climate change adaptation by design

8/2/2019 Climate Change Adaptation by Design

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Shaw, R., Colley, M., and Connell, R. (2007)Climate change adaptation by design:

a guide for sustainable communities.TCPA, London

TCPA 2007Prepared for the TCPA by Robert Shaw of the TCPAand Michelle Colley and Richenda Connell of Acclimatise,www.acclimatise.uk.com

Designed by thomas.matthewswww.thomasmatthews.com

Printed by RAP Spiderweb Ltd, Clowes Street,Hollinwood, Oldham, OL9 7LY

Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper,with vegetable oil based inksThe TCPA wishes to acknowledge the input and financialsupport of the Commission for Architecture and the BuiltEnvironment, English Partnerships, the Royal Institutionof Chartered Surveyors, and the Environment Agency.The following contributed greatly as partof the steering group: Andrew Coleman, Environment Agency Katy Cornish, Association of British Insurers Dan Epstein, English Partnerships Mark Goldthorpe, South East Climate Change Partnership Emma Griffiths, University of Manchester Jake Hacker, ARUP John Handley, CURE, University of Manchester

Darryn McEvoy, ICIS, University of Maastricht Gerry Metcalf, UK Climate Impacts Programme David Saul, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Paul Shaffer, CIRIA David Thompson, Natural England Bruce McVean, Commission for Architecture

and the Built Environment Polly Turton, Commission for Architecture

and the Built Environment

Additional guidance was provided by: Neil Dixon, Department of Civil and Building Engineering,

Loughborough University Tom Dijkstra, Department of Civil and Building Engineering,

Loughborough University Susannah Gill, The Mersey Forest Graham Smith, Joint Centre for Urban Design,

Oxford Brookes University

The TCPA is an independent charity working to improve theart and science of town and country planning. The TCPA putssocial justice and the environment at the heart of policy debateand inspires government, industry and campaigners to takea fresh perspective on major issues, including planning policy,housing, regeneration and climate change.

Our objectives are to: Secure a decent, well designed home for everyone, in

a human-scale environment combining the best featuresof town and country.

Empower people and communities to influence decisions

that affect them. Improve the planning system in accordance with

the principles of sustainable development.


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contentsForeword

Key messages

IntroductionConsiders the climatic changes ahead,and the corresponding impacts on thebuilt environment and urban form.

International and national contextDescribes the various policy and legislativedrivers for adaptation action bothinternationally and in the UK.

Delivering adaptation actionProposes a framework for deliveringadaptation action at the regional and locallevels, together with some guidance oncreating local adaptation strategies.

How to implement adaptationthrough design and developmentIllustrates a menu of adaptation optionsusing practical examples, and is organisedaccording to the main climate risks thatcommunities in the UK will face, under

the following headings:4.1 Managing high temperatures

At the conurbation scaleAt the neighbourhood scaleAt the building scale

4.2 Managing flood risksAt the catchment scaleAt the neighbourhood scaleAt the building scale

4.3 Managing water resources andwater qualityAt the catchment scale

At the neighbourhood scaleAt the building scale

4.4 Managing ground conditionsAt the conurbation scaleAt the neighbourhood scaleAt the building scale

TechnologiesProvides further details on some of thekey technologies available to help manageclimatic risks.

References and further information

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There is now widespread scientificconsensus that accelerated climate

change is happening and that humanactivities are the principal cause.The unquestionable urgency ofreducing greenhouse gas emissionsnow ranks alongside other pressingsocial and economic imperativesand is stimulating politicians, policy-makers and affecting the actionstaken by developers, architects andurban designers. Public awareness

is also greater than ever before,influencing lifestyle and purchasingchoices. The TCPA continues to beat the forefront of the climatechange debate.

However, measures to reduce emissions areonly part of the climate change challenge.Even if we make significant reductions inemissions tomorrow, the lag in the climate systemmeans that emissions we have already put into theatmosphere will continue to affect the climate for

several decades to come. The impact on townsand cities and their inhabitants will be significant be it through uncomfortably high temperatures,greater incidences of flooding, strain on waterresources and quality, or less stable groundconditions. Adapting to climate change is thereforean essential part of ensuring our communitiesremain desirable places to live and work.

Without an understanding of both mitigation andadaptation there is a real danger that actions takento address one could actually make the other

worse. We can illustrate this by looking again atthe need for a range of densities of development:higher densities have been promoted as a wayof improving the overall energy efficiency of theurban area. However, if density is too high thiscan exacerbate the urban heat island effectand increase the likelihood of urban flooding.

Responding to climate change adaptation requiresspace within and around buildings. If designedwell, with innovative use of tree cover andlandscaping, this can provide parallel opportunitiesto lower carbon emissions, improve air quality andcreate spaces for recreation and wildlife. Far frombeing a time consuming and costly burden on

those charged with development andregeneration, adapting towns and cities to

climate change offers enormous potential forcreating high value, quality places where peopleand businesses will want to spend time.

As our communities change we can takeopportunities to reduce our vulnerability andexposure to climate risks. With the appropriatepolicies in place, spatial planning and urbandesign can provide vital tools for ensuring thatthe UK is well adapted. The aim of ClimateChange Adaptation by Design is to communicatethe importance of adapting to some degreeof inevitable climate change, and to show

how adaptation can be integrated into theplanning, design and development of newand existing communities.

Drawing on research just published as part ofthe Building Knowledge for a Changing Climateprogramme, the guide uniquely considers howadaptation options are influenced by geographicallocation and the scale of development. It considersthe interrelated roles of the planning system,communities, other stakeholders and deliverybodies. It seeks to ensure a better understanding

of climate risks while demonstrating effectiveadaptation strategies through case studiesfrom around the world.

This is the third in the series of TCPA ByDesign Guides for Sustainable Communities.The TCPA published its Programme forSustainable Communities in 2001 calling forthe positive planning and delivery of a greaternumber of homes to higher standards insustainable communities. This demandedenhanced levels of biodiversity, renewable energyand energy efficiency. It set out a vision, whichabove all, sees our communities as integratedwith the natural environment rather than setagainst it. The following year the Governmentlaunched its groundbreaking SustainableCommunities Programme. This is the thirdin the series of TCPA By Design guides,which we hope will be of use to planners,urban designers, developers and to anyoneengaged in creating sustainable communities.

Robert Shaw

TCPA Director (Policy & Projects)

foreword

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1. Adaptation is needed now because theclimate is already changing. Many of the

climatic changes forecast for the next3040 years are locked in the resultof past greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.Regardless of the success, or otherwise,of emissions reduction efforts, some climatechange is therefore inevitable.

2. The built environment generally has a designlife of 40100 years, and the urban form haseven greater longevity. This makes climatechange a current, rather than a future issue.In order to help communities adapt, planners,

urban designers, architects, and developersshould take into account predicted climatesover this century at the design stage ofany new development, refurbishmentor regeneration programme.

3. Climate change is a fast-moving policy area,and climate change adaptation is increasinglya requirement of national planning anddesign guidance.

4. Climate change presents designers, architectsand planners with significant opportunities tocreate or remodel outdoor spaces and buildingsthat are resilient in the face of future climates.Adaptation will enhance the liveability of,and quality of life in, communities in future.

5. Climate change presents opportunities todevelop new services and products that respond

to changing customer preferences. The first toseize these opportunities can gain an earlymover competitive advantage.

6. Evidence of climate-proofing can enhance anorganisations reputation with its stakeholders.Adaptation can also protect investments, reducehealth risks, and reduce insurance costs.

7. Many adaptation strategies offer multiplebenefits. As an example, managed realignment

of hard flood defences (concrete or stone,for instance) can improve biodiversity aswell as managing flood risks.

8. Planners, developers, architects and urbandesigners should aim to implement zero- andlow-carbon adaptation strategies, in accordancewith GHG emissions reduction targets.However, to be effective efforts to reduceemissions must take account of a changingclimate and the need to adapt at the same time.

9. Adaptation is an essential component of trulysustainable development.

key messages

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introduction

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This section considers theclimatic changes ahead, and the

corresponding impacts on thebuilt environment and urban form.


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Given the long lifetime and highcost of the built environment, itis imperative that we plan for andcreate communities that are robustin the face of climate change. Newdevelopments must be designedto cope with future rather than

historical climates.The existing building stock, which is replaced ata rate of less than 1% yearly, presents a biggerchallenge. Action is therefore needed to makeexisting communities more resilient to climate risks.The urban landscape, which includes open spacesand transport corridors, is even longer-lived andwill need to cope with a changing climate overdecades or even centuries. All of these elementswill need to be remodelled to deal with increasingtemperatures, changing patterns of rainfall, and

rising sea levels.

The climate is changing

Up until now, efforts to address climate changehave focussed primarily on reducing GHGemissions, by encouraging lower carbon lifestyles the mitigation agenda. But this is only half thepicture. The reality is that our climate is alreadychanging, and we are experiencing the effectsright now.

Even if we make significant reductions in GHGemissions today, we will need to cope with at leastseveral decades of climate change, and centuries

of sea level rise. The consequences of thesechanges can no longer be ignored. This is the otherhalf of the picture climate change adaptation.

Recently published research from the BuildingKnowledge for a Changing Climate (BKCC)programme

1articulates a strong message of

the urgency of adapting the built environmentto climate change, but also of the opportunities

that it presents.

Detailed information about the major climaticchanges we can expect across the UK is availablein the UKCIP02 climate change scenarios(www.ukcip.org.uk/scenarios) published by theUK Climate Impacts Programme

2, and in advice

derived from them such as PPS25: Developmentand Flood Risk

3and the draft supplement to PPS1

on climate change4. These scenarios should be

used to assess and manage climate risks toall new and existing communities.

In 2008 UKCIP will publish a new set of scenarios(UKCIP08) with a web interface to deliver user-specified climate change information in a varietyof formats. These scenarios will describeclimate change in probabilistic terms, allowinga risk-based approach to decision-makingfor adaptation.

Headline future changes for the UK are outlinedin the table below. These are assigned a relativelevel of confidence, based on the expertjudgements of authors of the UKCIP02

climate change scenarios.

Summary of expected climate change in the UK

Temperature Annual warming by the end of the century of between High1C and 5C depending on emission scenario.

Greater summer warming in the southeast than in the northwest. High

Increase in the number of very hot days. High

Decrease in the number of very cold days. High

Precipitation Generally wetter winters for the whole of the UK, and increases Highin winter precipitation intensity.

Substantially drier summers. Medium

Soil moisture Decreases in summer and autumn, especially in the southeast. High

Sea level Global average sea level will continue to rise for several Highcenturies. According to the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Changes 4th Assessment, global sea level will increaseby the 2090s by between 20 and 60cm, depending on theemissions scenario (relative to the 198099 baseline)5.

There will be significant regional differences in relative sea Highlevel rise around the UK.

For some coastal locations and some scenarios, storm surges Mediumwill become more frequent.

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Confidencelevel


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What follows are synopses of the UKCIP02climate change scenarios. The maps showchanges in average annual or seasonal conditions,but cannot fully present local variation. Urban areaswill be particularly vulnerable to extreme weatherevents (see Figure 1). The risks that these climaticchanges present are described in section 4.

Temperature

We are already experiencing the effectsof a warming climate:

Global average temperature has risen by about0.6C since the beginning of the twentiethcentury, with about 0.4C of this warmingoccurring since the 1970s.

The unusually hot summer of 2003 causedsevere disruption and an estimated 2,000 excessdeaths in the UK. Global climate models indicate

that similarly hot summers could be normal within3040 years.

The summer of 2006 was the longest continuousperiod of hot weather recorded in the UK. Theheat wave had significant consequences forhuman comfort and health, and caused severedisruptions in London when soaring energydemand triggered blackouts.

The figure below shows projections across theUK. Patterns are presented for low and highGHG scenarios, for different seasons, and for

three 30-year time slices: 2020s (near future),2050s (mid century), and 2080s (end of thiscentury). All changes are expressed with respectto the average 196190 climate, which itselfincorporates some climate change.

Weather extremes

The climate scenarios do not fully present theextreme weather events to which urban areasare particularly vulnerable. The impacts are notjust physical: there is also an important socialdimension. We are already seeing increasedfrequency of events and climate change

is expected to exacerbate this further.Recent events include:

Very high temperatures caused by the UrbanHeat Island (UHI) effect. The civil unrest inParis during the summer of 2006 has beenpartly attributed to the prolonged heat wave.

Severe storms, such as the one whichcaused huge damage to parts of southernEngland in 1987, may become more frequent.

Flood events caused by long and heavy

rainfall, such as recent events in Lewesand Carlise which both caused extensiveand expensive losses to properties,will become more frequent.

There is also concern amongst expertsthat the UK will experience more frequentdamaging coastal storm surges and flooding.The impact on major population centres,such as London, could be catastrophic.

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2020s 2050s 2080s

Low emissions

Change in annualtemperature (degrees C)

High emissions

6543210-1

Figure 1: Changes in averageannual temperatures relativeto the 196190 average, forthe 2020s, 2050s and 2080sunder the low (top) and high(bottom) emissions scenarios.

Source: UKCIP02 ClimateChange Scenarios.

Annual temperature increasesof 4.5C in the southeast by theend of this century under a highemissions scenario the currentdifference between London andBarcelona is approximately 5C.

Pronounced warming in summer.Temperatures in south easternurban areas will regularly reach40C by mid century.

A distinct southeast-to-northwestgradient in the magnitude of

warming. This will compoundheat risks in areas that arealready vulnerable.


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The average changes presented above maskday-to-day variability and extremes, which willbe more severe. In urban areas, buildings storeheat and contribute to the Urban Heat Island (UHI)effect. The ASCCUE66 project shows significanttemperature differences between city centres andtheir surrounding countryside, but also surfacetemperature differences of up to 6C between high

and low density suburbs. These differences willbecome far more pronounced with climate change.

Precipitation

The proportion of winter rainfall relative to summerprecipitation across the UK has changed over time:

Winters have never been as wet relative tosummers in about 240 years of measurementsas they have been over the last 30 years.

The contribution of the most intense rainstorms

to total winter precipitation has increasedover the last 40 years. The proportion of winterprecipitation falling in five-day or longer

sequences of heavy rain has also increased.Intense rainstorms increase the risk of severeflood events.

In summer, the contribution of intense rainstormsto summer total rainfall has decreased. If thistrend continues we can expect droughts similarto the one that affected the southeast in 2006to become more common.

The scenarios show (see Figure 2):

In the future, winter rainfall is expected to increase.In summer, the whole of the UK is expected tobecome drier, with rainfall decreases overEngland of 2040% by the end of the century.

Rising temperatures mean that significantlyless precipitation will fall as snow. Reductionsof 60% to 90% or greater (low to high emissions)can be expected by the end of the century.

Runoff of surface water is altered by urbanisation hard surfaces increase the volume and rateof runoff.

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Low emissions

Summer

Winter2020s 2050s 2080s

Low emissions

Change in seasonal

precipitation (%)

High emissions

High emissions

-60-45-30-15015304560

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Figure 2: Change in averagewinter (top) and summer(bottom) precipitation relativeto the 196190 average, for the2020s, 2050s and 2080s underthe low and high emissionsscenarios.Source: UKCIP02 ClimateChange Scenarios.

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Soil moisture

Changes in soil moisture important for flooding

and ground stability are shown in Figure 3.

Sea level

Global average sea level rose by about 1.8mm/

year between 1961 to 2003, increasing to about3.1mm/year from 1993 to 2003. The increase isdue to various factors, including thermal expansionof warming ocean waters and the melting of land-based glaciers. Future changes are likely to bring:

Global average sea level rises of 0.20.6m bythe 2090s according to the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Changes 4th AssessmentReport. New research suggests sea level risemay be even greater a recent study projects arise of 0.51.4m above the 1990 level by 2100 7.

Greatest changes in the south and east ofEngland, where the effects of mean sea levelrise will be further exacerbated by subsidingland, following the last Ice Age.

Increases in storm surge height and frequency,with serious implications for the standards ofprotection offered by coastal flood defences.This will affect many highly populated areas.

Climate risks and opportunities

Climate change will affect different aspectsof spatial planning and the built environment,including external building fabric, structuralintegrity, internal environments, service infrastructure(e.g. drainage, water, waste, energy, transport andtelecommunications), open spaces, human comfort,and the way people use indoor and outdoor space.The BKCC programme has begun to quantify theseimpacts and develop tools to assist decision-makers make informed choices.

Some of the expected major risks andopportunities include:

Significant opportunities for urban designers,architects and developers to create spaces andbuildings that increase a communitys resilienceto climate change.

Higher summer temperatures will have serious

implications for human comfort, overheatingand heat stress. See BKCC11(pages 4749)and ASCCUE66.

Higher summer temperatures will lead to increaseddemand for cooling in buildings, particularly withinhigh density areas where the UHI effect is mostpronounced. But higher winter temperatures willdecrease winter energy consumption.

Hotter temperatures will lead to greater demandfor urban greenspace, blue (water) infrastructure,open spaces and shading. See ASCCUE66

for more on this.

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2020s 2050s 2080s

Low emissions

Change in annual soilmoisture content (%)

High emissions

-25-20-15-10-50510

Figure 3: Change in averageannual soil moisture contentrelative to the 196190average, for the 2020s, 2050sand 2080s under the low(top) and high (bottom)

emissions scenarios.Source: UKCIP02 ClimateChange Scenarios.

The whole of the UK willexperience a decrease in soilmoisture annually. The highestreductions 40% or more bythe 2080s will occur in summerunder the high emissionsscenario in southeast England.

Winter will see a slight increasein moisture content over mostof Scotland, and little changeover Northern Ireland and Wales.

Changes in autumn are similar tothose in summer due to the longdelay in restoring soil water levelsfollowing increasingly dry andhot summers.


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Greenspace and trees offer a way to cope withhot weather (through shading and evaporativecooling), but are themselves vulnerable todecreased water availability, rising temperatures,and changing patterns of disease and pests.See ASCCUE66 for more on this.

An obvious adjustment to hotter weather isto open windows and doors. This may result in

knock-on impacts, such as greater risk of crime,noise and pollution. Innovative planning, designand technological solutions will be importantfor managing these risks.

Changing patterns of precipitation will havesignificant implications for flood risk, waterresources and availability, and water quality.

Increased flooding of buildings and open spaceswill lead to loss of life, injury, disease, mentalstress, damage to buildings and their contents,contamination from sewage and access

problems. Some properties may becomeuninsurable if they are in highly flood-prone areas.

Increased precipitation intensity in winterwill affect building facades and internalstructures and lead to more rain penetrationaround openings.

Subsidence and heave risks are expectedto increase for clay soils, due to highertemperatures, lower summer rainfall, andincreased evapotranspiration. Resulting impactswill affect properties and underground serviceinfrastructure on subsidence-prone ground.

Rising sea levels will present a significantchallenge to flood risk management.

Increased rates of coastal erosion, due tosea level rise and storm surges, as wellas landslips on slopes and embankmentscan threaten buildings, land and infrastructurein vulnerable locations. Refer to (section 4.4.1)for more on the climate impacts onslope stability.

More intense rainfall events will mean drainagesystems (roof drainage, sewer systems,carriageway drainage etc) are unable to cope,resulting in flash flood events, especially in urbanareas. Refer to ASCCUE11 and AUDIACIOUS(section 4.2.1) for more information.

The implications of climate change for theconstruction process are in some casesbeneficial: fewer working days would be lostdue to snow and frost, but workers will bemore likely to suffer heat stress in summer.

Learning lessons from vernaculararchitecture and design

The vernacular architecture and urban formof other countries may offer lessons aboutresponding to challenges imposed by climatechange in the UK. Vernacular architecture isdesigned to suit local (historical) climates,

and is a reflection of the customs andsurrounding natural landscape ofa community:

inner courtyards that provide shadedopen spaces

circular house forms to combat strong winds

stilt-supported buildings to minimiseflood damage

a mud roof that keeps out the heatof the sun.

Specific examples include the high, narrowstreets of Marseilles which provide respite fromthe sun, the high thermal mass and fountain-filled courtyards of the Alhambra Palace inSpain, and the adobe pueblos of New Mexico.

Because vernacular architecture has evolvedto be wholly suited to local conditions, it isnot entirely transferable to other places. Eventhough future temperatures in the southern UKmay resemble those of present-day southernFrance, many other factors (e.g. latitude, soil

conditions) will contribute to a distinctiveclimate with individual challenges. Culturesalso differ significantly from place to place,and this will influence the way people interactwith buildings and urban environments.

Scale presents a further constraint towholesale adoption of vernacular architecture.Domestic-scale measures, such as shuttersor awnings, are transferable. Other, large-scalefeatures, such as narrow tall streets are moredifficult to implement in urban environments.

Vernacular architecture has always respondedto the limits of the time and location. It providesa useful look at how other places and cultureshave evolved to deal with the challenges of thecurrent climate. These strategies may not beentirely appropriate for the UK, but they offerinspiration for adapting to a future climate.

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international andnational context

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This section describes the variouspolicy and legislative drivers foradaptation action both internationallyand in the UK.


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No single piece of legislation orpolicy covers action on climatechange adaptation but this isa very fast-moving field, andseveral policy hooks are alreadyproviding practical ways to reducevulnerability to climate change.

Climate change is now mainstream. It is no longerconsidered to be solely an environmental issuebut one that will have serious economic andsocial repercussions. The Stern Review88 of theeconomics of climate change called for urgentinternational action.

International and European policyand legislation

Both the UN Framework Convention on Climate

Change and the European Climate ChangeProgramme cover adaptation to inevitable climatechange in addition to emissions reductions.

Other key European legislation and policydirectives, though not explicitly designed totackle climate change, offer important meansof addressing climate risks:

Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA) DirectiveUnder the EU SEA Directive (European Directive

2001/42/EC) planners are legally obliged toconsider climate change when developing spatialplans. Climate change must be considered atvarious stages of the SEA process. There are twoclimate change issues to address the impact/constraints set by climate change on the plan,and the plans effects on future GHG emissions.In the UK, the Sustainability Appraisal (SA)process is designed to fulfil the requirementsof the SEA Directive.

More info: www.ec.europa.eu/environment/eia

Water Framework Directive (WFD)The EU WFD is an overarching programme to

deliver long-term protection and improve the quality

of groundwater, surface water and associated

wetlands. Though the Directive does not currently

require climate change to be taken into account, it

will be implemented in planning cycles which allow

consideration of long-term environmental trends,

of which climate change is one.

More info: www.ec.europa.eu/environment/water

National policy and legislation

The UK Climate Change Programme details thepolicies and measures which the UK is using to cutGHG emissions and adapt to the impacts of climatechange. It recognises that planning has a crucialrole to play in improving the adaptive capacity ofdevelopment. Current government planning policyin England advises that, used positively, spatialplanning has a pivotal role in helping4:

Secure enduring progress against theUKs emissions targets.

Deliver zero carbon development.

Shape sustainable communities thatare resilient to climate change.

Create an attractive environment for innovationand investment in renewable and low-carbontechnologies and infrastructure.

Give local communities opportunities to influence,and take, action on climate change.

In addition, the following specific policy andlegislation can help manage climate risks:

Building regulations require increased energyefficiency, but future regulations will also increasebuildings resilience to climate change.

The Governments Code for Sustainable Homesaims to increase the environmental performanceof homes, above building regulations. Compliancewill improve water efficiency and managementof surface water run-off in new homes.

The Government is developing an AdaptationPolicy Framework (APF). It will identify the rolesof central government departments and devolvedadministrations and aims to provide the structurefor developing adaptation strategies and policiesby all organisations.

Areas of major change, such as regenerationand growth in the Governments SustainableCommunities Plan, offer important opportunities

to incorporate climate change adaptation.Similarly, major refurbishments which fall under theplanning system are subject to the same controlsand mechanisms that guide new development.www.communities.gov.uk

Public sector land and property owners havea significant opportunity to establish propertyinvestment policies which require adaptation.

The Civil Contingencies Act sets out roles andresponsibilities of those involved in planningfor civil emergencies, including natural disasters

caused by climate change. www.ukresilience.info

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delivering adaptationaction

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This section proposes a frameworkfor delivering adaptation actionat the regional and local levels,together with some guidance oncreating local adaptation strategies.


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Adaptation helps ensure thatour urban environments are morerobust in the face of inevitableclimate change, but it offers otheropportunities as well. By buildingadaptive capacity and deliveringsound adaptation solutions we

can also make cities more attractive,with a better quality of life. Effectiveadaptation in the built environmentneeds to be supported by robustpolicy and a range of incentivesto ensure delivery on the ground.

This section describes key guiding principles andspecific mechanisms by which regions and localauthorities can deliver climate change adaptation.It also provides examples of existing or draftstrategies that have been developed in theUK which address adaptation.

Key climate adaptation principles

Seek opportunities to incorporateadaptation into new and existingdevelopmentsPlanners, designers and developers shouldwork together to ensure that any new

development (or regeneration) takes account ofclimate change impacts. They have many waysof facilitating adaptation. While it is often morecost-effective to adapt new developments atthe planning and design stages, regenerationefforts also offer significant opportunities toincorporate adaptation.

Work in partnership with communitiesEngagement with local communities is crucialto developing adaptation actions that will workbest on the ground. Partnership working withhouseholds and the public and private sectorsshould form a fundamental part of the processof developing climate change adaptationstrategies from the outset.

Incorporate flexibility to deal withchanging risksAdaptation efforts must incorporate sufficientflexibility to deal with changing climate risksover time. The most appropriate responseswill differ depending on the scale at which theyoperate from conurbation, to neighbourhood,to building scales.

Understand existing vulnerabilities toclimate and identify critical thresholdsThe imperative for adaptation is greatest in

areas that are already vulnerable to climaterisks. Understanding how the weathercurrently affects an area and identifyingcritical thresholds such as the maximumrainfall capacity of a storm-sewer system can help determine when and whatadaptation actions to undertake.

Identify key climate change risks usingthe latest climate change scenariosKnowledge about climate change isevolving fast. The latest scenarios forthe UK are provided by the UK ClimateImpacts Programme.

Look for no regrets, low regrets,win-win and adaptable measuresto manage climate risksSome policies and measures are particularlyuseful for managing the uncertainties inherent

in climate change, including: No-regrets those that will pay off

immediately under current climate conditions.

Low-regrets low-cost policies andmeasures that have potentially large benefits.These should be identified as early aspossible in the design process, to maximiseopportunities and minimise costs.

Win-wins policies and measures thathelp manage several climate risks at once,or that also bring other benefits, such

as complementary reduction inGHG emissions.

Adaptable, flexible and resilient policiesand measures, so places can adapt toa continually changing climate.

Adopt a sequential and risk-basedapproach to development decisionsWhen allocating land in development plansor deciding applications for development,decision-makers should demonstrate thatthere are no reasonable options availablein a lower-risk category, consistent withother sustainable development objectives.

Avoid actions that will make it moredifficult to cope with climate risksin the futureThese are called adaptation constrainingdecisions. One example is inappropriatedevelopment in a flood risk area.

Review your adaptationstrategy regularlyAdaptation strategies must be kept underregular review, keeping abreast of newknowledge about climate change andlearning from experience.

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Regardless of location, scale or development type,the overall approach to climate change adaptationshould be based upon the guiding principlesshown previously (adapted from UKCIP and otherguidance

99). In practice, adaptation strategies

must take into account public attitudes, physicallocation, design life, attitudes to risk, surrounding

How regions can deliver climatechange adaptation

Because spatial planning takes account ofthe impact of future climate change, it providesa key mechanism for delivering adaptation.Regions have an important role to play. In Englandand guided by national policy, Regional SpatialStrategies (RSS) provide the strategic elementof a development plan and inform preparationof Local Development Frameworks (LDF). RSS(and LDF) require an assessment of climate

risks through the Sustainability Appraisal (SA)process. The box on the previous page showshow adaptation is being integrated into regionalplanning in southwest England and London.

Formal climate change partnerships are activein all regions of England and in the DevolvedAdministrations, working under the umbrellaof UKCIP. The partnerships raise awareness ofthe regional impacts of climate change, developexamples of practical adaptation responses,commission research, and press for management

of climate risks within regional strategies and plans.

case studiesAdaptation through regional planning:Regional Spatial Strategy forSouthwest England

The draft RSS takes account of climate changeand the increasing risk of coastal and riverflooding. In order to manage these risks the

strategy recommends relocation of existingdevelopment from at-risk coastal areas andidentification of areas for managed realignment.This will also create new wildlife areas.

The strategy also recognises that newdevelopment is vulnerable to climate risks unlesswater resources are sustainably managed. Thedocument advises local authorities to considerwater resources as an element of sustainableconstruction, so requiring the introduction ofwater conservation measures and sustainabledrainage systems in all development throughsupplementary planning guidance.

More info: www.southwesteip.co.uk

Climate Change Adaptation Strategy,Greater London Authority

The Mayor of London is preparing a ClimateChange Adaptation Strategy for London, thefirst for a world city. The adaptation strategywill provide strong policy directions on floodrisk, water resources and managing UHI effects.It will feed into the review of the London Plan.

The Mayor has also published SupplementaryPlanning Guidance on Sustainable Design andConstruction, which includes detailed adviceon addressing climate adaptation.

More info: www.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/

strategy.jsp

How local areas can deliverclimate adaptation

Local government has a pivotal role in achieving

sustainable development including mitigating andadapting to climate change. The following stepswill guide local authorities in preparing a frameworkfor adaptation that includes a policy vision andincentives for change:

Local authorities should make a public, high-level commitment to tackling climate change,such as signing the Nottingham Declarationon Climate Change. This high-level statementof commitment should recognise the needfor concrete action by setting measurable

targets. It can then be used to guide policyand create a context for corporate andcommunity action.

Cross-cutting issues can then be addressedthrough the Local Strategic Partnership(LSP), or Community Strategic Partnerships(CSP) in Wales. LSPs and CSPs bring togetherthe public, voluntary, community and privatesectors to co-ordinate the contribution that eachcan make to improve local areas. Underpinningand supporting the LSP are various thematicpartnerships responsible for tackling specificagendas, including adaptation to climate change.

Local authorities and their strategic partnershave responsibility for drawing up a SustainableCommunity Strategy (SCS)10. The Strategyprovides the overarching framework for deliveringclimate change adaptation and mitigation.

LSPs, SCSs, Local Area Agreements (LAAs),and local public service agreements offer localauthorities new opportunities to set and achieve avision for their areas with their partners. They allow

different agencies to pool budgets in pursuit ofcommon aims and challenging targets. Theselocal partnerships can be a key vehicle forclimate change adaptation.

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specific guidance and advice to developers inrelation to managing climate risks. In the PlanningResponse to Climate Change11, the Governmentsuggests that a climate-sensitive developmentchecklist could be incorporated into SPDs onsustainable development or sustainable designand construction. See the Three RegionsClimate Change Group12 checklist.

Legally, the attachment of planning conditionsand obligations is an effective way of controllinglocal development (e.g. by requiring SUDSto manage pollution and flood risk). Planningobligations, sometimes called Section 106agreements or planning gain, can act as a keyinstrument for enabling developers to contributeto climate proofing by requiring them to minimisefuture impacts and to carry out works whichwill provide community benefits.

Policy on climate change adaptation is evolving

quickly. Below is a forward look towardspotential future policy directions.

future policy directionsIdentifying areas of water stress:Water Saving Group

A Water Saving Group (WSG), which includesgovernment departments, regulators, watercompanies and consumer organisations, is

developing a method of identifying areas ofEngland that have different levels of water stress.By classifying areas in this way the group canfocus activities aimed at saving water in thoseareas where there is greatest need and greatestpotential benefit. This methodology goes beyondindicative water resource maps, and may beused by planners to define regional or localwater efficiency standards in spatial plans.

More info: Consultation open at www.environment-

agency.gov.uk

Integrated Water Strategy: Ashford

The Environment Agency has carried out anintegrated water management study to assessthe constraints to growth in Ashford that mightarise in relation to meeting demand for potablewater, the impact of treated effluent on receivingwaters, and management of flood risk. This takesaccount of the impact of climate change on bothdemand for, and availability of, water resources.

More info: www.environment-agency.gov.uk

case studiesTools for local authorities NottinghamDeclaration Action Pack (NDAP)

More than 200 authorities have already signed theNottingham Declaration, which commits signatoryauthorities to addressing the causes and impactsof climate change according to local priorities.

The Nottingham Declaration Action Pack (NDAP)is an online support tool designed to help localauthorities to address the challenges ofclimate change.

More info: www.est.org.uk/housingbuildings/

localauthorities/NottinghamDeclaration

LDF and Sustainability Appraisal,City of London

The City of London has developed an adaptation

strategy to ensure that the Citys services andinfrastructure continue to function appropriatelyin the face of climate change. One of the routesfor delivering this adaptation strategy is the Cityof Londons LDF. By incorporating a SustainabilityAppraisal (SA) process, which obliges planners totake account of climate change when developingspatial plans, the City of London demonstrateshow planning policy can help to manageclimate change risks.

More info: www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/living_

environment/sustainability/climate_change

Planning is another important delivery mechanismfor the local authoritys vision. LDFs in England andLocal Development Plans (LDPs) in Wales providethe spatial expression of each SCS, therefore thestrategy should point to practical actions whichcan be addressed through planning. All plansthat form part of LDFs should be climate-proofed through SA.

In England, the following can be used to implementclimate change adaptation through the LDF:

Policies in Core Strategies and LocalDevelopment Documents (LDD) can supportRSS policies by requiring action onclimate change.

Area Action Plans (AAPs) can help identify areasor properties that are at risk from flooding orother hazards (see ASCCUE6). AAPs can alsocomplement Core Strategies where significantchange is proposed by providing policies relatingspecifically to the developments proposed.

Supplementary Planning Documents(SPD, or Supplementary Planning Guidancein London) can provide more detailed guidanceon adaptation. Topic-based SPDs offer localplanning authorities the opportunity to provide

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how to implementadaptation through

design and development

4

This section illustrates a menuof adaptation options usingpractical examples and organisedaccording to the main climaterisks that communities in theUK will face at different spatial

scales (conurbation or catchment;neighbourhood; andbuilding scales):

4.1 Managing high temperatures

4.2 Managing flood risks

4.3 Managing water resourcesand water quality

4.4 Managing ground conditions


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Our cities are not currently designedfor climate change. It presentsplanners and designers withsignificant challenges, but alsoenormous opportunities to createinnovative urban environments thatwill be attractive while functioning

well as the climate changes.Architects and developers mustalso think creatively, to ensurethat the built environment adaptsto the changes ahead.

Many adaptation strategies contribute to wider

policy objectives and the creation of a quality

public realm. The imperative to manage high

temperatures and reduce flood and drought

impacts can justify the creation and maintenance

of green infrastructure. In turn, a linked network

of open spaces that can be used by a range of

people contributes to quality of life and health.

It also has a crucial role in maintaining and

improving air quality, flood and surface water

management and biodiversity13.

Climate change mitigation and adaptationare strongly influenced by urban form. At highdensities, travel distances are minimised andcommunity energy schemes become more viable,with obvious advantages for emissions reduction.However, higher densities can conflict with

adaptation objectives by intensifying UHIeffects and reducing urban drainage capacity.

An adapted and sustainable urban environmentmakes use of well designed green and bluespaces for cooling, water storage capacity, andinfiltration of rainfall. Unfortunately, greenspace,be it public or private, is often sacrificed in thecourse of urban development. Poorly adapted citiesthat are not designed to cope with hotter, driersummers will require increased use of mechanicalair conditioning. This not only contributes further

to climate change, but has social implicationstoo. Planners, developers, urban designers andarchitects must consider the potential conflictsbetween adaptation and mitigation responsesin order to ensure sustainability of futurecommunities (See McEvoy et al, 200614).

The case studies presented in the followingsections illustrate adaptation strategies to managea range of climate risks at three spatial scales.These offer transferable lessons, but adaptationstrategies will need to respond to local socio-

economic circumstances and built form.

Conurbation or catchment scaleClimate change adaptation at this scale willpotentially serve the whole city and is likely toinclude a variety of land uses. Opportunities forcreating cost-effective and integrated solutionsas part of an overarching climate change strategy(perhaps embedded within an RSS, CommunityStrategy, Open Space Strategy or LDF) may

be greatest at this scale.Neighbourhood scaleThis scale involves developments of discretegroups of dwellings, including a mix of uses,and can vary in size from an individual blockto a large estate. Consideration will need to begiven to adapting the public realm and spacesbetween buildings and developments. Solutionscan be developed through an LDF, Open SpaceStrategy, AAP, site brief or masterplan.

Building scale

Smaller developments including individualdwellings, apartment blocks or commercialbuildings provide opportunities for integratingclimate change adaptation into or aroundbuildings. Attention will need to be given to thedesign of the building, its surroundings, and howit is used and managed, in order to maximisecurrent and future climate adaptation potential.Design or building codes provide useful tools.

While climate change adaptation presentsopportunities, potential conflicts exist betweendifferent objectives. Narrow, tall streets can reduceheat risks during hot summers, but they may alsoaggravate winter gloom. Buildings designed tominimise energy use for winter heating may besusceptible to overheating problems in the summerif future climate is not taken into account.

Adaptation decisions will be influenced bylocation. It is important to recognise therelationship between large-scale strategicadaptation strategies at the conurbation scale(e.g. networks of open spaces) and smaller scaleoptions (e.g. orientation of individual buildings).

Higher densities in urban areas will exacerbatesome climatic risks (e.g. thermal discomfort, healthand urban flash flooding), but these risks will alsocreate opportunities by highlighting the need fordevelopment of high quality green spaces andinnovative use of layout and urban form. Suburbanareas characterised by lower densities offermore versatile spaces for developing adaptationsolutions. Rural-urban fringes, where densitiesare likely to be low, provide space for large-scale strategies such as strategic greenspace infrastructure and flood storage.

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4.1 managing hightemperaturesThe UK has not traditionallybeen preoccupied with the risk ofoverheating, but the hot summersof 2003 and 2006 showed thatsustained high temperatures havesignificant impacts. This sectionillustrates the variety of strategiesavailable for managing hightemperatures from the conurbation

scale, to counteract the urban heatisland UHI effect, to structuraladaptation at the building scale.

Climate change offers opportunities to providegreater outdoor amenity in view of longer periodsof warmer weather. Access to evening and night-time open spaces, especially in high density areas,will become increasingly important.

Where is the imperative foradaptation greatest?Current climates differ across the UK and will varyfurther under climate change. The imperative foradaptation to heat risk is greatest in the south andeast, where temperatures are currently warmestand where the largest temperature rises will occur;the UHI will significantly amplify this risk in cities.The adaptive capacity of different communitiesalso varies. Vulnerable groups, such as elderly

inner city residents in poor quality housingwill be disproportionately affected.

Figure 4 compares the percentage of hours that ahot discomfort temperature (25C for a bedroomin a new build house, and 28C for a 1960s office)is exceeded for three cities, taking account of theclimate change scenarios described in Section 1.Buildings are said to have overheated if thesetemperatures are exceeded more than 5% ofthe time. As shown, Edinburgh is not exposedto overheating risks until the 2080s, whereasLondon is already experiencing problems.

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New build house: Bedroom 1960s office: Mid floor

%o

ccupiedhours>25C

1980s 2020s 2050s 2080s

35

30

25

20

10

5

0

London

Manchester

Edinburgh

London

Manchester

Edinburgh

1980s 2020s 2050s 2080s

%o

ccupiedhours>28C

35

30

25

20

10

5

0

Figure 4: The percentage of hours that the hot discomforttemperature is exceeded in two different buildings dueto climate change.

Source: Beating the Heat: Keeping UK buildings coolin a warming climate. UKCIP Briefing Report (2005).


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Solar control includes shading,orientation and building morphology

Increasing evaporative cooling

Cool pavement materials

Increasing ventilation throughorientation and urban morphology

Thermal storage or thermal massBuilding envelope insulation

Ground water cooling usingaquifers or surface water cooling

Conurbation/ catchment scale

Neighbourhood scale

Building scale

Active or mechanical cooling

Cool or reflective buildingmaterials on roofs or faades

Green infrastructure

Use of open water and water features

menu of strategies for managinghigh temperatures

The diagram summarises the range of actionsand techniques available to increase adaptivecapacity. Detail is given in the text on theproceeding pages.

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At this scale, efforts to manage high temperaturesshould focus on the opportunities for reducing

UHI effects through large scale infrastructure.Adaptation should be built into other broad,conurbation scale changes, and multiple benefitsshould be sought for biodiversity, recreation andflood management objectives.

As with efforts to reduce GHG emissions,developers, architects, planners and urbandesigners will need a shared vision and newapproaches to design, funding and management.Project teams should work with planners to createa masterplan, concept statement or AAP fordevelopment. Adaptation should be considered

from the outset, not added as an afterthought.

Built environment professionals should aim forintegration of water, open space and built formthrough greenspace and bluespace strategies,developed as part of a masterplan. This shouldconsider a number of climate risk managementoptions (bearing in mind the potential conflictsbetween options and with GHG mitigationefforts), including:

High quality greenspace, made up of a linkednetwork of well-irrigated open spaces that can

be used by a range of people (a green grid),which has additional ecological, recreationaland flood storage benefits. Green infrastructurein urban areas includes open spaces, woodlands,street trees, fields, parks, outdoor sports facilities,community gardens, village greens, privategardens, and green or living roofs and walls.It will also be important to consider subsidencerisk, availability of water, longer growing seasonsand changing species suitability underclimate change.

Bluespace, such as open bodies of water,including rivers, lakes and urban canals.

Shading and orientation to reduce excessivesolar gain (e.g. through narrow streets orcanopies of street trees). Efforts to maximiseshade in summer will need to take accountof the need for light and warmth in winter.

Passive ventilation captured through orientationand morphology of buildings and streets. Again,efforts to catch breezes and increase canyonventilation paths must also consider the need

for winter warmth.

case studiesASCCUE project tools

The Adaptation Strategies for Climate Changein the Urban Environment (ASCCUE) projectis the first to quantify the potential for greeninfrastructure to moderate climate change impactsin urban areas. Developed with national and local

stakeholders, the study produced a conurbationscale risk and adaptation assessment methodologyto support the development of climate changepolicy. This tool allows a large urban area to bescreened as a prelude to neighbourhood scaleanalysis. It provides a broad view of the wholeurban system, considering both macro andmicro scale adaptation.

More info: Gwilliam et al16 and www.k4cc.org/bkcc/asccue

Chicago Wilderness

Developed as ecological conservation areas,Chicago Wilderness is a mosaic of urban forestsembedded in one of North Americas largestmetropolitan regions. It includes more than102,000 ha of land and water. The greenspacesnot only reduce UHI effects, they also help purifycity air, reduce heating bills through windbreaktrees, absorb storm water runoff, and lower noisepollution. As it is supported by 190 memberorganisations from government, business, andthe voluntary sector, Chicago Wilderness serves

as a powerful model for a collaborative approachto urban forestry.

More info: www.chicagowilderness.org/

Roof Gardens, Tokyo

Tokyo has suffered a rapidly worsening UHIeffect since the 1960s, caused by increasingurban energy consumption and spread of non-porous ground cover (e.g. asphalt, concreteand buildings). To counteract this effect, TokyoMetropolitan Government (TMG) has implemented

several urban greening policies, includingmeasures to encourage roof gardens.

All new developments with a ground surfaceof at least 1000m2 (250m2 for public buildings)must be equipped with green roofs and livingwall surfaces. Policies extend to existing buildingsas well as new developments. A tax reduction isoffered on buildings with roof gardens, and theDevelopment Bank of Japan offers low-interestloans to building owners who plan roof gardens.

More info: www.toshiseibi.metro.tokyo.jp/plan/pl_

index-e.html

4.1.1 managing hightemperatures at theconurbation scale

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the cooling effect of evaporation. Porouscool pavements offer the additional benefitof rainwater infiltration at times of heavy rain.

Networks of cool roofs made of light colouredmaterials to prevent solar heat gain and reducethe need for mechanical cooling.

case studiesStratford City redevelopment

Redevelopment of the Stratford City brownfield siteincorporates passive systems and design solutionswhere possible to provide comfortable working andliving environments. The detailed master planningof Stratford City aims to create a comfortable,safe microclimate that contributes to deliveringsuccessful outdoor spaces. The developmentsSite-wide Strategy for Microclimate recognises

the need to counteract the UHI using, for example:

faade materials that absorb less solar heat plants in open areas to provide shade open water features to cool the air.

More info: www.futurestratford.com

Frankfurter Strasse, Hennef, Germany

The town of Hennef has implemented a numberof strategies to improve its main roads, includinggreening up the street environment, pavement

widening, and making good use of street furniture.This has created pockets of well-designed publicspace with trees forming avenues or buffers.Though this scheme was designed primarilyto create a safer environment and reverse theeconomic decline of the towns main street, thegreenery provides comfortable outdoor spacesin the face of rising temperatures. FrankfurterStrasse is now a thriving high street.

More info: www.newlifeformainroads.org.uk/

4.1.2 managing hightemperatures at theneighbourhood scaleAt the neighbourhood scale, efforts to managehigh temperatures should focus on providing

cool and attractive outdoor areas. If well designed,adaptation at this scale can also benefit internalspaces (e.g. street trees provide evapotranspirativecooling outdoors, as well as shading buildings).

Effective adaptation of the public realm willmake use of bioclimatic design principles, takingaccount of climate and environmental conditionsto maximise comfort and efficiency. Design codescan provide a useful tool for managing conflictsand ensuring a developments compliance withthe overall concept of resilience to future climate.The key adaptation measures are:

Evaporative cooling effects from a matrix ofgreen corridors, smaller open spaces, streettrees, and green or living roofs and walls. TheASCCUE project shows that a 10% decreasein urban green results in increased maximumsurface temperatures in Manchester of up to8.2C by the 2080s under a high emissionsscenario. But, a 10% increase will keeptemperatures at or below current temperaturesup until the 2080s. Green roofs have a similareffect. Planning for greenspace will need

to take account of changing patterns ofprecipitation and availability of water.

Increased use of ponds, roadside swales, floodbalancing lakes, swimming pools and fountains.

Orientation of buildings and streets to reduceexcessive solar gain and catch breezes.

Cool pavement materials on roadways or largeparking areas to increase surface reflectivity(though it is important to avoid glare problems)or increase rainfall permeability to benefit from

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Frankfurter Strasse, Henef, GermanySource: Transport 2000 / Axel C Springfield

Stratford City redevelopmentSource: Arup Associates


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At the building scale it will be important to avoidmaladapted design, where energy efficiency

measures (e.g. to increase solar gain andreduce winter heat loss) have the potential toexacerbate summer heat risks. While mechanicalair conditioning is an obvious way to guaranteethermal comfort during hotter summers, this solutionwould contribute excess heat to the surroundingair, significantly increase energy demand andcompromise GHG reduction targets. Emergingbest practice is to reduce cooling load as far aspossible using passive solutions and then find thebest mechanical solution to meet any remainingcooling requirement using the option that best

fits the other design objectives.A number of structural solutions offer effectivemeans of managing heat risks and reducing thermaldiscomfort at this scale, including:

Planting, shading and advanced glazing systemsto reduce solar heat gain (see Bratislavaimage below).

Materials to prevent penetration of heat, includinguse of cool building materials and greenroofs and walls.

Innovative use of water for cooling, includingground water cooling using aquifers or surfacewater (possibly as part of SUDS).

Mechanical cooling, including chilled beamsand conventional air conditioning systems.

Increasing ventilation and removing heat usingfresh air (only effective when outside air is cool).

Use of thermal storage or mass to absorbheat during hot periods so that it can dissipatein cooler periods, usually using ventilation.Ground coupled systems make use of thermalstorage in the ground.

4.1.3 managing hightemperatures atthe building scale

Sunshine Coast University, Australia

This university campus is laid out in a lineararrangement of open and built space, with along axis orientated to allow buildings optimumsolar gain in winter and cooling sea breezesin summer. Heat risk management strategieson this campus include:

Central courtyards of semi-open shadedspaces which provide cool pools for crossventilation into adjacent spaces. Thetemperature of air drawn into the courtyardsis maintained or cooled by each courtyardsmass, vegetation and absence of solar gain.

Bio-climatic weather walls, equipped withlouvres and sliding windows, which providea shaded space of one metre width outsideexterior walls.

Thermal chimney vents and louvres to move

warm air away from working and living spaces. Extensive use of screens, fins, sun shelters

and tree plantings to reduce direct sunlighton buildings.

More info: www.csdesign.epsa.uq.edu.au

Adnams Brewery Warehouse, SuffolkSource: Lime Technology

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Trees reducing the need for air conditioning, BratislavaSource: John Handley


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Council House 2, Melbourne, Australia

The design of the 10-storey Council House 2(CH2) office building incorporates dark-colouredair extraction ducts that absorb heat from the sun,helping air inside rise up and out of the building.The south faade has light-coloured ducts thatdraw fresh air in from the roof.

Outside air from a night purge (natural night-timeventilation) cools thick concrete ceilings that storethis coolth due to their high thermal mass. Thiscoolth then radiates back into the office spaceduring the day. A separate water stream passesthrough chilled ceiling panels and beams tofurther cool the building.

CH2 occupants are able to control the flow ofincoming fresh air to work spaces via floor vents,and louvres move according to the position ofthe sun to provide shade. Finally, vertical plantingon the north faade filters strong sunlight and

provides additional shade.

More info: www.melbourne.vic.gov.au

Menara Mesiniaga, Subang Jaya, Malaysia

This 15-storey building incorporates a numberof innovative strategies to manage heat risks.The faade contains deep balconies which areplanted to provide shade and evaporative cooling.Circular floors of office space with triple-heightrecessed terraces are also planted. These atriums

enable cool air to flow through the buildingspublic spaces while the planting provides shade.Windows facing the sun are equipped withaluminium fins and louvres to reduce solar heatgain and provide shading. All of these features,combined with a sunroof which incorporatessolar panels, reduce long-term maintenancecosts and contribute to lower energy usage.

More info: www.ellipsis.com/yeang/

case studiesAdnams Brewery Warehouse, Suffolk

This low-rise building is designed to eliminate theneed for summer cooling and winter heating. It isconstructed of hemp and chalk blocks which helpto regulate temperature naturally and efficiently.The thick, porous walls help the building to act like

a cellar, maintaining an even ambient temperaturethroughout the year. The thick warehouse wallshave a cavity wall constructed of two skins ofblocks, which are filled with a hemp-lime mix.Very little energy is required to produce thematerials and build the walls, and the hemp actsas an extremely good insulator. It also allows thewalls to breathe, keeping damp at bay.

Several other innovative design strategies havebeen incorporated to reduce need for cooling:

An internal door system has been designed

to create an insulation tunnel that maintainsthe warehouse temperature at a constant 11C,reducing the need for refrigeration units.

Roof beams overhang each side of the building,offering shading and helping to maintain a coolinternal temperature.

More info: www.newbuilder.co.uk/news/> Adnams

Adapted from Council House 2, Melbourne, AustraliaSource: Corporate Communications City of Melbourne

Bio climatic section

Roof top energy

Healthy air

Thermal mass

Displacement air

Shower towersChilled ceilings

Shading & light

Vertical planting

Wind turbines

Exhaust

Phase change material

Menara Mesiniaga IBM Headquarters. Source: Ken Yeang at T. R.Hamzah & Yeang Sdn.Bhd. Photography by K. L. Ng Photography

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Rising sea levels, increases inaverage winter precipitation and inthe frequency, duration and intensityof heavy downpours will increaseflood risks. Impervious surfacesin urban areas will exacerbatethe risks by preventing rainwaterfrom percolating into the ground.

Changes in the catchment, such as field drainageand channelisation of water courses adds to theproblem. Areas where drainage capacity cannotcope with current levels of precipitation will beat greatest risk.

Flood risk management measures should provideadded health, ecology and leisure benefits byenhancing the quality of public space.

The most effective way to manage future floodrisks is to reduce exposure. This involves assessingrisk over the life of a development and locatingand designing developments accordingly. Theapproach, outlined below, can be applied at alllevels of planning and design and is describedin detail in PPS25 (Development and flood risk)

17

and the associated Practice Guide:

Assess risks Identify land at risk and the degree of risk of

flooding from river, sea and other sources.

Prepare assessments of flood risks thatcontribute to SA / SEA.

Manage risks

Direct development, particularly for vulnerableuses, away from flood risk areas.

Manage any residual risks, taking account ofclimate change over a developments lifetime.

Reduce risks Safeguard land that is required for current

and future flood risk management.

Reduce flood risks to and from newdevelopment through location, layout andflood resilient design.

Use sustainable drainage systems (SUDS).

Make space for water use green infrastructurefor flood storage, conveyance and SUDS,re-create functional floodplains.

Take opportunities to relocate existing buildingsthat will be vulnerable to flooding.

Take a partnership approach Work with stakeholders, such as the

Environment Agency and Scottish EnvironmentProtection Agency.

Ensure spatial planning supports flood risk, riverbasin and surface water management policiesand plans, and emergency plans.

Implementation of the Water Framework Directivein the UK brings opportunities for Integrated WaterResources Management (IWRM). IWRM callsfor holistic consideration of the total watershed,including surface and ground water, quantity andquality issues, ecology, the relationship betweenland and water resources, and the differentsocio-economic functions of the watershed.18

Some of the adaptation options for managing floodrisks also function as effective strategies for waterresources and quality management. These risksare dealt with in 4.3. Given that climate change willresult in heavier winter rainfall and drier summersa more coordinated approach to flood risk, waterresource and water quality management wouldoffer significant benefits. Similarly, upland plantingcan reduce soil erosion, and green roofs can helpto manage high temperatures in buildings.

Where is the imperative for

adaptation greatest?Risks from tidal, river and stormwater flooding varyby location. The Environment Agencys Flood Map(www.environment-agency.gov.uk/subjects/flood) shows floodplains in England and Wales thatwould naturally be affected by flooding if a riverrises above its banks, or high tides and stormyseas cause flooding in coastal areas.

Property in an undefended floodplain is at highestrisk of flooding. Increased economic wealth willalso increase the value of losses. In 2004 theForesight Future Flooding report19 estimated thatannual average flood damages could increaseby 2 to 20 times by the end of this century.

4.2 managingflood risks

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Conurbation/ catchment scale

Neighbourhood scale

Building scale

Source control, for example,upland land management

Diversion or dualling of floodflows away from affected areas

Managed realignment

Managing flood pathways tocope with heavy rainfall events

Rain proofing and overhangs

Flood resilient materials Removable household products

Raising floor levels

Green roofs One-way valves

Widening drains to increase capacity

Sustainable drainage systems

Set-back flood defences and, as a last resort,permanent defences and hard barriers

Flood attenuation and temporary waterstorage, including use of greenspace

menu of strategies formanaging flood risks

25

The diagram summarises the range of actionsand techniques available to increase adaptivecapacity. Detail is given in the text on theproceeding pages.


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At the catchment scale the most significant riskswill be from tidal and river floods. The aim should

be to integrate green and built spaces withflood management strategies. Built environmentprofessionals should take account of climatechange and focus on opportunities to reduceflood risks through large scale infrastructure.

It is essential that flood risk management takesaccount of interactions over the whole catchment.Water storage should be incorporated into spatialplans and drainage pinch points, or barriers,should be avoided. Holding water in the upperparts of catchments can reduce downstreamflooding. Structural flood defence schemes

need to take into account the impact of climatechange on the magnitude of risk, and incorporatedesigns which allow future adaptation.

Flood risk management strategies include:

Strategic flood risk assessment and a sequentialapproach to development in the floodplain.The longer term implications of sea level rise maymean that decision-makers need to start thinkingabout moving particularly vulnerable settlements.

Flood attenuation, or provision of temporary

water storage capacity during flood events,to reduce peak flows. This includes creationof flood retarding basins and sacrificial areas(e.g. sports fields and car parks) that floodduring extreme events.

Upland land management though storage(e.g. reservoirs) and planting to reduce runoff.

Managed realignment involves breaching existinghard coastal defences, such as sea walls,allowing land behind to be flooded. Vegetationdisperses wave energy during storm events,reducing coastal erosion and providing habitatsfor coastal flora and fauna. This option canreduce the costs of coastal defence.

Understanding flooding pathways in urban

environments, to help manage the probabilityof flooding and its consequences.

Hard, permanent flood defences and barriers.

Diversion of flood flows away from vulnerableareas or constructing a second flood channel.

SUDS to manage and slow down surface waterrun-off and release it to the natural water cycle.SUDS can deal with flood, water quality andresource risks while also bringing ecologicaland amenity benefits.

case studiesESPACE Guiding Models for Water Storage,The Netherlands

Space is at a premium and vulnerable to floodingin the low-lying and densely populated Netherlands.The European Spatial Planning: Adapting toClimate Events (ESPACE) project has developed13 models for water storage for managing

flood risks. These are practical strategies whichemphasise a multi-functional approach to landuse. For example, one model describes seasonalstorage of flood water on agricultural land, withfinancial compensation to farmers who providethese blue services.

In addition to practical examples of water storagestrategies in the field, the models offer proceduresto facilitate implementation and an emphasis oncollaborative decision-making. The approach isbroadly transferable to UK land use planning.

More info: www.espace-project.org

4.2.1 managing floodrisks at thecatchment scale

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A component of the ESPACE Guiding Models tool. Source: Robbertde Koning landscape architect BNT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands


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At the neighbourhood scale, efforts should focuson understanding and managing flood pathways

and protecting areas at risk. Well designedadaptation can have additional benefits for waterquality and resource management, and enhancethe public spaces.

Similar solutions from catchment flood riskmanagement strategies can be applied at theneighbourhood level. These include:

Strategic flood risk assessment and a sequentialapproach to development in the floodplain.

Impermeable surfaces can be replaced bySUDS, such as permeable pavement, gravel

or grass so that water can soak away. Withinparks and greenspaces storage areas, suchas infiltration ponds, can be constructed.

Smaller scale hard barriers or managedrealignment schemes.

A second layer of setback flood defenceconstructed behind the original barrier.This is often used with managed realignment.

Use of green open space and green roofs toreduce runoff and ameliorate pressure on

drainage systems during heavy rainfall. Widening drains to increase drainage capacity.

Managing flood pathways and removingpinchpoints so that heavy rainfall candrain away.

4.2.2 managing floodrisks at theneighbourhood scale

BETWIXT High Resolution WeatherScenarios

The BETWIXT20 project has developed highresolution weather scenarios. Outputs includethe RainClim software package, which createsrainfall time series for present day and future timeperiods, and the Climatic Research Unit weathergenerator. The Environment Agency has used

these to develop the EA Rainfall and WeatherImpacts Generator (EARWIG) tool.

More info: www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/projects/betwixt

Coastal Realignment at Abbotts Hall Farmzz

The Blackwater estuary, one of the largest inEast Anglia, covers almost 4,400 ha and is ofnational and international importance for natureconservation. One of the main threats to theestuary is coastal squeeze, where natural saltmarsh is pinned against man-made flood defencesby rising sea levels. Over the last 25 years upto 40% of the salt marsh has been lost.

The coastal realignment project at Abbotts HallFarm was designed to allow for the regenerationof salt marsh. The scheme works by breachinghard defences and allowing salt water back ontoland originally reclaimed by the construction of asea wall over 300 years ago. Two counter wallshave been constructed at either end of the siteto protect neighbouring land. This has allowedthe creation of 200 acres of mudflat, pioneer

salt marsh and coastal grassland.More info: www.essexwt.org.uk/sites/Abbotts%20Hall%20Farm.htm

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AUDACIOUS project scopeSource: AUDACIOUS project

Downscaledrainfall scenarios(15 minutesresolution)

Other climatechange scenarioeffects

Building/localhighway drainage

Adaptedhydrologymodel

Local drainage

Socio economicscenarios

Downstream effects

Main drainage

EPSRC/Defra/EA/UKWIR etc. Flood RiskManagement Research Consortium. Makingspace for water Planning Policy Statement 25

Use ofAUDACIOUSoutputs

Coastal realignment at Abbotts Hall FarmSource: Essex Wildlife Trust


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case studiesAdaptable urban drainage, AUDACIOUSresearch project

The AUDACIOUS project took account of potentialfuture changes in climate and urban form toevaluate solutions for urban drainage. It focussedon problems of flooding associated with surface

water run-off and sewer surcharging linked tointense rainfall events. The project found thatinstitutional barriers present a major challengeto managing flood risks, and underlines theimportance of building capacity within stakeholdergroups and clear distribution of roles andresponsibilities. AUDACIOUS proposes usinga surface water management plan (SWMP) tohelp understand flood risks and plan responses(See image page 27).

Other outputs include:

A new urban hydrology runoff model which isflexible enough to accommodate new informationabout climate change as this becomes available.

New building drainage (storm and sanitary)simulation models.

A new whole-life-cost risk based methodology forassessing flood risk and response effectiveness

Guidance for building stakeholder capacity.

More info: www.k4cc.org/bkcc/audacious

Canal Basin Regeneration, Gravesend

Gravesend is located within the Thamesestuary and a significant portion of the canalbasin regeneration site is part of the historicfloodplain of low lying marsh. A Strategic FloodRisk Assessment (SFRA) has been undertakento analyse the main risks. The site developerand architect have also used a site flood riskassessment to plan for extreme events.

Upton One Urban Extension, NorthamptonshireSource: D. Waterhouse, TCPA

Other flood management strategies include: settingback river edge flood defences to make space forwater; incorporating flood flow paths and storagewithin the site; locating vulnerable uses in low riskareas; designing resilient buildings and emergencyaccess routes; and incorporating SUDS. Thesewill allow the local planning authority to applya risk based approach to site allocation in the

LDF and to development control decisions.More info: www.gravesham.gov.uk

Upton One Urban Extension,Northamptonshire

One of Uptons key features is its SUDS whichmanages rainwater run-off and promotes localbiodiversity. Consisting primarily of linked swales,SUDS at Upton provide the underlying basis ofthe landscape structure, and is connected withthe streets and built form. A company has been

established to manage the SUDS and maintaincommunal courtyards. Rainwater harvesting hasalso been incorporated.

The plan was created through a collaborativedesign exercise putting the community at the heartof decision-making. Design Codes were used bypartners as the basis for drawing up developmentbriefs, and for assessing developer proposalsprior to submission for planning permission. Thisstrong community-oriented process emphasisesenvironmental responsiveness and aims tominimise future running costs.

More info: www.northampton.gov.uk

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Canal Basin Regeneration, GravesendSource: Gravesham Borough Council


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The aim at this scale should be to minimiseexposure to flooding whilst incorporating

structural solutions to reduce vulnerability. Newdevelopments need to be carefully assessed toensure that they are built to cope with flood risksas they change over time and that risks in adjacentareas are not exacerbated.

Existing buildings can take advantage of newmaterials and products to manage flood risks.Though it must be stressed that these strategiesdo not always make new development in thefloodplain acceptable in flood risk terms theyare aimed at protecting existing development. Thestrategy should be to relocate vulnerable land uses

out of the floodplain, including emergency services.

The proportion of sealed ground should beminimised, since this exacerbates flooding. Wherepossible, ground should be left or made permeable.

Flood risk management strategies at thisscale include:

Green roofs to reduce runoff and ease pressureon drainage systems.

Managing flood pathways and removingpinchpoints so that heavy rainfall can drain away.

One way valves permanently fitted in drains andsewage pipes to prevent backflow and, as a lastresort, widening drains to increase capacity.

Flood resilient measures, including raising floorlevels, electrical fittings and equipment; rain-proofing and overhangs to prevent infiltration ofheavy rain around doors and windows; temporaryfree-standing barriers which hold back floodwaterfrom properties.

Flood resilient materials can withstand direct

contact with floodwaters for some time withoutsignificant damage. These include concrete,vinyl and ceramic tiles, pressure-treated timber,glass block, metal doors and cabinets.

Removable household products like flood boards,air brick covers and flood skirts which are fittedtemporarily to properties to form a barrier towater. Pipes, drains and toilet bowls can betemporarily blocked using an expandable/inflatable bung to prevent backflow. In casesof severe flooding, the stress caused bywater volume can damage the structureand foundations of buildings, making it moreharmful to keep water out than to let it in.

case studiesNational Trust Properties, Boscastle

Following devastating floods at Boscastle in2004, impermeable wall finishes on vulnerablebuildings have been replaced with limewash. Thisallows walls to dry out after inundation. Internally,suspended floors have been converted to solid

floors to reduce the impact of any future flooding,and electrical points have been raised off theground. Floors in the Youth Hostel have beenraised above the level of a 1 in 100-year flood.

The Engineering Historic Futures project providesbetter understanding of the wetting properties anddrying processes in historic buildings.

More info: www.nationaltrust.org.uk andwww.ucl.ac.uk/sustainableheritage/historic_futures.htm

Genesis Centre, Taunton

Genesis, at Somerset College of Arts andTechnology in Taunton, is a 2.5 million educationalresource showcasing cutting edge techniques andmaterials for sustainable construction. The SUDSat Genesis uses landscaping to replicate naturaldrainage with a series of features to slow downsurface water run-off and filter pollutants. Water isthen slowly returned to a natural watercourse. TheCentre also incorporates permeable paving in carparking bays, providing drainage through verticalchannels to allow controlled release to sewers

or water courses.The performance of the materials and techniquesused is monitored so that they can be measuredagainst industry standards and against eachother to assess fitness for purpose. The designis flexible and can be adapted with newtechnologies and materials.

More info: www.genesisproject.com

4.2.3 managingflood risks at thebuilding scale

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Genesis Centre, TauntonSource: The Genesis Project


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Changing patterns of rainfall willhave a significant impact on waterresources and water quality. In thesummer, warmer temperatures willmean that demand for water growsjust as supply especially in waterin rivers and underground aquifers

declines due to lower rainfall.Urban areas have little capacity to

store drinking water and are morelikely to experience shortagesduring droughts.

Low river flows during dry summers can leadto restrictions on water abstractions, withconsequences for industrial and mechanicalcooling processes when the need for coolingis highest. Low river flows are less able to dilutepollutants, with knock-on impacts for water qualityincluding eutrophication (where excess nutrientsstimulate excessive plant growth) and algal blooms.

Urban flooding and flooding of landfill sites canlead to pollutants entering watercourses or, inextreme cases, buildings. First flush episodes,where sudden heavy rain falls after a long dryperiod, can also wash high concentrations ofpollutants into streams and rivers.

Whereas high temperatures and heat wavesare relatively new challenges, managing waterresources and water quality is an ongoing prioritywith established responsibilities and procedures.Climate change is putting additional pressure

on current water resource management systems,and traditional responses may not be adequatein the future.

Treating and distributing water for human userequires substantial energy resources (waterindustry GHG emissions were just over4m tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2005/0621).Reducing the amount of water used cantherefore make a significant contributionto reducing emissions.

Where is the imperative foradaptation greatest?Water resource and quality risks vary considerablyby geographic location. Summer and winterprecipitation is currently more plentiful in thenorth and west, and it tends to be higher inupland areas. The largest changes in precipitationin both winter and summer due to climate changewill be experienced in eastern and southern partsof the UK the changes in northwest Scotland

are the smallest. The imperative for adaptation forwater supply and quality risks is therefore greatestin the south and east, where water resources arein many cases already fully committed.

The Environment Agency produces maps showingcurrent indicative availability of summer and wintersurface water and groundwater for England andWales as part of the Water Resources for theFuture strategy.22 This refers to climate changeas a factor affecting fut