Chapter x

Classification of Nigerian

Architecture

Chapter x

Classification of Nigerian

Architecture

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 1

1. Summary.2. Introduction.3. The Historical Style and Traditional Architecture.4. Modern Style.5. The New West African Style.6. Late Modern.7. Regional trend.8. Nouveau Rich: The Architecture of the Super Rich.9. Post Modern Trend.10. Conclusion.11. References.

1. Summary.

This chapter presents the classification of architecture of Nigeria starting from pre-colonial untilcontemporary times. It depicts the historical perspective and portrays contemporary trends andmovements. It shows the richness of Nigerian heritage and deciphers recent developments. A mainachievement of this paper is a synthesized classification of Nigerian architecture. It portrays theHistorical Style (represented by the European, Brazilian and North African Trends) throughTraditional Architecture and the Modern Style (with the International Style, the New West AfricanStyle and the Post-Modern Trend).

There is a very weak link between the Historical Style (including Traditional Architecture), andcontemporary modern architecture of Nigeria. The Historical Style reveals how architects can drawinspiration from historical heritage as evidenced by the Regional Trend of contemporary Nigerianarchitecture.

The author studied the work, ideas and aspirations of some leading architects in the country in orderto see how the trends and styles of this genealogy relate logically to the contemporary situation. Thepresentation of contemporary masterpieces gives a general overview of the recent situation andidentifies the basic problems that the designers are facing.

This chapter presents the classification of architecture of Nigeria starting from pre-colonial untilcontemporary times. It depicts the historical perspective and portrays contemporary trends andmovements. It shows the richness of Nigerian heritage and deciphers recent developments. A mainachievement of this paper is a synthesized classification of Nigerian architecture. It portrays theHistorical Style (represented by the European, Brazilian and North African Trends) throughTraditional Architecture and the Modern Style (with the International Style, the New West AfricanStyle and the Post-Modern Trend).

There is a very weak link between the Historical Style (including Traditional Architecture), andcontemporary modern architecture of Nigeria. The Historical Style reveals how architects can drawinspiration from historical heritage as evidenced by the Regional Trend of contemporary Nigerianarchitecture.

The author studied the work, ideas and aspirations of some leading architects in the country in orderto see how the trends and styles of this genealogy relate logically to the contemporary situation. Thepresentation of contemporary masterpieces gives a general overview of the recent situation andidentifies the basic problems that the designers are facing.

2. Introduction

3.0 The Historical Style and

Traditional Architecture

The period embraced by this presentation spansa few centuries starting from pre-colonial timesand ending with recent developments. Thegenealogy is portrayed by a model of evolutionin Nigerian architecture (Fig. 1).

The inspirations were drawn from sucharchitectural critics as Kenzo Tange, Louis Khan,Ada Louis Huxtable, Nikolaus Pevsner andCharles Jencks to mention a few. This paperoften relies on some recognized movements butsome trends are newly defined.

A basic distinction in Nigerian architecture canbe made between the North and the South, andthis is best pronounced by TraditionalArchitecture and Traditional Style. The strongestinfluences on indigenous architecture were theintroduction of Islam into Northern Nigeria, thereturn of the ex-slaves from the Americas(especially Brazil), and colonization. TheHistorical Style consists of the European Trendfollowed by the Colonial Style. The BrazilianTrend evolved into the Brazilian Style while theNorth African Trend evolved into SudaneseArchitecture. The blend of TraditionalArchitecture and Historical Styles formedVernacular Architecture.

Before considering the historical influences, amention should be made of antiquity. The Nokcivilization developed in the central part ofNigeria’s present territory between 500 BC and200 BC. Possessing the knowledge of iron, thesegrassland people moved into the forest country(Clarke 1984) and that was when people “set upnew homes” at Ife and other places. The Hausaswere then a number of different people.Although knowledge of the achievements of theNok civilization is wide it is difficult to imaginethe form of their settlements. On the contraryknowledge of the architecture of the MiddleAges is rather extensive.

The more stable and enduring towns of pre-

3.1 Traditional Architecture and

Traditional Style

The period embraced by this presentation spansa few centuries starting from pre-colonial timesand ending with recent developments. Thegenealogy is portrayed by a model of evolutionin Nigerian architecture (Fig. 1).

The inspirations were drawn from sucharchitectural critics as Kenzo Tange, Louis Khan,Ada Louis Huxtable, Nikolaus Pevsner andCharles Jencks to mention a few. This paperoften relies on some recognized movements butsome trends are newly defined.

A basic distinction in Nigerian architecture canbe made between the North and the South, andthis is best pronounced by TraditionalArchitecture and Traditional Style. The strongestinfluences on indigenous architecture were theintroduction of Islam into Northern Nigeria, thereturn of the ex-slaves from the Americas(especially Brazil), and colonization. TheHistorical Style consists of the European Trendfollowed by the Colonial Style. The BrazilianTrend evolved into the Brazilian Style while theNorth African Trend evolved into SudaneseArchitecture. The blend of TraditionalArchitecture and Historical Styles formedVernacular Architecture.

Before considering the historical influences, amention should be made of antiquity. The Nokcivilization developed in the central part ofNigeria’s present territory between 500 BC and200 BC. Possessing the knowledge of iron, thesegrassland people moved into the forest country(Clarke 1984) and that was when people “set upnew homes” at Ife and other places. The Hausaswere then a number of different people.Although knowledge of the achievements of theNok civilization is wide it is difficult to imaginethe form of their settlements. On the contraryknowledge of the architecture of the MiddleAges is rather extensive.

The more stable and enduring towns of pre-

3.1 Traditional Architecture and

Traditional Style

2 Modern Nigerian Architecture

colonial Africa developed because of the intenseritual of market activity. Oliver (1976) calledthese cities pre-industrial cities, which weretheatres of competition for the symbols of powerand material well being. Initially, some townsemerged as collecting points for wanderingimmigrants who used their favourable locationsas spiritual or cultural bases for subsequentterritorial expansion. For the Hausa and Yoruba,Daura and Ife respectively became spiritualspringboards for the establishment of extensiveempires. In a city like Kano, group masons andother specialized trades could be found in thepast, basic elements of a real building industry.

From the 15th century, the mosque was one ofthe most prominent buildings in Hausa towns.Houses, boundary walls and roofs in the townswere built of mud. In the villages the roofs werealmost always of grass and boundary walls wereof matting or corn stalks. The basic house wallswere often made of mud.

In the Yoruba zone of Nigeria the chief’s (Oba’s)palace and the market place dominated thecentral areas of well-planned cities like Ile-Ife(11th century), Ilesha and Ekiti. The populacelived in compounds each of which had a largehouse set in a square-shaped space bounded bya high wall. Some were more than a half-acre insize and provided living space for a large familyand kinsmen. There was only a single entrance.Inside, the compounds were divided intonumerous rooms. Until the early twentiethcentury, most of the compounds as well as theOba’s palace were roofed with thatch.

The conclusion can then be drawn that in theTraditional Style the roofs of the houses wereconstructed of thatch, but quite early in thedevelopment of Northern Nigerian towns thethatched roof was replaced by the flat or dome-shaped mud roof (Fig. 2). The climate, humanphysiology and geography led to thedevelopment of curvilinear, conical and mud-roofed structures in the North and the rectilinearthatch-roof mud houses of the South (Awotona1986, p. 55).

During the 18th and 19th centuries the regionoccupying the territory of today’s Nigeria

3.2 The European Trend and the

Development of the Colonial Style

colonial Africa developed because of the intenseritual of market activity. Oliver (1976) calledthese cities pre-industrial cities, which weretheatres of competition for the symbols of powerand material well being. Initially, some townsemerged as collecting points for wanderingimmigrants who used their favourable locationsas spiritual or cultural bases for subsequentterritorial expansion. For the Hausa and Yoruba,Daura and Ife respectively became spiritualspringboards for the establishment of extensiveempires. In a city like Kano, group masons andother specialized trades could be found in thepast, basic elements of a real building industry.

From the 15th century, the mosque was one ofthe most prominent buildings in Hausa towns.Houses, boundary walls and roofs in the townswere built of mud. In the villages the roofs werealmost always of grass and boundary walls wereof matting or corn stalks. The basic house wallswere often made of mud.

In the Yoruba zone of Nigeria the chief’s (Oba’s)palace and the market place dominated thecentral areas of well-planned cities like Ile-Ife(11th century), Ilesha and Ekiti. The populacelived in compounds each of which had a largehouse set in a square-shaped space bounded bya high wall. Some were more than a half-acre insize and provided living space for a large familyand kinsmen. There was only a single entrance.Inside, the compounds were divided intonumerous rooms. Until the early twentiethcentury, most of the compounds as well as theOba’s palace were roofed with thatch.

The conclusion can then be drawn that in theTraditional Style the roofs of the houses wereconstructed of thatch, but quite early in thedevelopment of Northern Nigerian towns thethatched roof was replaced by the flat or dome-shaped mud roof (Fig. 2). The climate, humanphysiology and geography led to thedevelopment of curvilinear, conical and mud-roofed structures in the North and the rectilinearthatch-roof mud houses of the South (Awotona1986, p. 55).

During the 18th and 19th centuries the regionoccupying the territory of today’s Nigeria

3.2 The European Trend and the

Development of the Colonial Style

The period embraced by this presentation spansa few centuries starting from pre-colonial timesand ending with recent developments. Thegenealogy is portrayed by a model of evolutionin Nigerian architecture (Fig. 1).

The inspirations were drawn from sucharchitectural critics as Kenzo Tange, Louis Khan,Ada Louis Huxtable, Nikolaus Pevsner andCharles Jencks to mention a few. This paperoften relies on some recognized movements butsome trends are newly defined.

A basic distinction in Nigerian architecture canbe made between the North and the South, andthis is best pronounced by TraditionalArchitecture and Traditional Style. The strongestinfluences on indigenous architecture were theintroduction of Islam into Northern Nigeria, thereturn of the ex-slaves from the Americas(especially Brazil), and colonization. TheHistorical Style consists of the European Trendfollowed by the Colonial Style. The BrazilianTrend evolved into the Brazilian Style while theNorth African Trend evolved into SudaneseArchitecture. The blend of TraditionalArchitecture and Historical Styles formedVernacular Architecture.

Before considering the historical influences, amention should be made of antiquity. The Nokcivilization developed in the central part ofNigeria’s present territory between 500 BC and200 BC. Possessing the knowledge of iron, thesegrassland people moved into the forest country(Clarke 1984) and that was when people “set upnew homes” at Ife and other places. The Hausaswere then a number of different people.Although knowledge of the achievements of theNok civilization is wide it is difficult to imaginethe form of their settlements. On the contraryknowledge of the architecture of the MiddleAges is rather extensive.

The more stable and enduring towns of pre-

3.1 Traditional Architecture and

Traditional Style

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 3

TRADITIONAL

ARCHITECTURE

NORTH

EUROPEAN BRAZILIAN AFRICAN

TREND TREND TREND

COLONIAL BRAZILIAN SUDANESE

STYLE STYLE ARCHITECTURE

TRADITIONAL

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE STYLE

MODERN STYLE REGIONAL TREND

INTERNATIONAL STYLE THE NEW WEST AFRICAN STYLE

PURE LOW HIGH NOUVEAU

MODERN TROP TROP RICH

LATE POST-MODERN TREND

MODERN

HISTORICAL STYLE

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

BRAZILIAN

TREND

EUROPEAN

TREND

LATE

MODERN

Figure 1. Evolution of Nigerian architecture.

colonial Africa developed because of the intenseritual of market activity. Oliver (1976) calledthese cities pre-industrial cities, which weretheatres of competition for the symbols of powerand material well being. Initially, some townsemerged as collecting points for wanderingimmigrants who used their favourable locationsas spiritual or cultural bases for subsequentterritorial expansion. For the Hausa and Yoruba,Daura and Ife respectively became spiritualspringboards for the establishment of extensiveempires. In a city like Kano, group masons andother specialized trades could be found in thepast, basic elements of a real building industry.

From the 15th century, the mosque was one ofthe most prominent buildings in Hausa towns.Houses, boundary walls and roofs in the townswere built of mud. In the villages the roofs werealmost always of grass and boundary walls wereof matting or corn stalks. The basic house wallswere often made of mud.

In the Yoruba zone of Nigeria the chief’s (Oba’s)palace and the market place dominated thecentral areas of well-planned cities like Ile-Ife(11th century), Ilesha and Ekiti. The populacelived in compounds each of which had a largehouse set in a square-shaped space bounded bya high wall. Some were more than a half-acre insize and provided living space for a large familyand kinsmen. There was only a single entrance.Inside, the compounds were divided intonumerous rooms. Until the early twentiethcentury, most of the compounds as well as theOba’s palace were roofed with thatch.

The conclusion can then be drawn that in theTraditional Style the roofs of the houses wereconstructed of thatch, but quite early in thedevelopment of Northern Nigerian towns thethatched roof was replaced by the flat or dome-shaped mud roof (Fig. 2). The climate, humanphysiology and geography led to thedevelopment of curvilinear, conical and mud-roofed structures in the North and the rectilinearthatch-roof mud houses of the South (Awotona1986, p. 55).

During the 18th and 19th centuries the regionoccupying the territory of today’s Nigeria

3.2 The European Trend and the

Development of the Colonial Style

d e v e l o p e d d y n a m i ceconomies, which adapted in aposi t ive manner to theexpansion of world trade.According to Payne (1977), “acash economy had developedand was well able to exploit thebenefits of international tradefor internal development”.Three factors combined tomake a radical transformationof the Nigerian scene in the19th century - the Muslimjihads and Yoruba civil wars,European exploration andmissionary efforts, and arevolution in trade.

The influence of Britain startedmainly through the trade ofslaves in the 18th century,which was however brought toan end in the middle of the 19thcentury. Nigeria became a

d e v e l o p e d d y n a m i ceconomies, which adapted in aposi t ive manner to theexpansion of world trade.According to Payne (1977), “acash economy had developedand was well able to exploit thebenefits of international tradefor internal development”.Three factors combined tomake a radical transformationof the Nigerian scene in the19th century - the Muslimjihads and Yoruba civil wars,European exploration andmissionary efforts, and arevolution in trade.

The influence of Britain startedmainly through the trade ofslaves in the 18th century,which was however brought toan end in the middle of the 19thcentury. Nigeria became a

protectorate of England withLagos as a colony. In 1914Southern Nigeria, NorthernNigeria and the Colony ofLagos got united and becamethe Colony and Protectorate ofNigeria.

Because of the expansion ofBritain in the landscape ofNigerian architecture newtypes of buildings wereintroduced. These were usuallyeither imported 18th centuryh o u s e s o f t h e E n g l i s hcountryside or prefabricatedconstructions with deepverandas and overhangingeaves. These were sometimesraised on stilts (Adeyemi 1975-1976), and they usually had acontinuous horizontal band ofw indows . The phys i ca lappearance of settlementschanged because of theintroduction of new buildingmate r i a l s f rom Europe .Corrugated iron sheeting andcement have had perhaps thegreatest effect (Denyer 1978).These buildings represent theC o l o n i a l S t y l e , w h o s echaracter is nevertheless mostdistinctively represented bypublic and administrativebuildings from that era (Fig. 3).These are reminiscent of theclassic revival in England withthe classic orders carved out ofwalls to give impressive scale.

For four centuries, the slavetrade dominated relationsbetween the peoples of Nigeriaand peoples of Europe andAmerica. Many Nigerians whowere forcibly settled in theNew World soon lost theiridentities. The Yoruba, on theo t h e r h a n d f r e q u e n t l yp r e s e r v e d h i s c u l t u r a l

3.3 Brazilian Style

4 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Figure 3: Colonial Style. High Court Building, Lagos, by Watkinsand Partners, 1950. Source: Schultz, 1975, p.26.

Figure 2: Traditional Architecture of the North. A structure masterly covered with several domes with very small openings onexternal walls. Source: Author’s photograph.

Example of adobe traditional architecture of the North. Source: Internet search.

d e v e l o p e d d y n a m i ceconomies, which adapted in aposi t ive manner to theexpansion of world trade.According to Payne (1977), “acash economy had developedand was well able to exploit thebenefits of international tradefor internal development”.Three factors combined tomake a radical transformationof the Nigerian scene in the19th century - the Muslimjihads and Yoruba civil wars,European exploration andmissionary efforts, and arevolution in trade.

The influence of Britain startedmainly through the trade ofslaves in the 18th century,which was however brought toan end in the middle of the 19thcentury. Nigeria became a

protectorate of England withLagos as a colony. In 1914Southern Nigeria, NorthernNigeria and the Colony ofLagos got united and becamethe Colony and Protectorate ofNigeria.

Because of the expansion ofBritain in the landscape ofNigerian architecture newtypes of buildings wereintroduced. These were usuallyeither imported 18th centuryh o u s e s o f t h e E n g l i s hcountryside or prefabricatedconstructions with deepverandas and overhangingeaves. These were sometimesraised on stilts (Adeyemi 1975-1976), and they usually had acontinuous horizontal band ofw indows . The phys i ca lappearance of settlementschanged because of theintroduction of new buildingmate r i a l s f rom Europe .Corrugated iron sheeting andcement have had perhaps thegreatest effect (Denyer 1978).These buildings represent theC o l o n i a l S t y l e , w h o s echaracter is nevertheless mostdistinctively represented bypublic and administrativebuildings from that era (Fig. 3).These are reminiscent of theclassic revival in England withthe classic orders carved out ofwalls to give impressive scale.

For four centuries, the slavetrade dominated relationsbetween the peoples of Nigeriaand peoples of Europe andAmerica. Many Nigerians whowere forcibly settled in theNew World soon lost theiridentities. The Yoruba, on theo t h e r h a n d f r e q u e n t l yp r e s e r v e d h i s c u l t u r a l

3.3 Brazilian Style

protectorate of England withLagos as a colony. In 1914Southern Nigeria, NorthernNigeria and the Colony ofLagos got united and becamethe Colony and Protectorate ofNigeria.

Because of the expansion ofBritain in the landscape ofNigerian architecture newtypes of buildings wereintroduced. These were usuallyeither imported 18th centuryh o u s e s o f t h e E n g l i s hcountryside or prefabricatedconstructions with deepverandas and overhangingeaves. These were sometimesraised on stilts (Adeyemi 1975-1976), and they usually had acontinuous horizontal band ofw indows . The phys i ca lappearance of settlementschanged because of theintroduction of new buildingmate r i a l s f rom Europe .Corrugated iron sheeting andcement have had perhaps thegreatest effect (Denyer 1978).These buildings represent theC o l o n i a l S t y l e , w h o s echaracter is nevertheless mostdistinctively represented bypublic and administrativebuildings from that era (Fig. 3).These are reminiscent of theclassic revival in England withthe classic orders carved out ofwalls to give impressive scale.

For four centuries, the slavetrade dominated relationsbetween the peoples of Nigeriaand peoples of Europe andAmerica. Many Nigerians whowere forcibly settled in theNew World soon lost theiridentities. The Yoruba, on theo t h e r h a n d f r e q u e n t l yp r e s e r v e d h i s c u l t u r a l

3.3 Brazilian Style

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 5

Figure 3: Colonial Style. High Court Building, Lagos, by Watkinsand Partners, 1950. Source: Schultz, 1975, p.26.Figure 3: Colonial Style. High Court Building, Lagos, by Watkinsand Partners, 1950. Source: Schultz, 1975, p.26.

Colonial architecture: Administrative Block, General Murtala Mohammed College,Yola. Source: student assignment, 2006.

Colonial architecture: Old Ministry of Works and Housing, Kashim Ibrahim Way,Yola. Source: student assignment, 2006.

individuality. A large group ofslaves revolted in Brazil in the1800’s, for example, and wererepatriated to Nigeria. At thetime when freed slavesreturned to West Africa fromthe Americas, there appeared anew style called the BrazilianStyle. It emerged with a newarchitecture different from thetraditional huts and colonialstructures. It also fulfilled theneed for a more distinguishedform. There were very oftentwo-storey houses built incement and embellished withheavy ornamental pillars andbalustrades and can still beseen in Lagos and otherSouthern cities. They arec e r t a i n l y w o r t h b e i n gpreserved.

Islam undoubtedly had a stronge f f e c t o n h o m e - g r o w narchitecture because:

The dome-shaped mud roofbecame very popular. It gavethe North a dist inct iveappearance reminiscent ofcities in North Africa. Worthnoting is that Hausa vaults orBakan Gizo were mostly usedfor ceiling construction andarchitectural decorations wereadopted in mosque’s ceilingconstruction. Further on inHausa towns merchants beganto adorn the outside walls ofthe otherwise traditionalh o u s e s w i t h e l a b o r a t emoulded designs executed in

3.4 The North African

Trend and the

Development of Sudanese

Architecture

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it applies geometricdesigns andit had an impact on form,scale, proportion andaesthetics.

individuality. A large group ofslaves revolted in Brazil in the1800’s, for example, and wererepatriated to Nigeria. At thetime when freed slavesreturned to West Africa fromthe Americas, there appeared anew style called the BrazilianStyle. It emerged with a newarchitecture different from thetraditional huts and colonialstructures. It also fulfilled theneed for a more distinguishedform. There were very oftentwo-storey houses built incement and embellished withheavy ornamental pillars andbalustrades and can still beseen in Lagos and otherSouthern cities. They arec e r t a i n l y w o r t h b e i n gpreserved.

Islam undoubtedly had a stronge f f e c t o n h o m e - g r o w narchitecture because:

The dome-shaped mud roofbecame very popular. It gavethe North a dist inct iveappearance reminiscent ofcities in North Africa. Worthnoting is that Hausa vaults orBakan Gizo were mostly usedfor ceiling construction andarchitectural decorations wereadopted in mosque’s ceilingconstruction. Further on inHausa towns merchants beganto adorn the outside walls ofthe otherwise traditionalh o u s e s w i t h e l a b o r a t emoulded designs executed in

3.4 The North African

Trend and the

Development of Sudanese

Architecture

cement. The old, non-figurativeclay walls gave way to painteddecorations executed in paintand sometimes in figurativepatterns.

In the evolution of historicsettlements, external modelsdominated increasingly thechoice of materials andt e c h n i q u e s a s w e l l a sdecoration, the size andrelationship of the rooms andthe formal organization of thedwellings. These modelsmastered by the people would,according to Langley (1976)become the foundations for avernacular architecture, “anarchitecture specific to acountry and a people”. In theNigerian context, vernaculararchitecture is expressed informs deriving from the cultureinfluences of Brazil, NorthAfrica and Europe. “Theseforms have a traditional base inthe socio-cultural organizationof the Nigerian society and theinteraction between it and theo t h e r i n f l u e n c e s h a v ecrystallized into the NigerianVernacular Architecture”(Adeyemi 1975-76). Forexample in the rural areas ofSouth-Eastern Nigeria, familym u t u a l h e l p g r a d u a l l ydisappeared, and a housingmodel inspired from the“Brazilian” urban houses,involving the use of newmaterials and new buildingtechniques spread rapidly.

In Nigeria motifs of the modernmovement had become verypopular by the late 1930s. Oneof these was the modern flat

3.5 Vernacular

Architecture

6 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Example of traditional architecture of the North at the Museum of TraditionalNigerian Architecture (MOTNA), Jos. Source: Author’s photograph, 2006.

Example of vernacular architecture. Akure, Ondo State. Source: studentassignment, 2006.

individuality. A large group ofslaves revolted in Brazil in the1800’s, for example, and wererepatriated to Nigeria. At thetime when freed slavesreturned to West Africa fromthe Americas, there appeared anew style called the BrazilianStyle. It emerged with a newarchitecture different from thetraditional huts and colonialstructures. It also fulfilled theneed for a more distinguishedform. There were very oftentwo-storey houses built incement and embellished withheavy ornamental pillars andbalustrades and can still beseen in Lagos and otherSouthern cities. They arec e r t a i n l y w o r t h b e i n gpreserved.

Islam undoubtedly had a stronge f f e c t o n h o m e - g r o w narchitecture because:

The dome-shaped mud roofbecame very popular. It gavethe North a dist inct iveappearance reminiscent ofcities in North Africa. Worthnoting is that Hausa vaults orBakan Gizo were mostly usedfor ceiling construction andarchitectural decorations wereadopted in mosque’s ceilingconstruction. Further on inHausa towns merchants beganto adorn the outside walls ofthe otherwise traditionalh o u s e s w i t h e l a b o r a t emoulded designs executed in

3.4 The North African

Trend and the

Development of Sudanese

Architecture

cement. The old, non-figurativeclay walls gave way to painteddecorations executed in paintand sometimes in figurativepatterns.

In the evolution of historicsettlements, external modelsdominated increasingly thechoice of materials andt e c h n i q u e s a s w e l l a sdecoration, the size andrelationship of the rooms andthe formal organization of thedwellings. These modelsmastered by the people would,according to Langley (1976)become the foundations for avernacular architecture, “anarchitecture specific to acountry and a people”. In theNigerian context, vernaculararchitecture is expressed informs deriving from the cultureinfluences of Brazil, NorthAfrica and Europe. “Theseforms have a traditional base inthe socio-cultural organizationof the Nigerian society and theinteraction between it and theo t h e r i n f l u e n c e s h a v ecrystallized into the NigerianVernacular Architecture”(Adeyemi 1975-76). Forexample in the rural areas ofSouth-Eastern Nigeria, familym u t u a l h e l p g r a d u a l l ydisappeared, and a housingmodel inspired from the“Brazilian” urban houses,involving the use of newmaterials and new buildingtechniques spread rapidly.

In Nigeria motifs of the modernmovement had become verypopular by the late 1930s. Oneof these was the modern flat

3.5 Vernacular

Architecture

4.0 Modern Style

cement. The old, non-figurativeclay walls gave way to painteddecorations executed in paintand sometimes in figurativepatterns.

In the evolution of historicsettlements, external modelsdominated increasingly thechoice of materials andt e c h n i q u e s a s w e l l a sdecoration, the size andrelationship of the rooms andthe formal organization of thedwellings. These modelsmastered by the people would,according to Langley (1976)become the foundations for avernacular architecture, “anarchitecture specific to acountry and a people”. In theNigerian context, vernaculararchitecture is expressed informs deriving from the cultureinfluences of Brazil, NorthAfrica and Europe. “Theseforms have a traditional base inthe socio-cultural organizationof the Nigerian society and theinteraction between it and theo t h e r i n f l u e n c e s h a v ecrystallized into the NigerianVernacular Architecture”(Adeyemi 1975-76). Forexample in the rural areas ofSouth-Eastern Nigeria, familym u t u a l h e l p g r a d u a l l ydisappeared, and a housingmodel inspired from the“Brazilian” urban houses,involving the use of newmaterials and new buildingtechniques spread rapidly.

In Nigeria motifs of the modernmovement had become verypopular by the late 1930s. Oneof these was the modern flat

3.5 Vernacular

Architecture

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 7

Example of the Brazillian style. A two-storey building in Abeokuta, Ogun State.Source: Autho’s photograph, 2005.

Atobatele House, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria (1928). Source: student assignment.

roof, which proved to be a badsolution for the tropics withheavy rainfall. The first tallbuildings in the new ModernStyle appeared in Lagos in thelate 1950s starting with Shellnow (National House) and Co-op Bank.

In the Middle East in the early1960’s Western models forbuildings were used almostwithout thinking in order tomeet local wishes and produceprogressive buildings whichwere noticeably up-to-date andby implication, Western inflavour. In the Nigerian contextarchitects often tried to makethe buildings suitable to theweather and local conditions.S u c c e s s f u l w e r e s u c harchitectural firms as DejiOyenuga and Partners, DesignGroup Nigeria, OluwoleOlumuyiwa and Associatesand Ella Waziri Associates.

The International Style adaptedt o N i g e r i a d o m i n a t e sc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r narchitecture of Nigeria. Itusua l ly explores s implegeometrical forms but oftenwith exposed parapet walls.Characteristic is the use ofconcrete externa l wal l ssupplemented by concrete,steel or aluminium sun shadingdevices (Senate Building atABU Zaria, ManagementHouse in Lagos, CSS BookshopHouse in Lagos).

This style is well represented bythe architecture created byarchi tects of the oldergeneration who were trainedabroad in modern ideas. Thisarchitecture is best portrayedby the term Pure Modern. TheInternational Style is also

4.1 International Style

roof, which proved to be a badsolution for the tropics withheavy rainfall. The first tallbuildings in the new ModernStyle appeared in Lagos in thelate 1950s starting with Shellnow (National House) and Co-op Bank.

In the Middle East in the early1960’s Western models forbuildings were used almostwithout thinking in order tomeet local wishes and produceprogressive buildings whichwere noticeably up-to-date andby implication, Western inflavour. In the Nigerian contextarchitects often tried to makethe buildings suitable to theweather and local conditions.S u c c e s s f u l w e r e s u c harchitectural firms as DejiOyenuga and Partners, DesignGroup Nigeria, OluwoleOlumuyiwa and Associatesand Ella Waziri Associates.

The International Style adaptedt o N i g e r i a d o m i n a t e sc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r narchitecture of Nigeria. Itusua l ly explores s implegeometrical forms but oftenwith exposed parapet walls.Characteristic is the use ofconcrete externa l wal l ssupplemented by concrete,steel or aluminium sun shadingdevices (Senate Building atABU Zaria, ManagementHouse in Lagos, CSS BookshopHouse in Lagos).

This style is well represented bythe architecture created byarchi tects of the oldergeneration who were trainedabroad in modern ideas. Thisarchitecture is best portrayedby the term Pure Modern. TheInternational Style is also

4.1 International Style

represented in Nigeria by highrise buildings portrayed by theterm High-Trop and by housingfor the low income groupreferred to as Low-Troparchitecture. More than onethird of modern buildings inNigeria urban centers belongto the International Style. Thebuildings are designed herealong with modern ideas withthe use of clean forms likec u b e s , c u b o i d s o rcompos i t ions of s implegeometrical solids. Theyexplore the ideas of simplicityand functionality.

Some of the young architects(foreigners) who were behindthe first modern buildings cameto Nigeria as to an unknownexotic country. All Nigerianspracticing then were alsoeducated abroad. They camewith all the hopes and dreamsthe new generation had aboutm o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e .Perfection was attained by Arc.O l u m u y i w a i n h i sManagement House on IdowuTaylor Street at Victoria Islandin Lagos. It is only throughworking and reworking that theidea of a brain was embodiedin architectural form.

The design for the Faculty ofEducation in Ibadan by DejiO y e n u g a a n d P a r t n e r scompleted in 1976 butunfortunately only partly built,is very simple. It pronouncesthe architecture of modernpioneers. Excellence wasattained by James Cubitt in theSenate Building at UNILAGand Mobil Building - both inLagos.

There are numerous goodexamples because according

4.2 Pure Modern

8 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Senate Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

The modern style: Bookshop house in Lagos. Source: John Godwin archives.

roof, which proved to be a badsolution for the tropics withheavy rainfall. The first tallbuildings in the new ModernStyle appeared in Lagos in thelate 1950s starting with Shellnow (National House) and Co-op Bank.

In the Middle East in the early1960’s Western models forbuildings were used almostwithout thinking in order tomeet local wishes and produceprogressive buildings whichwere noticeably up-to-date andby implication, Western inflavour. In the Nigerian contextarchitects often tried to makethe buildings suitable to theweather and local conditions.S u c c e s s f u l w e r e s u c harchitectural firms as DejiOyenuga and Partners, DesignGroup Nigeria, OluwoleOlumuyiwa and Associatesand Ella Waziri Associates.

The International Style adaptedt o N i g e r i a d o m i n a t e sc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r narchitecture of Nigeria. Itusua l ly explores s implegeometrical forms but oftenwith exposed parapet walls.Characteristic is the use ofconcrete externa l wal l ssupplemented by concrete,steel or aluminium sun shadingdevices (Senate Building atABU Zaria, ManagementHouse in Lagos, CSS BookshopHouse in Lagos).

This style is well represented bythe architecture created byarchi tects of the oldergeneration who were trainedabroad in modern ideas. Thisarchitecture is best portrayedby the term Pure Modern. TheInternational Style is also

4.1 International Style

represented in Nigeria by highrise buildings portrayed by theterm High-Trop and by housingfor the low income groupreferred to as Low-Troparchitecture. More than onethird of modern buildings inNigeria urban centers belongto the International Style. Thebuildings are designed herealong with modern ideas withthe use of clean forms likec u b e s , c u b o i d s o rcompos i t ions of s implegeometrical solids. Theyexplore the ideas of simplicityand functionality.

Some of the young architects(foreigners) who were behindthe first modern buildings cameto Nigeria as to an unknownexotic country. All Nigerianspracticing then were alsoeducated abroad. They camewith all the hopes and dreamsthe new generation had aboutm o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e .Perfection was attained by Arc.O l u m u y i w a i n h i sManagement House on IdowuTaylor Street at Victoria Islandin Lagos. It is only throughworking and reworking that theidea of a brain was embodiedin architectural form.

The design for the Faculty ofEducation in Ibadan by DejiO y e n u g a a n d P a r t n e r scompleted in 1976 butunfortunately only partly built,is very simple. It pronouncesthe architecture of modernpioneers. Excellence wasattained by James Cubitt in theSenate Building at UNILAGand Mobil Building - both inLagos.

There are numerous goodexamples because according

4.2 Pure Modern

represented in Nigeria by highrise buildings portrayed by theterm High-Trop and by housingfor the low income groupreferred to as Low-Troparchitecture. More than onethird of modern buildings inNigeria urban centers belongto the International Style. Thebuildings are designed herealong with modern ideas withthe use of clean forms likec u b e s , c u b o i d s o rcompos i t ions of s implegeometrical solids. Theyexplore the ideas of simplicityand functionality.

Some of the young architects(foreigners) who were behindthe first modern buildings cameto Nigeria as to an unknownexotic country. All Nigerianspracticing then were alsoeducated abroad. They camewith all the hopes and dreamsthe new generation had aboutm o d e r n a r c h i t e c t u r e .Perfection was attained by Arc.O l u m u y i w a i n h i sManagement House on IdowuTaylor Street at Victoria Islandin Lagos. It is only throughworking and reworking that theidea of a brain was embodiedin architectural form.

The design for the Faculty ofEducation in Ibadan by DejiO y e n u g a a n d P a r t n e r scompleted in 1976 butunfortunately only partly built,is very simple. It pronouncesthe architecture of modernpioneers. Excellence wasattained by James Cubitt in theSenate Building at UNILAGand Mobil Building - both inLagos.

There are numerous goodexamples because according

4.2 Pure Modern

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 9

Senate Building, University of Lagos.

The International style: University of Ibadan bookshop.

to Prucnal-Ogunsote (1993,p.217) 36% of buildings inNigeria were designed in theInternational Style and verymany of them belong to thePure Modern Trend.

High-trop architecture is anarchitecture of glass boxes. Thebuildings in that trend are extram o d e r n a n d u s e h i g htechnologies, reflective glassand central air conditioning. Tothis group belong mainly banksand offices especially in Lagos.This group will normallyembrace buildings from fivefloors and above. The risk forpeople in such buildings startsbeyond the reach of turntableladders because the Nigerianfire fighting capacity is entirelyground based.

The High-Trop trend does notnecessarily follow Miesianformulas for tall buildings. Thebui ldings which exploredifferent meanings are: IMBBuilding, Victoria Island, Lagos( 1 9 8 5 ) , b y I n c h s c a p eArchitects (Fig. 4), and FirstBank Headquarters in Lagos(1982/83) by Ronald WardAssociates. The forms of thebuildings are in contradictionto what the bureaucraticmovement with pure forms andcurtain walls of skyscrapers inAmerica represent.

National Oil & ChemicalMarketing Company Building(Eagle House) in Lagos andBroking House in Ibadan byDesign Group Nigeria arevalued here particularly for thefirst level which refer to humanscale. Only on rare occasionsone is able to perceive a whole- the building is usually seen in

4.3 High-Trop: A proud

architecture

to Prucnal-Ogunsote (1993,p.217) 36% of buildings inNigeria were designed in theInternational Style and verymany of them belong to thePure Modern Trend.

High-trop architecture is anarchitecture of glass boxes. Thebuildings in that trend are extram o d e r n a n d u s e h i g htechnologies, reflective glassand central air conditioning. Tothis group belong mainly banksand offices especially in Lagos.This group will normallyembrace buildings from fivefloors and above. The risk forpeople in such buildings startsbeyond the reach of turntableladders because the Nigerianfire fighting capacity is entirelyground based.

The High-Trop trend does notnecessarily follow Miesianformulas for tall buildings. Thebui ldings which exploredifferent meanings are: IMBBuilding, Victoria Island, Lagos( 1 9 8 5 ) , b y I n c h s c a p eArchitects (Fig. 4), and FirstBank Headquarters in Lagos(1982/83) by Ronald WardAssociates. The forms of thebuildings are in contradictionto what the bureaucraticmovement with pure forms andcurtain walls of skyscrapers inAmerica represent.

National Oil & ChemicalMarketing Company Building(Eagle House) in Lagos andBroking House in Ibadan byDesign Group Nigeria arevalued here particularly for thefirst level which refer to humanscale. Only on rare occasionsone is able to perceive a whole- the building is usually seen in

4.3 High-Trop: A proud

architecture

pieces from the perspective ofa pedestrian. Buildings like theoffice block on Ibrahim TaiwoRoad in Kano by FemiMajekodunmi Associateshaving a perfect locationconstitute a strong accent withits polygonal shape on plan andits transparency contrastingwith more solid concretesurfaces. Femi MajekodunmiAssociates are also the authorsof IBRU Building in Apapa,Lagos where they made use ofreflecting surfaces to create anabstract image of piercingsolids. In NAL Towers at Marinain Lagos the bright white wallsurfaces contrast sharply withelegant dark strips and widewindow bands. This same ideais used by Multi-Systems in thep r o p o s a l f o r N i g e r i a nAgricultural and CooperativeBank at Abuja. In conclusion itc a n b e s a i d t h a t t h i spresentation concerns verye l e g a n t b u t e x t r e m e l yexpensive structures.

L o w - t r o p A r c h i t e c t u r erepresents architecture of themasses , arch i tecture ofdraughtsmen, and low incomee s t a t e s r e m i n i s c e n t o fmonotonous housing estates inEastern Europe. Here apartfrom lack of good aesthetics,the standard of living is verylow. Common are “face me If a c e y o u ” a p a r t m e n t s ,bungalows or two-storeyhouses. When constructing,local materials and local labourare used. (Izomoh, 1997).

This architecture can be easilyobserved in c i t ies andsuburban areas and it shapesthe landscape of Nigerian

4.4 Low-trop: The

architecture of the masses

10 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Figure 4: High Trop. IMB Building, Victoria Island, Lagos byInchscape Architects. Source: Photograph by Arc. O. A.Oyediran.

Figure 4: High Trop. IMB Building, Victoria Island, Lagos byInchscape Architects. Source: Photograph by Arc. O. A.Oyediran.

First Bank Headquarters, Lagos. Source: Author’s sketch.

to Prucnal-Ogunsote (1993,p.217) 36% of buildings inNigeria were designed in theInternational Style and verymany of them belong to thePure Modern Trend.

High-trop architecture is anarchitecture of glass boxes. Thebuildings in that trend are extram o d e r n a n d u s e h i g htechnologies, reflective glassand central air conditioning. Tothis group belong mainly banksand offices especially in Lagos.This group will normallyembrace buildings from fivefloors and above. The risk forpeople in such buildings startsbeyond the reach of turntableladders because the Nigerianfire fighting capacity is entirelyground based.

The High-Trop trend does notnecessarily follow Miesianformulas for tall buildings. Thebui ldings which exploredifferent meanings are: IMBBuilding, Victoria Island, Lagos( 1 9 8 5 ) , b y I n c h s c a p eArchitects (Fig. 4), and FirstBank Headquarters in Lagos(1982/83) by Ronald WardAssociates. The forms of thebuildings are in contradictionto what the bureaucraticmovement with pure forms andcurtain walls of skyscrapers inAmerica represent.

National Oil & ChemicalMarketing Company Building(Eagle House) in Lagos andBroking House in Ibadan byDesign Group Nigeria arevalued here particularly for thefirst level which refer to humanscale. Only on rare occasionsone is able to perceive a whole- the building is usually seen in

4.3 High-Trop: A proud

architecture

pieces from the perspective ofa pedestrian. Buildings like theoffice block on Ibrahim TaiwoRoad in Kano by FemiMajekodunmi Associateshaving a perfect locationconstitute a strong accent withits polygonal shape on plan andits transparency contrastingwith more solid concretesurfaces. Femi MajekodunmiAssociates are also the authorsof IBRU Building in Apapa,Lagos where they made use ofreflecting surfaces to create anabstract image of piercingsolids. In NAL Towers at Marinain Lagos the bright white wallsurfaces contrast sharply withelegant dark strips and widewindow bands. This same ideais used by Multi-Systems in thep r o p o s a l f o r N i g e r i a nAgricultural and CooperativeBank at Abuja. In conclusion itc a n b e s a i d t h a t t h i spresentation concerns verye l e g a n t b u t e x t r e m e l yexpensive structures.

L o w - t r o p A r c h i t e c t u r erepresents architecture of themasses , arch i tecture ofdraughtsmen, and low incomee s t a t e s r e m i n i s c e n t o fmonotonous housing estates inEastern Europe. Here apartfrom lack of good aesthetics,the standard of living is verylow. Common are “face me If a c e y o u ” a p a r t m e n t s ,bungalows or two-storeyhouses. When constructing,local materials and local labourare used. (Izomoh, 1997).

This architecture can be easilyobserved in c i t ies andsuburban areas and it shapesthe landscape of Nigerian

4.4 Low-trop: The

architecture of the masses

pieces from the perspective ofa pedestrian. Buildings like theoffice block on Ibrahim TaiwoRoad in Kano by FemiMajekodunmi Associateshaving a perfect locationconstitute a strong accent withits polygonal shape on plan andits transparency contrastingwith more solid concretesurfaces. Femi MajekodunmiAssociates are also the authorsof IBRU Building in Apapa,Lagos where they made use ofreflecting surfaces to create anabstract image of piercingsolids. In NAL Towers at Marinain Lagos the bright white wallsurfaces contrast sharply withelegant dark strips and widewindow bands. This same ideais used by Multi-Systems in thep r o p o s a l f o r N i g e r i a nAgricultural and CooperativeBank at Abuja. In conclusion itc a n b e s a i d t h a t t h i spresentation concerns verye l e g a n t b u t e x t r e m e l yexpensive structures.

L o w - t r o p A r c h i t e c t u r erepresents architecture of themasses , arch i tecture ofdraughtsmen, and low incomee s t a t e s r e m i n i s c e n t o fmonotonous housing estates inEastern Europe. Here apartfrom lack of good aesthetics,the standard of living is verylow. Common are “face me If a c e y o u ” a p a r t m e n t s ,bungalows or two-storeyhouses. When constructing,local materials and local labourare used. (Izomoh, 1997).

This architecture can be easilyobserved in c i t ies andsuburban areas and it shapesthe landscape of Nigerian

4.4 Low-trop: The

architecture of the masses

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 11

Figure 4: High Trop. IMB Building, Victoria Island, Lagos byInchscape Architects. Source: Photograph by Arc. O. A.Oyediran.

High-trop architecture: IBRU building, Apapa, Lagos.

Low-trop architecture. Residential building in Abeokuta, Ogun State. Source:Author’s photograph, 2005.

Architecture. This is probablythe most challenging area forarchitects, to find ways andmeans to influence thisarchitecture to make it moreh u m a n b u t n o t m o r eexpensive. Here the call ofB e n n a A s s o c i a t e s f o rinnovations is somehowanswered by Triad Architectswho designed screen wallelements (blocks), which allowfor privacy and air penetration.They applied the blocks in thePolitical Party Offices all overNigeria and even started itslocal production in Kaduna. Alow-cost row prototype housewas designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. Thebuilding can be constructed ona very small plot size and is theanswer to high prices of land inLagos.

New West African Style wasrecognised by Akinsemoyin(1977) and Kultermann (1969)and it was meant to coverbuildings, which are moresuitable for the country(designed with climate). Theclimate and building form arequite relevant here.

In Lagos University ScienceComplex at UNILAG in Lagos,1 9 7 8 b y G o d w i n a n dHopwood the breeze canfreely penetrate the entirecomplex. In James CubittArchitects’ buildings althoughair conditioning is assumed,and they use tinted or reflectiveglass usually there is a provisionfor cross ventilation as in MobilBuilding in Lagos (1991) withits atrium. Cross ventilation isparticularly valued in buildings

5.0 The New West

African Style

Architecture. This is probablythe most challenging area forarchitects, to find ways andmeans to influence thisarchitecture to make it moreh u m a n b u t n o t m o r eexpensive. Here the call ofB e n n a A s s o c i a t e s f o rinnovations is somehowanswered by Triad Architectswho designed screen wallelements (blocks), which allowfor privacy and air penetration.They applied the blocks in thePolitical Party Offices all overNigeria and even started itslocal production in Kaduna. Alow-cost row prototype housewas designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. Thebuilding can be constructed ona very small plot size and is theanswer to high prices of land inLagos.

New West African Style wasrecognised by Akinsemoyin(1977) and Kultermann (1969)and it was meant to coverbuildings, which are moresuitable for the country(designed with climate). Theclimate and building form arequite relevant here.

In Lagos University ScienceComplex at UNILAG in Lagos,1 9 7 8 b y G o d w i n a n dHopwood the breeze canfreely penetrate the entirecomplex. In James CubittArchitects’ buildings althoughair conditioning is assumed,and they use tinted or reflectiveglass usually there is a provisionfor cross ventilation as in MobilBuilding in Lagos (1991) withits atrium. Cross ventilation isparticularly valued in buildings

by Deji Oyenuga and Partnersand by Niger Consultants.Climate plays a very dominantrole in Olumuyiwa andAssociates’ architecture.Olumuyiwa recognized theimportance of vegetation andbelieved in incorporating waterinto design (ManagementHouse, Architecture Houseand Eko Meridien Hotel inLagos).

Very original in the approach ofmaking buildings suitable tothe weather is EnvironmentalDevelopment Consultants’architecture by making use ofstaggered windows. Deepoverhangs like in United Bankfor Africa in Hadejia, Kano (Fig.5) also help.

Late-Modernism according toJencks is a pragmatic andtechnocratic architecture,which draws its inspirationsfrom the highest achievementsof Modernism. The buildingsthat must be mentioned hereare political party offices byTriad Associates (1989), whichfrom the beginning stronglydominated the landscape ofNigerian Architecture (Fig. 6).The architects’ proposals werein “extreme of internationalstyle” later on amended to suitthe purpose. The proposedlarge glazed surfaces forexample were removed toavoid breakage during riotsand disturbances.

There are three alternatives: forlocal, state and national offices.Local offices are only onestorey buildings with a simpleConference Hall. Different andun ique ent rances were

12 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Floor plan of Mobil Building, Lagos.

Architecture. This is probablythe most challenging area forarchitects, to find ways andmeans to influence thisarchitecture to make it moreh u m a n b u t n o t m o r eexpensive. Here the call ofB e n n a A s s o c i a t e s f o rinnovations is somehowanswered by Triad Architectswho designed screen wallelements (blocks), which allowfor privacy and air penetration.They applied the blocks in thePolitical Party Offices all overNigeria and even started itslocal production in Kaduna. Alow-cost row prototype housewas designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. Thebuilding can be constructed ona very small plot size and is theanswer to high prices of land inLagos.

New West African Style wasrecognised by Akinsemoyin(1977) and Kultermann (1969)and it was meant to coverbuildings, which are moresuitable for the country(designed with climate). Theclimate and building form arequite relevant here.

In Lagos University ScienceComplex at UNILAG in Lagos,1 9 7 8 b y G o d w i n a n dHopwood the breeze canfreely penetrate the entirecomplex. In James CubittArchitects’ buildings althoughair conditioning is assumed,and they use tinted or reflectiveglass usually there is a provisionfor cross ventilation as in MobilBuilding in Lagos (1991) withits atrium. Cross ventilation isparticularly valued in buildings

by Deji Oyenuga and Partnersand by Niger Consultants.Climate plays a very dominantrole in Olumuyiwa andAssociates’ architecture.Olumuyiwa recognized theimportance of vegetation andbelieved in incorporating waterinto design (ManagementHouse, Architecture Houseand Eko Meridien Hotel inLagos).

Very original in the approach ofmaking buildings suitable tothe weather is EnvironmentalDevelopment Consultants’architecture by making use ofstaggered windows. Deepoverhangs like in United Bankfor Africa in Hadejia, Kano (Fig.5) also help.

Late-Modernism according toJencks is a pragmatic andtechnocratic architecture,which draws its inspirationsfrom the highest achievementsof Modernism. The buildingsthat must be mentioned hereare political party offices byTriad Associates (1989), whichfrom the beginning stronglydominated the landscape ofNigerian Architecture (Fig. 6).The architects’ proposals werein “extreme of internationalstyle” later on amended to suitthe purpose. The proposedlarge glazed surfaces forexample were removed toavoid breakage during riotsand disturbances.

There are three alternatives: forlocal, state and national offices.Local offices are only onestorey buildings with a simpleConference Hall. Different andun ique ent rances were

6.0 Late Modern

by Deji Oyenuga and Partnersand by Niger Consultants.Climate plays a very dominantrole in Olumuyiwa andAssociates’ architecture.Olumuyiwa recognized theimportance of vegetation andbelieved in incorporating waterinto design (ManagementHouse, Architecture Houseand Eko Meridien Hotel inLagos).

Very original in the approach ofmaking buildings suitable tothe weather is EnvironmentalDevelopment Consultants’architecture by making use ofstaggered windows. Deepoverhangs like in United Bankfor Africa in Hadejia, Kano (Fig.5) also help.

Late-Modernism according toJencks is a pragmatic andtechnocratic architecture,which draws its inspirationsfrom the highest achievementsof Modernism. The buildingsthat must be mentioned hereare political party offices byTriad Associates (1989), whichfrom the beginning stronglydominated the landscape ofNigerian Architecture (Fig. 6).The architects’ proposals werein “extreme of internationalstyle” later on amended to suitthe purpose. The proposedlarge glazed surfaces forexample were removed toavoid breakage during riotsand disturbances.

There are three alternatives: forlocal, state and national offices.Local offices are only onestorey buildings with a simpleConference Hall. Different andun ique ent rances were

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 13

Figure 6: Late Modern Trend. State Party Office by Triad Associates, 1989.Source: Triad Associates. Photograph.

Figure 5: The New West African Style. United Bank for Africa Branch Office,Hadejia, Kano, by Environmental Development Consultants. Source:Environmental Development Consultants. Photograph.

proposed according to the typeof the office. The roofs usuallyhave a small slope except incase of Rivers / Cross RiversStates.

The tendency towards regionalexpression is mainly observed inprivate houses like in residencesby Environmental DevelopmentConsultants or in Mr. Adesuyi’sHouse in Zaria followed byInstitutional buildings like NIPSSin Kuru with its circular formsand former NIA Secretariat inLagos which is a courtyardbuilding. Zanko motives, whichare very popular in the North arecharacteristic of elevations andalso sometimes used for citygates. Sometimes it is adecorated column, a sculptureor just a gate that is used toenhance the traditional aspect.First Bank in Bauchi by ArchconNigeria is reminiscent oftraditional architecture of theNorth (Fig. 7). A stucco columnwith traditional motifs designedby an artisan is used in theapproach elevation for FirstBank Headquarters in Lagos.Horizontal strips may be usedon the building like on FederalPalace Hotel, Lagos.

In conclusion, the RegionalTrend is represented byc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r nbuildings using the motif of a hut(N.I.P.S.S. in Kuru by Fola Aladeand Bank of the North, KanoBranch by Multi-Systems) orusing courtyard or impluviumconcepts. Natural materials liketimber or stone may beexplored but most essential ist h e n a t u r a l v e n t i l a t i o n(Department of Nursing atUniversity of Ibadan by Design

7.0 Regional Trend

proposed according to the typeof the office. The roofs usuallyhave a small slope except incase of Rivers / Cross RiversStates.

The tendency towards regionalexpression is mainly observed inprivate houses like in residencesby Environmental DevelopmentConsultants or in Mr. Adesuyi’sHouse in Zaria followed byInstitutional buildings like NIPSSin Kuru with its circular formsand former NIA Secretariat inLagos which is a courtyardbuilding. Zanko motives, whichare very popular in the North arecharacteristic of elevations andalso sometimes used for citygates. Sometimes it is adecorated column, a sculptureor just a gate that is used toenhance the traditional aspect.First Bank in Bauchi by ArchconNigeria is reminiscent oftraditional architecture of theNorth (Fig. 7). A stucco columnwith traditional motifs designedby an artisan is used in theapproach elevation for FirstBank Headquarters in Lagos.Horizontal strips may be usedon the building like on FederalPalace Hotel, Lagos.

In conclusion, the RegionalTrend is represented byc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r nbuildings using the motif of a hut(N.I.P.S.S. in Kuru by Fola Aladeand Bank of the North, KanoBranch by Multi-Systems) orusing courtyard or impluviumconcepts. Natural materials liketimber or stone may beexplored but most essential ist h e n a t u r a l v e n t i l a t i o n(Department of Nursing atUniversity of Ibadan by Design

14 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Group Nigeria). Very importantin this trend is the functionallayout of residences, which ismost capable of reflecting theNigerian way of life andgenerally important here is thecloseness to nature throughoutdoor areas. For example inM o s l e m r e s i d e n c e scharacteristic is the observedseparation of sitting roomsfrom family living rooms.

This is the architecture of thenewly rich easily found in Lagoson Lekki Peninsula. It ischaracterised by bourgeoisforms, expensive decorationsand materials and exoticatmosphere. Usually found inresidential houses with typicalpost-modern elements, inp a r t i c u l a r s e m i c i r c u l a rw i n d o w s , v e r a n d a s o rb a l c o n i e s a n d o t h e rpicturesque elements (Fig. 8).Favoured also are the red villaroof ing sheets al thoughcriticised by some masters ofNigerian Architecture. Positiveexamples of such buildings canby found among housesdes igned by InchscapeArchitects.

Postmodern Architecture inNigeria has got many “faces”.Sometimes it will pretend tolook like a ship and sometimesit will tend to “wear” historicalstyle.

Postmodern trend explorespluralism of styles. It uses

9.1 Pluralism of StylesFigure 8: Nouveau Rich. Residential building at Maroko Extension,Lagos. Source: Author’s sketch.

Figure 7: Regional Trend. First Bank in Bauchi byArchcon Nigeria, 1983-89. Source: ArchconFigure 7: Regional Trend. First Bank in Bauchi byArchcon Nigeria, 1983-89. Source: Archcon

Mr. Adesuyi’s House in Zaria

proposed according to the typeof the office. The roofs usuallyhave a small slope except incase of Rivers / Cross RiversStates.

The tendency towards regionalexpression is mainly observed inprivate houses like in residencesby Environmental DevelopmentConsultants or in Mr. Adesuyi’sHouse in Zaria followed byInstitutional buildings like NIPSSin Kuru with its circular formsand former NIA Secretariat inLagos which is a courtyardbuilding. Zanko motives, whichare very popular in the North arecharacteristic of elevations andalso sometimes used for citygates. Sometimes it is adecorated column, a sculptureor just a gate that is used toenhance the traditional aspect.First Bank in Bauchi by ArchconNigeria is reminiscent oftraditional architecture of theNorth (Fig. 7). A stucco columnwith traditional motifs designedby an artisan is used in theapproach elevation for FirstBank Headquarters in Lagos.Horizontal strips may be usedon the building like on FederalPalace Hotel, Lagos.

In conclusion, the RegionalTrend is represented byc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r nbuildings using the motif of a hut(N.I.P.S.S. in Kuru by Fola Aladeand Bank of the North, KanoBranch by Multi-Systems) orusing courtyard or impluviumconcepts. Natural materials liketimber or stone may beexplored but most essential ist h e n a t u r a l v e n t i l a t i o n(Department of Nursing atUniversity of Ibadan by Design

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 15

Group Nigeria). Very importantin this trend is the functionallayout of residences, which ismost capable of reflecting theNigerian way of life andgenerally important here is thecloseness to nature throughoutdoor areas. For example inM o s l e m r e s i d e n c e scharacteristic is the observedseparation of sitting roomsfrom family living rooms.

This is the architecture of thenewly rich easily found in Lagoson Lekki Peninsula. It ischaracterised by bourgeoisforms, expensive decorationsand materials and exoticatmosphere. Usually found inresidential houses with typicalpost-modern elements, inp a r t i c u l a r s e m i c i r c u l a rw i n d o w s , v e r a n d a s o rb a l c o n i e s a n d o t h e rpicturesque elements (Fig. 8).Favoured also are the red villaroof ing sheets al thoughcriticised by some masters ofNigerian Architecture. Positiveexamples of such buildings canby found among housesdes igned by InchscapeArchitects.

Postmodern Architecture inNigeria has got many “faces”.Sometimes it will pretend tolook like a ship and sometimesit will tend to “wear” historicalstyle.

Postmodern trend explorespluralism of styles. It uses

8.0 Nouveau Rich: The

Architecture of the

Super Rich

9.0 Post-modern

Trend

9.1 Pluralism of Styles

Group Nigeria). Very importantin this trend is the functionallayout of residences, which ismost capable of reflecting theNigerian way of life andgenerally important here is thecloseness to nature throughoutdoor areas. For example inM o s l e m r e s i d e n c e scharacteristic is the observedseparation of sitting roomsfrom family living rooms.

This is the architecture of thenewly rich easily found in Lagoson Lekki Peninsula. It ischaracterised by bourgeoisforms, expensive decorationsand materials and exoticatmosphere. Usually found inresidential houses with typicalpost-modern elements, inp a r t i c u l a r s e m i c i r c u l a rw i n d o w s , v e r a n d a s o rb a l c o n i e s a n d o t h e rpicturesque elements (Fig. 8).Favoured also are the red villaroof ing sheets al thoughcriticised by some masters ofNigerian Architecture. Positiveexamples of such buildings canby found among housesdes igned by InchscapeArchitects.

Postmodern Architecture inNigeria has got many “faces”.Sometimes it will pretend tolook like a ship and sometimesit will tend to “wear” historicalstyle.

Postmodern trend explorespluralism of styles. It uses

9.1 Pluralism of StylesFigure 8: Nouveau Rich. Residential building at Maroko Extension,Lagos. Source: Author’s sketch.Figure 8: Nouveau Rich. Residential building at Maroko Extension,Lagos. Source: Author’s sketch.

Figure 7: Regional Trend. First Bank in Bauchi byArchcon Nigeria, 1983-89. Source: Archcon

Regional trend: School of Nursing, University of Ibabdan, Ibadan.

NIA Headquarters, Lagos. Source: Author’s sketch.

h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e s l i k eneoclassicism, gets inspirationfrom Egyptian architecture andreaches also to the roots ofNigerian architecture.

D e s i g n G r o u p N i g e r i aarchitects used motives ofBrazilian classical elementssuch as pillars and pilasters,lintels and pediments with theircharacteristic proportions inNNPC Office on VictoriaIsland, Lagos and similarly incase of their Musical SocietyBuilding in Lagos. Moreexamples can be found amongthe most current buildings (in astyle called “historicism”) atVictoria Island extension.Implementat ion of such“historical” forms is a difficulttask for architects. Inspirationcan be drawn from Brazilianbu i l d i ng s , o ld co lon i a lb u i l d i n g s , t r a d i t i o n a lcompound layouts of severalkinds, and the larger oldmosques of Northern Nigeria.

Egypt ian architecture isreflected in Civil EngineeringComplex at theObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife byNiger Consultants ( Fig. 9) andin Methodist Church in Ikenneby Deji Oyenuga throughforms reminiscent of thepyramid.

Borno State Secretariat inMaiduguri by Design GroupNigeria depends on a classicalplan. In this elaborate but rigiddesign the Conference Hall,centrally placed, has a verycharacteristic roof and thepassages with vaults dominatethe architecture of thiscomplex. Odd shapes whichdetermine the building’sappearance were used in

9.2 Individuality of Forms

h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e s l i k eneoclassicism, gets inspirationfrom Egyptian architecture andreaches also to the roots ofNigerian architecture.

D e s i g n G r o u p N i g e r i aarchitects used motives ofBrazilian classical elementssuch as pillars and pilasters,lintels and pediments with theircharacteristic proportions inNNPC Office on VictoriaIsland, Lagos and similarly incase of their Musical SocietyBuilding in Lagos. Moreexamples can be found amongthe most current buildings (in astyle called “historicism”) atVictoria Island extension.Implementat ion of such“historical” forms is a difficulttask for architects. Inspirationcan be drawn from Brazilianbu i l d i ng s , o ld co lon i a lb u i l d i n g s , t r a d i t i o n a lcompound layouts of severalkinds, and the larger oldmosques of Northern Nigeria.

Egypt ian architecture isreflected in Civil EngineeringComplex at theObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife byNiger Consultants ( Fig. 9) andin Methodist Church in Ikenneby Deji Oyenuga throughforms reminiscent of thepyramid.

Borno State Secretariat inMaiduguri by Design GroupNigeria depends on a classicalplan. In this elaborate but rigiddesign the Conference Hall,centrally placed, has a verycharacteristic roof and thepassages with vaults dominatethe architecture of thiscomplex. Odd shapes whichdetermine the building’sappearance were used in

9.2 Individuality of Forms

Zaranda Hotel in Bauchi byNiger Consultants and in UnionBank in Kaduna by BennaAssociates. Union Bank hascolumns exposed at thecorners, a major feature of thisdesign. The design is integratedby two piercing solids throughall elements like balconies andparapet walls and with veryconsistent details.

Towry Towers/Coker Courtand Abuja Sheraton Hotelplease the eyes with theirstepped surfaces. The effectsachieved are fascinating,analogy can even be drawn topyramidal shapes, but toomany surfaces are exposed tothe sun.

The introduction of newbuilding materials has changedthe physical appearance ofs e t t l e m e n t s . I t i s n o tconvenient to roof a circularhouse w i th co r ruga tedsheeting, so it’s introduction insome areas changed not onlythe roofing material but alsothe basic shape of the house toa rectangular one. It was in thisway that traditional patternstended to persist longer wherethe basic shape of the housewas rectangular rather thancircular. Modern cities can notbe turned into museums ofvernacular architecture, butrather the spirit of thisa rch i tec tu re shou ld bepreserved as it is done in caseof the Regional Trend.

This paper has shown thatc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r nNiger ian architecture isdominated by the InternationalStyle. This is architecture of theNigerian urban landscape.

Figure 9: Postmodern Trend. Civil Engineering Complex, ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife by Niger Consultants. Source:Author’s sketch.

Figure 9: Postmodern Trend. Civil Engineering Complex, ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife by Niger Consultants. Source:Author’s sketch.

16 Modern Nigerian Architecture

The ship house, Abuja.

h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e s l i k eneoclassicism, gets inspirationfrom Egyptian architecture andreaches also to the roots ofNigerian architecture.

D e s i g n G r o u p N i g e r i aarchitects used motives ofBrazilian classical elementssuch as pillars and pilasters,lintels and pediments with theircharacteristic proportions inNNPC Office on VictoriaIsland, Lagos and similarly incase of their Musical SocietyBuilding in Lagos. Moreexamples can be found amongthe most current buildings (in astyle called “historicism”) atVictoria Island extension.Implementat ion of such“historical” forms is a difficulttask for architects. Inspirationcan be drawn from Brazilianbu i l d i ng s , o ld co lon i a lb u i l d i n g s , t r a d i t i o n a lcompound layouts of severalkinds, and the larger oldmosques of Northern Nigeria.

Egypt ian architecture isreflected in Civil EngineeringComplex at theObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife byNiger Consultants ( Fig. 9) andin Methodist Church in Ikenneby Deji Oyenuga throughforms reminiscent of thepyramid.

Borno State Secretariat inMaiduguri by Design GroupNigeria depends on a classicalplan. In this elaborate but rigiddesign the Conference Hall,centrally placed, has a verycharacteristic roof and thepassages with vaults dominatethe architecture of thiscomplex. Odd shapes whichdetermine the building’sappearance were used in

9.2 Individuality of Forms

Zaranda Hotel in Bauchi byNiger Consultants and in UnionBank in Kaduna by BennaAssociates. Union Bank hascolumns exposed at thecorners, a major feature of thisdesign. The design is integratedby two piercing solids throughall elements like balconies andparapet walls and with veryconsistent details.

Towry Towers/Coker Courtand Abuja Sheraton Hotelplease the eyes with theirstepped surfaces. The effectsachieved are fascinating,analogy can even be drawn topyramidal shapes, but toomany surfaces are exposed tothe sun.

The introduction of newbuilding materials has changedthe physical appearance ofs e t t l e m e n t s . I t i s n o tconvenient to roof a circularhouse w i th co r ruga tedsheeting, so it’s introduction insome areas changed not onlythe roofing material but alsothe basic shape of the house toa rectangular one. It was in thisway that traditional patternstended to persist longer wherethe basic shape of the housewas rectangular rather thancircular. Modern cities can notbe turned into museums ofvernacular architecture, butrather the spirit of thisa rch i tec tu re shou ld bepreserved as it is done in caseof the Regional Trend.

This paper has shown thatc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r nNiger ian architecture isdominated by the InternationalStyle. This is architecture of theNigerian urban landscape.

10.0 Conclusion

Zaranda Hotel in Bauchi byNiger Consultants and in UnionBank in Kaduna by BennaAssociates. Union Bank hascolumns exposed at thecorners, a major feature of thisdesign. The design is integratedby two piercing solids throughall elements like balconies andparapet walls and with veryconsistent details.

Towry Towers/Coker Courtand Abuja Sheraton Hotelplease the eyes with theirstepped surfaces. The effectsachieved are fascinating,analogy can even be drawn topyramidal shapes, but toomany surfaces are exposed tothe sun.

The introduction of newbuilding materials has changedthe physical appearance ofs e t t l e m e n t s . I t i s n o tconvenient to roof a circularhouse w i th co r ruga tedsheeting, so it’s introduction insome areas changed not onlythe roofing material but alsothe basic shape of the house toa rectangular one. It was in thisway that traditional patternstended to persist longer wherethe basic shape of the housewas rectangular rather thancircular. Modern cities can notbe turned into museums ofvernacular architecture, butrather the spirit of thisa rch i tec tu re shou ld bepreserved as it is done in caseof the Regional Trend.

This paper has shown thatc o n t e m p o r a r y m o d e r nNiger ian architecture isdominated by the InternationalStyle. This is architecture of theNigerian urban landscape.

Figure 9: Postmodern Trend. Civil Engineering Complex, ObafemiAwolowo University, Ile-Ife by Niger Consultants. Source:Author’s sketch.

Zaranda Hotel, Bauchi. Source: Author’s photograph, 2005.

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 17

International conference centre with Abuja Sheraton Hotel in the background.

National Arts Theatre, Iganmu, Lagos. Source: Author’s sketch.

Here belong also most of thepopular buildings like First BankHeadquarters in Lagos byRonald Ward, National ArtsTheatre in Lagos by Techno-Export, Broking House inIbadan by Design GroupNigeria, NAL Towers in Lagosb y F e m i M a j e k o d u n m iAssociates. In some cases thebuildings look ordinary butalways are symbols of progressand modernism. It also bringsdelight in case of such buildingslike Chellarams in Lagos byJames Cubit & Partners, IMBPlaza in Lagos by InchscapeArchitects (Fig. 4), et cetera. Asstated earlier these types ofbuildings do not suit the level oftechnology in the countryespecially because of firehazards.

In case of Regional Trend thearchitectural examples pointedout are very rare in the Nigerianlandscape. They are mentionedas examples worth studyingand pointed to by othera rch i t ec t s , a r ch i t ec tu restudents and the society assomething unique. They areable to satisfy the desire foridentity.

Postmodern architecturereached Nigeria quite earlywith plastic forms but now it isdif f icult to continue itsdevelopment due to economiccrises. Clients often prefersimplified versions of whatarchitects are proposing due tocost constraints. However thistrend is still developing, forexample through NouveauRich architecture.

Here belong also most of thepopular buildings like First BankHeadquarters in Lagos byRonald Ward, National ArtsTheatre in Lagos by Techno-Export, Broking House inIbadan by Design GroupNigeria, NAL Towers in Lagosb y F e m i M a j e k o d u n m iAssociates. In some cases thebuildings look ordinary butalways are symbols of progressand modernism. It also bringsdelight in case of such buildingslike Chellarams in Lagos byJames Cubit & Partners, IMBPlaza in Lagos by InchscapeArchitects (Fig. 4), et cetera. Asstated earlier these types ofbuildings do not suit the level oftechnology in the countryespecially because of firehazards.

In case of Regional Trend thearchitectural examples pointedout are very rare in the Nigerianlandscape. They are mentionedas examples worth studyingand pointed to by othera rch i t ec t s , a r ch i t ec tu restudents and the society assomething unique. They areable to satisfy the desire foridentity.

Postmodern architecturereached Nigeria quite earlywith plastic forms but now it isdif f icult to continue itsdevelopment due to economiccrises. Clients often prefersimplified versions of whatarchitects are proposing due tocost constraints. However thistrend is still developing, forexample through NouveauRich architecture.

Adeyemi, E.A. (1975-1976). ChangingTraditional Culture and Modern Architecture. In:

. No. 1, pp. 12-19.

Akinsemoyin, K. and Vaughan Richards, A.(1977). F. and A. Services, Lagos.

Awotona, A (1986). Aspects of NigerianArchitecture. In: Vol. 2. No.3.October-December, pp. 55.

Clarke, J.D. (1984).Evans Brothers Limited, London.

Denyer, S. (1978).Heineman Educational Books Ltd.,

London.

Izomoh, S.O. (1997).Emiola Publishers Ltd,

Ogbomoso.

Kultermann, U. (1969).George Braziller, New

York.

Oliver, P. (1976). Barrie JenkinsLtd., London.

Langley (1976). Changes In The Production ofThe Built Environment In Rural Areas. In:

. Vol.2, London, pp.37-51.

Payne, G.K. (1977).Leonard Hill, London, pp. 11-20.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993).”A Study ofModern Trends in Some Aspects of Architecturein Nigeria”. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). PortrayingNational Architecture in Modern Buildings.

Federal University of Technology, Akure.September 13-15.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. J

,1:6, 48-56. AARCHES, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002). The InternationalStyle in Nigeria: Technological and CulturalBridge - or Disaster?

Archiforum Magazine

Building Lagos.

NIA Journal

A Visual History of Nigeria.

African TraditionalArchitecture.

Housing Provision andManagement in Nigeria.

New Directions InAfrican Architecture.

Shelter In Africa.

AfricanEnvironment

Urban Housing In The ThirdWorld.

Valedictory Conference of the Association ofArchitectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES),

ournal of the Associationof Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ)

Journal of Environmental

18 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Chellaram’s Building, Lagos now Wema Bank. Source: Author’s sketch.

Technology,

Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Science andTechnology,

1:1, 102-114. School ofEnvironmental Technology, Federal Universityof Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005). Reflection ofCulture and Climate in the Vernacular andModern Architecture of Akure.

Federal University of Technology,Akure. 14-19 August, 2005.

Archcon Nigeria Limited Brochure

Design Group Nigeria Brochure

Environmental Development ConsultantsBrochure

Femi Majekodunmi Associates Brochure

Godwin Hopwood Kuye Brochure.

Habitat Associates Brochure.

Multi-Systems Brochure.

Triad Associates Brochure.

Broking house, Ibadan.

Here belong also most of thepopular buildings like First BankHeadquarters in Lagos byRonald Ward, National ArtsTheatre in Lagos by Techno-Export, Broking House inIbadan by Design GroupNigeria, NAL Towers in Lagosb y F e m i M a j e k o d u n m iAssociates. In some cases thebuildings look ordinary butalways are symbols of progressand modernism. It also bringsdelight in case of such buildingslike Chellarams in Lagos byJames Cubit & Partners, IMBPlaza in Lagos by InchscapeArchitects (Fig. 4), et cetera. Asstated earlier these types ofbuildings do not suit the level oftechnology in the countryespecially because of firehazards.

In case of Regional Trend thearchitectural examples pointedout are very rare in the Nigerianlandscape. They are mentionedas examples worth studyingand pointed to by othera rch i t ec t s , a r ch i t ec tu restudents and the society assomething unique. They areable to satisfy the desire foridentity.

Postmodern architecturereached Nigeria quite earlywith plastic forms but now it isdif f icult to continue itsdevelopment due to economiccrises. Clients often prefersimplified versions of whatarchitects are proposing due tocost constraints. However thistrend is still developing, forexample through NouveauRich architecture.

11. References

Adeyemi, E.A. (1975-1976). ChangingTraditional Culture and Modern Architecture. In:

. No. 1, pp. 12-19.

Akinsemoyin, K. and Vaughan Richards, A.(1977). F. and A. Services, Lagos.

Awotona, A (1986). Aspects of NigerianArchitecture. In: Vol. 2. No.3.October-December, pp. 55.

Clarke, J.D. (1984).Evans Brothers Limited, London.

Denyer, S. (1978).Heineman Educational Books Ltd.,

London.

Izomoh, S.O. (1997).Emiola Publishers Ltd,

Ogbomoso.

Kultermann, U. (1969).George Braziller, New

York.

Oliver, P. (1976). Barrie JenkinsLtd., London.

Langley (1976). Changes In The Production ofThe Built Environment In Rural Areas. In:

. Vol.2, London, pp.37-51.

Payne, G.K. (1977).Leonard Hill, London, pp. 11-20.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993).”A Study ofModern Trends in Some Aspects of Architecturein Nigeria”. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). PortrayingNational Architecture in Modern Buildings.

Federal University of Technology, Akure.September 13-15.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. J

,1:6, 48-56. AARCHES, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002). The InternationalStyle in Nigeria: Technological and CulturalBridge - or Disaster?

Archiforum Magazine

Building Lagos.

NIA Journal

A Visual History of Nigeria.

African TraditionalArchitecture.

Housing Provision andManagement in Nigeria.

New Directions InAfrican Architecture.

Shelter In Africa.

AfricanEnvironment

Urban Housing In The ThirdWorld.

Valedictory Conference of the Association ofArchitectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES),

ournal of the Associationof Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ)

Journal of Environmental

Adeyemi, E.A. (1975-1976). ChangingTraditional Culture and Modern Architecture. In:

. No. 1, pp. 12-19.

Akinsemoyin, K. and Vaughan Richards, A.(1977). F. and A. Services, Lagos.

Awotona, A (1986). Aspects of NigerianArchitecture. In: Vol. 2. No.3.October-December, pp. 55.

Clarke, J.D. (1984).Evans Brothers Limited, London.

Denyer, S. (1978).Heineman Educational Books Ltd.,

London.

Izomoh, S.O. (1997).Emiola Publishers Ltd,

Ogbomoso.

Kultermann, U. (1969).George Braziller, New

York.

Oliver, P. (1976). Barrie JenkinsLtd., London.

Langley (1976). Changes In The Production ofThe Built Environment In Rural Areas. In:

. Vol.2, London, pp.37-51.

Payne, G.K. (1977).Leonard Hill, London, pp. 11-20.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993).”A Study ofModern Trends in Some Aspects of Architecturein Nigeria”. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). PortrayingNational Architecture in Modern Buildings.

Federal University of Technology, Akure.September 13-15.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. J

,1:6, 48-56. AARCHES, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002). The InternationalStyle in Nigeria: Technological and CulturalBridge - or Disaster?

Archiforum Magazine

Building Lagos.

NIA Journal

A Visual History of Nigeria.

African TraditionalArchitecture.

Housing Provision andManagement in Nigeria.

New Directions InAfrican Architecture.

Shelter In Africa.

AfricanEnvironment

Urban Housing In The ThirdWorld.

Valedictory Conference of the Association ofArchitectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES),

ournal of the Associationof Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHESJ)

Journal of Environmental

Classification of Nigerian Architecture 15

Technology,

Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Science andTechnology,

1:1, 102-114. School ofEnvironmental Technology, Federal Universityof Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005). Reflection ofCulture and Climate in the Vernacular andModern Architecture of Akure.

Federal University of Technology,Akure. 14-19 August, 2005.

Archcon Nigeria Limited Brochure

Design Group Nigeria Brochure

Environmental Development ConsultantsBrochure

Femi Majekodunmi Associates Brochure

Godwin Hopwood Kuye Brochure.

Habitat Associates Brochure.

Multi-Systems Brochure.

Triad Associates Brochure.

BROCHURES

�

Technology,

Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Science andTechnology,

1:1, 102-114. School ofEnvironmental Technology, Federal Universityof Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005). Reflection ofCulture and Climate in the Vernacular andModern Architecture of Akure.

Federal University of Technology,Akure. 14-19 August, 2005.

Archcon Nigeria Limited Brochure

Design Group Nigeria Brochure

Environmental Development ConsultantsBrochure

Femi Majekodunmi Associates Brochure

Godwin Hopwood Kuye Brochure.

Habitat Associates Brochure.

Multi-Systems Brochure.

Triad Associates Brochure.