ClassificationClassification

Aristotle’s classificationAristotle’s classification

• Plant/animal?Plant/animal?

– Water/air dweller?Water/air dweller?

Common name confusion : robin, fir Common name confusion : robin, fir

tree, jellyfishtree, jellyfish

Early SystemsEarly Systems

1700’s1700’s

Hierarchy based on morphologyHierarchy based on morphology

7 original levels 7 original levels

Domain (newest level)Domain (newest level)

• Kingdom Kingdom – Phylum (animal) Division (plant)Phylum (animal) Division (plant)

• ClassClass

– OrderOrder

– FamilyFamily

– GenusGenus

– speciesspecies

LinneausLinneaus

Classification Hierarchy of OrganismsClassification Hierarchy of Organisms

Species names has 2 parts: genus and Species names has 2 parts: genus and

species = scientific namespecies = scientific name

Genus is capitalized species is notGenus is capitalized species is not

Italicize or underlineItalicize or underline

Name may be descriptive or “in honor of”Name may be descriptive or “in honor of”

Binomial NomenclatureBinomial Nomenclature

Taxonomy: naming and grouping of Taxonomy: naming and grouping of

organismsorganisms

Systematics – based on natural Systematics – based on natural

relationships includingrelationships including

• Embryology,Embryology,

• ChromosomesChromosomes

• DNA/RNADNA/RNA

Gets “revised” as new info is learnedGets “revised” as new info is learned

SystematicsSystematics

CladisticsCladistics Based on certain features “shared derived Based on certain features “shared derived

characters” I.e. feathers within birds (unique)characters” I.e. feathers within birds (unique)

Birds probably had a common ancestor Birds probably had a common ancestor

because they all have feathersbecause they all have feathers

Phylogenetic Diagram of major groups of Phylogenetic Diagram of major groups of organismsorganisms

3 Domain System3 Domain System Based on analyses of rRNABased on analyses of rRNA

Bacteria – (Eubacteria)Bacteria – (Eubacteria)

Archae – (Archaebacteria)Archae – (Archaebacteria)

Eukarya (protists, fungi, plants animals)Eukarya (protists, fungi, plants animals)

Modern ClassificationModern Classification

Modern ClassificationModern Classification 6 Kingdoms w/in 3 domains6 Kingdoms w/in 3 domains

• ArchaebacteriaArchaebacteria

• EubacteriaEubacteria

• ProtistaProtista

• FungiFungi

• PlantaePlantae

• AnimaliaAnimalia

ECOLOGY- Ch 18 NotesECOLOGY- Ch 18 Notes

ECOLOGYECOLOGY• The study of living organisms and their The study of living organisms and their

interaction with the environmentinteraction with the environment• InterdependenceInterdependence: Everything is : Everything is

connected!!!!connected!!!!• Make Make ModelsModels to help to help

understand/explainunderstand/explain

Making an Ecosystem ModelMaking an Ecosystem Model

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization• BiosphereBiosphere - Earth & its atmosphere that supports life - Earth & its atmosphere that supports life

• EcosystemEcosystem - organisms & their environment (living & non-living in an area) - organisms & their environment (living & non-living in an area)• CommunityCommunity - interacting organisms, all living orgs. - interacting organisms, all living orgs.

• PopulationPopulation - members of same species in one place - members of same species in one place• OrganismOrganism - adaptations of individuals - adaptations of individuals

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

• BIOTIC Factors - livingBIOTIC Factors - living

thingsthings

• ABIOTIC Factors - non ABIOTIC Factors - non

living (pH, temp. sunlight, living (pH, temp. sunlight,

soil type)soil type)

Ecology Consists Of:Ecology Consists Of:

Responses to Environmental Responses to Environmental ChangeChange

• AcclimationAcclimation - occurs within an individuals lifetime, you are able to function - occurs within an individuals lifetime, you are able to function normallynormally

• Control Internal ConditionControl Internal Condition• ConformerConformer - body temp rises & falls w/ environment (ex. Fish) - body temp rises & falls w/ environment (ex. Fish)• RegulatorRegulator - use energy to control your insides (mammals) - use energy to control your insides (mammals)

Responses to Environmental Responses to Environmental ChangeChange

• EscapeEscape• hide underground if hothide underground if hot• dormant for long periods of timedormant for long periods of time• migrate - move to better climate migrate - move to better climate

Tolerance CurveTolerance Curve• Level of change an organism can handleLevel of change an organism can handle• Range of an organism may be determined by Range of an organism may be determined by

thisthis

Niche’sNiche’s• The role of the species in the environmentThe role of the species in the environment

• FundamentalFundamental - potential range of conditions & resources the species can - potential range of conditions & resources the species can tolerate tolerate

• RealizedRealized - range of conditions & resources the species actually uses. Usually - range of conditions & resources the species actually uses. Usually narrower than fundamentalnarrower than fundamental

Earthworm NicheEarthworm Niche

Niche DifferencesNiche Differences• GeneralistsGeneralists - Broad range of conditions & variety of resources - Broad range of conditions & variety of resources

(cockroach) (cockroach) • SpecialistsSpecialists - very narrow niche, feeds on specific food (koala) - very narrow niche, feeds on specific food (koala)

Energy TransferEnergy Transfer• InvolvesInvolves

• ProducerProducer

• ConsumerConsumer

• Energy FlowEnergy Flow

ProducersProducers• Autotrophs - include plants, Autotrophs - include plants,

some protists & bacteriasome protists & bacteria• PhotosyntheticPhotosynthetic - use sunlight as - use sunlight as

energy sourceenergy source• ChemosyntheticChemosynthetic - use inorganic - use inorganic

molecules as energy source molecules as energy source (hydrogen sulfide) (hydrogen sulfide)

ConsumersConsumers• Cannot make their own food, must eat Cannot make their own food, must eat

others, heterotrophsothers, heterotrophs• HerbivoreHerbivore: producer eater: producer eater• CarnivoreCarnivore: consumer eater: consumer eater• OmnivoreOmnivore: eat producer & consumer: eat producer & consumer• DetritivoreDetritivore: Feed on “garbage,” dead : Feed on “garbage,” dead

stuff, animal waste – has a facestuff, animal waste – has a face• DecomposerDecomposer - cause decay by breaking - cause decay by breaking

down tissue & waste – no facedown tissue & waste – no face

Who Eats Whom?Who Eats Whom?• Food Food ChainsChains (simple) (simple)

• Food Food WebsWebs (complex) (complex)

• Trophic LevelsTrophic Levels: : Energy flows from Energy flows from one trophic levelone trophic level to to anotheranother

Antarctic Food ChainAntarctic Food Chain

Antarctic Food WebAntarctic Food Web

Trophic LevelsTrophic Levels• AutotrophsAutotrophs: plants = 1st trophic level: plants = 1st trophic level• HeterotrophsHeterotrophs: Cannot make their own : Cannot make their own

foodfood• HerbivoresHerbivores: 2nd trophic level: 2nd trophic level

• Carnivores:Carnivores: 3rd trophic level & up 3rd trophic level & up

• OmnivoresOmnivores: Above 1st Trophic level: Above 1st Trophic level

What Happens as Energy Moves What Happens as Energy Moves Through a Food Chain?Through a Food Chain?

• Organisms are Organisms are notnot 100% 100% efficientefficient– about about 10%10% of the energy at of the energy at

one level makes it to the next one level makes it to the next level (level (90%90% lostlost))

The 10% Rule & Trophic LevelsThe 10% Rule & Trophic Levels

What Happens as Energy Moves What Happens as Energy Moves Through a Food Chain?Through a Food Chain?

• Energy is lost, by the Energy is lost, by the organisms basic needs and organisms basic needs and heatheat

What Happens as Energy Moves What Happens as Energy Moves Through a Food Chain?Through a Food Chain?

ImplicationsImplications• Usually no more than Usually no more than 3-4 3-4

levelslevels in a food chain in a food chain• Fewer and fewerFewer and fewer organisms in organisms in

the food chain as you go upthe food chain as you go up

Why are there more Why are there more grasshoppers than grizzly bears?grasshoppers than grizzly bears?

ProductivityProductivity• How “productive” in making How “productive” in making

carbohydrates in the ecosystemcarbohydrates in the ecosystem• Carbs used for - cellular Carbs used for - cellular

respiration, maintenance, growth, respiration, maintenance, growth, reproduction reproduction

• biomassbiomass - amount of organic - amount of organic material produced in an material produced in an ecosystem---producers add ecosystem---producers add biomassbiomass

Primary ProductivityPrimary Productivity• Gross Pri. Prod. (GPP)Gross Pri. Prod. (GPP) - rate - rate

producers capture energy….is producers capture energy….is total amounttotal amount

• Net Pri. Prod. (NPP)Net Pri. Prod. (NPP) - rate - rate biomass accumulates biomass accumulates (carbohydrates used for (carbohydrates used for maintenance don’t result in maintenance don’t result in biomass)….is amount left over biomass)….is amount left over after deductions madeafter deductions made

Net Primary ProductivityNet Primary Productivity• Only biomass is available to Only biomass is available to

other organismsother organisms• expressed as (kcal/mexpressed as (kcal/m22/yr) or /yr) or

g/mg/m22/yr)/yr)• NPP = GPP - respiration rate in NPP = GPP - respiration rate in

producersproducers• Varies among ecosystems….Varies among ecosystems…. is is

biomass greater in tropical rain forest or desert?biomass greater in tropical rain forest or desert?

•Nutrients are essential to the Nutrients are essential to the success of ecosystemssuccess of ecosystems•Nutrients cycle between the Nutrients cycle between the biotic and abiotic components biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystemof the ecosystem•Removal of trees = higher rate Removal of trees = higher rate of nutrient and water lossof nutrient and water loss•CHNOPS are most important!CHNOPS are most important!

Biogeochemical cyclesBiogeochemical cycles

•More water = more diversityMore water = more diversity

•Plants are integral - take up water, and Plants are integral - take up water, and it evaporates into atmosphere through it evaporates into atmosphere through their leaves (their leaves (transpirationtranspiration))•EvaporationEvaporation from oceans & lakes from oceans & lakes•Involves precipitation, reservoirs of Involves precipitation, reservoirs of groundwater, vaporgroundwater, vapor•No plants = lose water to runoffNo plants = lose water to runoff

Water Cycle= Hydrologic Water Cycle= Hydrologic

Water CycleWater Cycle

•Carbon is in carbon dioxide in air - Carbon is in carbon dioxide in air - gets there by gets there by cellularcellular respirationrespiration and burning fossil fuelsand burning fossil fuels•Taken out of air by Taken out of air by photosynthesisphotosynthesis•Living organisms are made of C, Living organisms are made of C, must get it by eating organismsmust get it by eating organisms•Cutting forests = increase COCutting forests = increase CO22

levels - global warminglevels - global warming

Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle

Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle

•Needed for proteins and Needed for proteins and nucleic acidsnucleic acids

•Nitrogen gas makes up ~78% Nitrogen gas makes up ~78% of atmosphere but cannot be of atmosphere but cannot be taken in directly from air by taken in directly from air by animals; need to be animals; need to be assimilated assimilated by plants firstby plants first

Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle

5 Steps to memorize5 Steps to memorizeNitrogen fixationNitrogen fixation: take N: take N22 gas out of air and convert into gas out of air and convert into

ammonia or nitrates (by bacteria & lightning)ammonia or nitrates (by bacteria & lightning)NitrificationNitrification: ammonium (NH: ammonium (NH44

++) ) nitrate (NO nitrate (NO33) by ) by

bacteria to be taken up by plants (soil bacteria oxidize)bacteria to be taken up by plants (soil bacteria oxidize)AssimilationAssimilation: plants take up ammonia, ammonium and : plants take up ammonia, ammonium and nitrate ions through roots (animals can then eat)nitrate ions through roots (animals can then eat)AmmonificationAmmonification: dead organisms & waste (through : dead organisms & waste (through urine/dung) contain Nitrogen urine/dung) contain Nitrogen ammonia & ammonium ions ammonia & ammonium ions (by decomposer bacteria) for plants(by decomposer bacteria) for plantsDenitrificationDenitrification: N: N22 released back into atmosphere (by released back into atmosphere (by

bacteria)bacteria)

Plants use nitrates to form AA, animals get nitrogen Plants use nitrates to form AA, animals get nitrogen by eating plants by eating plants

Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle

•phosphorus moves from phosphate deposited in rock, to the soil, to living organisms, and finally to the ocean

Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle

Populations-Ch 19Populations-Ch 19

Properties of PopulationsProperties of Populations• SizeSize - can be counted or estimated - can be counted or estimated

• DensityDensity - How crowded they are U.S. = - How crowded they are U.S. =

30 people/Km30 people/Km22

• Topics:Topics:

• DispersionDispersion

• Growth rateGrowth rate

• Age structureAge structure

• Survivorship curvesSurvivorship curves

DispersionDispersion• ClumpedClumped

• RandomRandom

• Uniform/EvenUniform/Even

Age StructureAge Structure• % of individuals among % of individuals among

different agesdifferent ages

Patterns of MortalityPatterns of Mortality• Shown in survivorship curvesShown in survivorship curves

• Type I - young surviveType I - young survive

• Type II - many die youngType II - many die young

• Type III - most die youngType III - most die young

Measuring PopulationsMeasuring Populations• DemographersDemographers: study population dynamics: study population dynamics

• Growth RateGrowth Rate: Amount a population changes : Amount a population changes

in a given timein a given time

• Birth, death, immigration, emigration Birth, death, immigration, emigration

determine growth ratedetermine growth rate

• Growth rate = B.R. - D.R.Growth rate = B.R. - D.R.

Calculating PopulationsCalculating Populations• Done per capita (person)Done per capita (person)

• Growth rate X current popl. Size = Growth rate X current popl. Size =

yearly increase yearly increase

• + = growing, - = decreasing+ = growing, - = decreasing

Exponential GrowthExponential Growth• Rapid increase after a few Rapid increase after a few

generations, the bigger it gets, the generations, the bigger it gets, the

faster it increasesfaster it increases

• ““J shaped curve”J shaped curve”

• B & D rate are constantB & D rate are constant

• Populations cannot grow indefinitely Populations cannot grow indefinitely

like this because of limiting like this because of limiting

resourcesresources

Two Growth ModelsTwo Growth Models

Logistic GrowthLogistic Growth• Similar to exponential, but Similar to exponential, but

includes carrying capacity (max includes carrying capacity (max

number = K)number = K)

• Birth rate falls & death rate Birth rate falls & death rate

climbs as popl. growsclimbs as popl. grows

• Carrying capacity can fluctuateCarrying capacity can fluctuate

• S-shaped curveS-shaped curve

Population RegulationPopulation Regulation• Density-independentDensity-independent: flood, fire, weather - : flood, fire, weather -

doesn’t matter how many individuals there doesn’t matter how many individuals there

areare

• Density-dependentDensity-dependent: resource limitation, : resource limitation,

food, nesting site, brought on by increased food, nesting site, brought on by increased

populationpopulation

Population FluctuationPopulation Fluctuation• More prey = more predatorsMore prey = more predators

• Less prey = less predatorsLess prey = less predators

• Wolf and moose population Wolf and moose population mightmight

cycle togethercycle together

Small PopulationsSmall Populations• Inbreeding is likelyInbreeding is likely

• Fewer offspring, more susceptible to Fewer offspring, more susceptible to

disease, shorter life span, decreased disease, shorter life span, decreased

genetic variability = bottleneck effect!genetic variability = bottleneck effect!

The human popl. explosionThe human popl. explosion• Long ago were hunter-gatherer’s, small Long ago were hunter-gatherer’s, small

populations, high mortalitypopulations, high mortality

• Agricultural Revolution (10,000 years ago): Agricultural Revolution (10,000 years ago):

Better food supplyBetter food supply

• Decrease death rate: sanitation, food, Decrease death rate: sanitation, food,

economicseconomics

Demographic TransitionDemographic Transition• How populations change as a country How populations change as a country

industrializesindustrializes

The human popl. explosionThe human popl. explosion

History of Human Popl. History of Human Popl. GrowthGrowth

• Began ~1650Began ~1650

• After WWII fastest growth rate ever b/c After WWII fastest growth rate ever b/c

of sanitation & medical careof sanitation & medical care

• Today: faster in developing rather than Today: faster in developing rather than

developed countriesdeveloped countries

Developed CountriesDeveloped Countries• 20 % of world popl.20 % of world popl.

• U.S., Japan, Germany, U.S., Japan, Germany,

France, Russia, Canada, France, Russia, Canada,

AustraliaAustralia

• Better educated, healthier, Better educated, healthier,

longer livinglonger living

• Growth rate is less than 0.01Growth rate is less than 0.01

Developing CountriesDeveloping Countries• 80 % of world popl.80 % of world popl.

• Most of Asia, Central Most of Asia, Central

America, South America, America, South America,

AfricaAfrica

• Poorer, less educatedPoorer, less educated

• Growth rate is more than Growth rate is more than

0.020.02