home to the
small fishes, crabs, snails and others who play in the intricate
network of their roots. They are bathed twice in the tides daily, yet
they love the salt waters. They feel home there. That is why they marched towards the sea, adapted
themselves to thrive in the harsh conditions; to serve their ecosystem the best.
But, the salt water is rising; the humans have choked their throat off the fresh water. Their kins are
reduced due to incessant deforestation, land degradation. They are forced to take up excess of heavy
metals, pollutants from industry, agriculture, just because they can. They cannot any more swallow
all these devastations “with a pinch of salt”. Their children are no more growing, crippled in front
of these exhausting human exploitations. They are refusing to thrive.
It is us who need them. We need them for they are habitat of our food, our recreation. We need them
for valuable traditional medicines. We need them for fuel, fodder, fibre. We need them to fulfil our
spiritual beliefs. We need them for fresh oxygen. But we are losing them, because we don’t realise
how much we need them.
Mangroves, the salt tolerant plant species dominating the ecotone of three quarters of
Tropical coastlines (Ghosh & Mondal, 2016) are vulnerable today in hands of increasing
salinity and sea-level rise due to climate change (Alongi, 2015). They, with their close
association with the marine flora and fauna, form a unique coastal wetland ecosystem
(Tomlinson, 1986). Many of these halophytic species even with their specialized adaptation
are facing degeneration in overall health and extinction due to diseases and salt-stress (de
Lacerda, 2002) coupled with anthropogenic exploitation (Ramsar Convention Secretariat,
2010; Clough, 2013). The climate change scenario is creating a more adverse condition raising
the sea level hence increasing more salt intrusion in lands (Hazra et al, 2010; Clough, 2013;
Alongi, 2015; Sarkar et al, 2016).
Studies suggest that these mangroves are one of the
best carbon sequesters (Alongi, 2012). According to
The Blue Carbon Initiative reports, the ability of
mangroves to store blue carbon in the coastal soils
surpasses all other ecosystems’ carbon sink abilities
(Howard et al, 2014). Flourishing prawn-cultivation
causing deforestation poses as the main threat to these
A Mangrove Life, Full of Potential
Rhizophora spp. at Sunderbans Photo Author
unique ecosystems (IPCC, 2007; Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010; Clough, 2013).
Agricultural run-offs are adding chemical fertilizers besides the industrial effluents killing huge
marine-biota in population ridden tropical countries, impairing the health of mangrove
ecosystem (Shete et al, 2007; Clough, 2013; Howard et al, 2014). Mismanaged tourism and
excess of boat effluents containing heavy metals are way above the bio-remediation abilities of
the mangroves (Shete et al, 2007). The mangroves, habitat to wide variety of flora and fauna,
when degraded affect the longevity of such organisms as well. Many species of fishes,
crustaceans, birds have become rare today because of their ‘mangrove habitat’ destruction (de
Lacerda, 2002). The mangroves are first line of shoreline stability (Bann, 1998), degeneration
of which increases the vulnerability from impacts of storms and cyclones (de Lacerda, 2002).
The coastal soil, bound together with intricate root network of breathing root, knee root, stilt
root of the mangroves, face havoc erosion and economic loss in deforestation (Giesen et al,
2006).
The Principle number 7 of Principles and guidelines for incorporating wetland issues into
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) states that “Coastal wetlands are highly
vulnerable to degradation and loss, but although easily degraded their restoration is costly and
sometimes impossible” (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010). Estimates from scientific
studies report that up to 67% of historical global mangrove range has already been lost been
lost (Howard et al, 2014), and at its current rate of deforestation of 0.66% per year,
mangrove disappearance from most forests will occur within this century (Bhatt & Kathiresan,
2012). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) forecasted an increase in
global sea surface temperature by 1-3oC this century, global sea level rise at an average rate
between 1.8 and 2.4 mm year; decrease in ocean pH, (0.07–0.31), and rise in mean
atmospheric CO2 concentration to 441 ppm (from 391 ppm in 2011) (IPCC, 2013).
According to (FAO, 2007) the global area under mangroves decreased to 15.6 million
hectares from 16.1 million hectares found in 1990. Ninety percent of mangrove forests are
found in developing countries and are in verge of extinction in 26 countries (Bhatt and
Kathiresan, 2012).
Unawareness of what degradation can do to the ecosystems; lack of opportunities; and
exploding population are indeed the biggest threats to all our natural ecosystems. In order to
conserve and restore these unique ecosystems successfully, effective implementation of well-
planned ‘flexible and adaptive’ (Clough, 2013) scientific solutions is extremely urgent. Mass
awareness about the immense value of mangroves and other wetlands needs to be generated
educating from common people to policy makers. How our daily habits are influencing the
health of these important wetlands, and in turn shaping our future, should become a clear
picture to all. Education is the key. Environmental awareness needs to be incorporated in all
traditional as well as in lateral education systems globally. The knowledge of the beautiful
ecosystem functions is needed to spread beyond the scientific diaspora for their sustainability,
our sustainability and a resilient future.
References Alongi, D. (2012). Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Management, 3(3), 313–322.
Alongi, D. M. (2015, January 30). The Impact of Climate Change on Mangrove Forests. Curr Clim Change Rep, 1, 30–39.
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Shete, A., Gunale, V., & Pandit, G. (2007, September). Bioaccumulation of Zn and Pb in Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. and Sonneratia apetala Buch. Ham. from Urban Areas of Mumbai (Bombay), India. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage., 11(3), 109 - 112.
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Mangroves at Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Photo: Author
Author, Oindrila Basu ia a Masters Student of Forestry at Forest Research Institute, India.
She is an active member of IUCN CEM South Asia
Scientific Awareness
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Good News On The Eve Of Wetlands Day 2019
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Oindrila Basu
Concept and Overview
Dr. Shalini Dhyani,
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South Asia
Cover photo courtesy
Oindrila Basu
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