classical art with chinese characteristics: pastiche and ... · classical art with chinese...

Classical Art with Chinese

Characteristics: Pastiche

and Parody as a Post-

ModernistFormofCultural

Identity

HannahKirk

YenchingAcademy,

PekingUniversity

June2019

Classical Art with Chinese Characteristics: Pastiche and Parody as a Post-Modernist Form of Cultural Identity 2

IntroductionPastichehasheldalong-lastingpresenceintheartisticprocess.Forcenturiesandacross

cultures,mastershavecopiedthetechniquesandsharedthesubjectmattereternalisedbytheir

predecessors. Most definitions of pastiche are synonymous with this process of copying in

varyingdegreesofapproval,rangingfromaccusationsofnearplagiarismtomoresympathetic

understanding of added creativity in layers above the original. This essay considers the

definitionalscopeofpasticheasafoundationtoitstreatmentasalegitimatepost-modernistart

form.TheJamesonian‘blank’and‘blind’pastichewhereoverlappingsymbolismacrosserasor

cultures renders all lost in meaning is contrasted against the ‘Hutcheonian transcontextual

parody’whereby the artist conveys precisemeaning through the transplanted historical and

culturalnarrative.ThesuitabilityofsuchadefinitionfortheChinesecontextisconsideredinthe

pastbutalsothepresent.Choiceofartisticformreflectsonthequestionofhowbesttoportray

cultural identity and I argue this art form has unique high-level interpretability by layering

politicalandsocialcommentbetweenWesternandEasternartisticideals,nowandacrosstime.

Assuch,China’smodernityispaintedamidstacomplexmazeofhistoricalreferences,formsand

ubiquitouslyrecognisableimagery.Inordertoclarifythepreciseandpoignantpurposeofparody

formodernChineseartists,threeexampleswillbepresentedintheformoftwocasestudiesand

onecomparativestudyacrossrenditionsofthesamepainting‘TheLastSupper’.Throughthese

examples, this essay comprehensively demonstrates how Chinese cultural identity is so

powerfullyportrayedbymeansofpasticheandparody(used interchangeably throughout the

discussionthatfollows).Indoingso,ithopestoconvincethereaderthat‘pastichearticulatesthis

senseoflivingpermanently,ruefullybutwithoutdistress,withinthelimitsandpotentialitiesof

theculturalconstructionofthoughtandfeeling’(Dyer,2007,p.180)


Section1:DefiningPasticheandParodyInetymologicalterms,pastichecomesfromtheFrenchpasticheorItalianpasticcio,avariety

ofpastrywithmultipleingredients.Despitehavingansignificantpresencethroughthehistoryof

art,pastichehasbecometobeassociatednot justwithmultiple ingredientsbutwithmultiple

otherwords.Cohan(2007)citesevenplagiarism,forgeryandhoaxarealltoooftenconsidered

synonymousdespiteactuallyrepresentingastrongopinionagainstthisartform.Letusconsider

therangeofexistentdefinitions.Beginningwiththemostnegativekind,considerMurrayand

Murray’s despairingly simplistic dictionary definition of pastiche as “an imitation or forgery

which consists of a number of motives taken from several genuine works by any one artist

recombinedinsuchawayastogivetheimpressionofbeinganindependentoriginalcreationby

thatartist”(MurrayandMurray,1959).Offeringgreaterneutrality,oneoftheearliestdefinitions

demarkspasticheas:“1a.Aworkofartproducedindeliberateimitationofanotherorseveral

others, as of theworks of amaster taken together, and 2b. Especially, in decorative art, the

modificationfortransferencetoanothermedium,ofanydesign.”(RussellSturgis,1902).Finally,

EdwardLucieSmith(1984)’sdefinitionof“aworkofartusingaborrowedstyleandusuallymade

up of borrowed elements but not necessarily a direct copy", introduces complexity by

sympathizingwith theconceptofdeliberate intention,andnot imitation inentirety. Inall the

aboveandother“dictionary”definitions,thecommonthemereliesontheprocessofdrawingone

ideafromthefoundationofanotheracrossagradationofrespectfortheprocessofrepetition,

mimickingorimitation.

Section2:PasticheandParodyinaPostmodernistFrameTouncoverthe legitimacyofpasticheandparodyasmeaningfulart forms,eachmustbe

understoodasaproductoftheirtime,asapartofthepostmodernistproductionprocess.One

theorist,HalFoster,deemspastichethedistinguishingmarkofpostmodernart“Yetnearlyevery

postmodernartistandarchitecthasresorted,inthenameofstyleandhistory,topastiche;indeed

itisfairtosaythatpasticheistheofficialstyleofthispostmodernistcamp”(Foster,1985).Yet


Foster’sapprobationisnotuniversal.Inasimilarspectrumtodictionarydefinitionsintroduced

above, the gradation to which each definitional school sympathizes with the originality of

pastiche or parody and its place in postmodernism relies on the contrasting treatments of

whetherrepetitionofhistoricalelementsengendercommentorlackof,thepresent.

2.1Jamesonian‘Schizophrenic’ParodyInordertounderstandJameson’spositiononpastichewemustunderstandhistakeonthe

postmodernistmovementinitswhole:

"Inthewhollybuiltandconstructeduniverseoflatecapitalism,fromwhichnaturehasatlast

beeneffectivelyabolishedandinwhichhumanpraxis—inthedegradedformsofinformation,

manipulation,andreification—haspenetratedtheolderautonomoussphereofcultureandeven

theUnconscious,theUtopiaofarenewalofperceptionhasnoplacetogo”.

(Jameson1985,121-22)

Jamesonwasatthevanguardofpostmodernistcriticsinthe1980s,regardingthis‘wholly

builtandconstructeduniverseoflatecapitalism’asdeprivedofnaturalform,ofmeaningandof

purpose. For him, the integration of cross-cultural or intertemporal histories introduces only

confusion,the‘coded’intentionsarenomorethansuperficialandanyartformlackingoriginal

contentiscontiguoustolackingcreativity.Framingthiscriticisminalineageofartistmovements,

thepostmodernistpartialitytoreuseandrepeatthepastisseenbyJamesonasthesaddemiseof

great modernist individuality (Duvall 1999), the commodification of cultural expression.

Jameson’streatmentofpasticheasaninauthenticformofculturalorhistoricalexpressionarises

additionallyfromhisMarxistbelief ina ‘truescientifichistory’.Inthe“temporalunificationof

past and future” (Jameson 1985, 26-27) interpretable historical record is obscured.

Postmodernism opposes such a linearity of history, “Pastiche itself is the effect of the

transformation from a society with a historical sensibility to one that can only play with a

degradedhistoricism"(Jameson1985,10).ThetotalityofJameson’spostmodernistcritiqueand


pastichewithinthat,issuccinctlysummarizedbyDuvall(1999)asschizophrenic,theinabilityto

focus on temporal or cultural context of the subject. The “dialectical intensification of the

autoreferentialityofallmodernculture”(Jameson1985,42)obfuscatesanunderstandingofany

cultureatanytime.ForJameson,byunitingpastandpresent,neitherisunderstood.

2.2.IntroducingHutcheonianTranscontexualParodyHutcheonindorsesastarkdissensionclearlydiscernibleinherfollowingwords:

“thedialogueofpastandpresent,ofoldandnew,iswhatgivesformalexpressiontoabeliefin

changewithincontinuity.Theobscurityandhermeticismofmodernismareabandonedfora

direct engagement of the viewer in the processes of signification through re-contextualized

socialandhistoricalreferences”

(Hutcheon2003,32)

Hutcheon’sexplicitpolemicsagainstJamesonaremostperspicuouslydividedalongthree

keyaxes.Firstly,ifweuseoneword,‘schizophrenic’istoJameson’scritiquewhat‘transcontexual

is’ to Hutcheon’s commendation. Transcontextualism concerns the interaction of the current

piecewiththeoriginalwork,reusingandreinterpretingfeaturesofthepastbutrelatingthemto

present. Jameson despairs the ‘lost of the natural’ yet for Hutcheon this is exactly the

“denaturalizingformofacknowledgingthehistory”(Hutcheon2002,90),understandingthisart

formasadialoguebetweenhistoricalandculturaldiscourse,is“whatdistinguishedparodyfrom

pasticheorimitation”(ibid.,12).Hutcheon’ssympathytoparodicrecallisderivedpreciselyfrom

itsabilitytoblendacrosstime,superimposingdifferencesandsimilaritiesofimagerytorepresent

changinginterpretations.Indoingso,theviewerisawardedwith“historicityintermsoffeeling”

(Dyer2007,178).Itispreciselypastiche’sevocationof‘culturalmemory’whichHoestery(2001)

claimsallowshigherlevelinterpretationinthepostmodernistmovement.

Inaddition,theseconflictinginterpretationsalsodifferintheirtreatmentofwhichagent

bears the responsibility of interpretation. For Jameson, amalgamating images that belong to


neitherpastnorpresent,condemnstheconsumertoaninexorableconfusionofinterpretation.

Initsend,theattempt“toseekHistory”through“asimulacraofthathistory”isfutilegiventhe

history “itself remains forever out of reach" (Jameson 1985, 25). Hutcheon’s alternatively

rewardstheclevernessoftheproducer,whoselayersoftranscontexualdiscourseindividualise

theirworkfrompurecopy.Underthisview,sheseespostmodernismas“theprocessofmaking

the product; it is absencewithin presence, it is dispersal that needs centering in order to be

dispersal.”(Hutcheon 2003, 49). The virtue of parody lies exactly in its vagueness of

interpretationsinceit‘‘reward[s]theviewerforconnectingwithanypieceoftheprevioussystem

ofrepresentationsuponwhichitdepends"(Duvall1999,16)

Finally, Jameson favours the divorce of history into segmented eras, into an ‘Either/Or’

history,triumphingalinearandscientificMarxisthistory.Undersucha‘truescientifichistory’,

themistakeofpostmodernistpasticheistocross-contaminatehistoricalreference,subservient

to‘thetransformationfromasocietywithahistoricalsensibilitytoonethatcanonlyplaywitha

degradedhistoricism"(Jameson1985,10).Incontrast,Hutcheon’ssympathytoparodyingforms

ofartliespreciselyinthemarriageofnarrativefrompastandpresent,andfromonecultureto

another. Precisely because it is a ‘Both/And’ production, not new, nor old, makespastiche a

special art form by selective retention of each reference era. “[T]he self-reflexive parodic

introversion suggested by a turning to the aesthetic past is itself what makes possible an

ideologicalandsocialintervention”(Hutcheon2003,33)incurrentcontext.

Section3:TranscontexualParodyinChina’sPastandPresentTheappropriabilityoftheJamesonianversusHutcheoniandefinitiondependsinextricably

onthespacetowhichthatdefinitionisapplied.Thus,beforeaconclusioncanbemadeonthe

tractionofeitheropinion,therelevanceofparodyandpastichemustbeexaminedinChina’sart

history.

Artistic imitation isbynomeansamodernphenomena inChina,pasticheenjoysa long-

existingandperhapsevencentralroleinthetraditionalartisticprocess.Theprocessofmasters


learningfromthosethatcamebeforethem,‘learningbydoing’,wasconsideredanintegralpart

of an artist’s maturation. Yet in this context, pastiche was mostly purposed to learn about

technique,styleandsubjectmatters,withoutthepropensitytopromoteoriginalorironicpolitical

orsocietalcomment.Withthisinmind,onemightdeemappropriatetheJamesoniantreatment

ofpasticheaslackingoriginality,asa‘blind’copy.

However, even in aHutcheonian sense, parodic

formsofartdidexist,andpreciselytodrivepolitical,

religiousorsocialnarrative.Thetermmanhua(漫话),

twinnedtotheJapanesetermmanga,wasfirstusedin

1925 (Valjakka 2011). A wealth of cartoons,

caricaturesandsatiricalimagespopulateartproduced

especially in the 20th century disseminating critical

comment on the contemporaneous issues by

transcontexualising China’s changing position in the

world.Forexample,considerthecartooninFigure1,

portraying face with exaggerated facial features

simultaneously displaying two conflicting emotions.

The first,asmile,portrayshowtheQinggovernment

deferredtoforeignpowers,whilethesecond,afrown,

describes dissent at its arrogant attitude towards

domesticpeople.

YettherelationshipbetweenmethodofportrayalandmessagegoesbeyondChina’sprevious

century.Stricher’s(1967)analysisofDaoistandBuddhistreligiousimagery(suchthatpresented

inFigure2)focusesonthedistortionsofphysicalappearanceawayfromtruehumanform.Little

(2000)complementarilysuggests thisdeformationwasprecisely toportray to theviewer the

Figure 1: Two Different Faces (1909), originally

published in Collected Pictorials of the Year Wushen,

own picture from ‘Between the Lines – The Chinese

Cartoon Revolution” exhibition in Singapore


impervious other-worldliness of religious

figures. As such, by examining its role

throughout China’s art history, we cannot

consider parody and pastiche as purely

degenerative postmodernist form of art, as

Jameson does. Instead, parody, in the

maintenanceof somepartsof imageand in

thedistortionofotherparts,hasalong-held

relationship as an artistic process able to

presenttothevieweranuancedcommenton

theroleorpositionoftheimage’scontent.

Atpresent,pasticheoccupiesanewintensityoffunctionformodernChineseartists.The

unique role of pastiche and parody as a postmodernist form of cultural expression is best

understood by applying Erickson’s (2005) bifurcated view of the operating space of Chinese

contemporaryartists.Underthisduality,wecanframethemodernfunctionofpasticheinChina

asresolvetotheoutlook“China’savantgardeartistsaredoublymarginalized”.

Themarginalizationinfirst instanceIconsidera ‘internationalmarginalisation’whereby

Chinese art identity is subjugated in the international community by western standards. In

classicalart,Chineseartistsaresubjectedtolearningthetechniquesandwesternidealsofform

or bodies through art curriculums. Equally, contemporary art is biased towards western

aestheticpreferences.Throughexistingina“West-centricpost-modernismandpast-focusedart-

schoolglobalaestheticworld”(Erickson2005),transcontexualisingimageryfromeastandwest

isalmostforciblyimposedintotheartisticprocess.WhenaChineseartistrepurposesaEuropean

masterpiece tomake new comment on a different culture or era, he is doing so because the

repurposingoffersamoreintracitycommentthancreatinganentirelyoriginalpiece.Parodyhas

purposeinrevealingthe‘politicsofrepresentations‘(Hutcheon2000,90).

Figure 2: Zhu Jianshen, Harmony (1465), Palace Museum Beijing


Thesecondmarginalizationisbestconsideredasatensionbetweendomesticartidentity

acrosstimeperiods,mostseverelytowardstheendofthe20thcenturywiththemarginalization

of traditional Chinese Art amidst mass disruption to social and political norms. The radical

paradigmshiftinthe1960sand1970swasdrivenbyimportedpoliticalideas,fromRussiaand

from Germany, and the concomitant importation of artistic styles replacing the century old

traditionalChineseartproductionmethods.China’stransitiontomodernitydidnotexperience

justoneshiftinsocietalstructure,butanotherintheopeningupandreformperiod.Onceagain,

the existing framework was layered with an imitation of modern West facsimiles of trade,

entrepreneurship, global corporations and consumerism. When using pastiche as a form of

expression, contemporary artists’ representation of these reinforcing notions of contrast and

continuity across China’s art history is precisely the effective transcontexualism Hutcheon

praises.Parodyofferstractiontoexposetheviewertosuchtensions,dissectingChina'sposition

incomparisontotheitsownhistory.

Yetonecangofurtherthanconsideringthesehistoricalstructuralbreaksasrepresented

effectively through pastiche, and consider how pastiche itself as an art form protects the

marginalizedcontemporaryartists.Thereisanargumenttobemadethatpasticheisnotjustan

effectiveformofexpressionbutanecessaryselection.Thus,beyondcommentonculturalidentity,

parodyholdsaparticularuniqueroleinChinaduetothetangibleinfluenceoflackingpolitical

freedominflictingrestrictedartistfreedom.Farfromrepresentingalackoforiginality,parodyas

amediumofexpressionofferssafetyinimitation.Pre-establishediconographyandsymbolism

areharnessedforsubtlyofcriticalcommentwhichcouldnototherwisebemade.Tothisend,Lu

(2001) argues Chinese artists have deliberately associates themselves with parody as an

internationalartformbecauseitpreciselyallowsatranscontexualcommenttobemadewithout

thepoliticalsensitivityofprimaryartproduction.

Withthisunderstandingofmarginalization,wemustre-considertheappropriatedefinition

ofpasticheandparodyinthemodernChinesecase.Crucially,whilesomecommentatorsrequire


humourandplayfulnessasfundamentaltoclassificationofparody(Rose1993,Jencks1997),this

requirementisoverbearingwhenexaminingtherelevanceofthisartformtotheChinesecase.

Marginalizationhardlyimpliespositivityofexperiencesothe‘doublevoice’Hutcheondescribes

must be allowed to speak of serious and politically charged messages. This expansion of

definitionalspacefurtherweakenstheJamesonianapproach,whichseestheinclusionofironyas

incompatible to theseriousnessofmessage inpost-modernistart.AsHutcheon’s laments “To

misunderstandthisistomisunderstandthenatureofmuchcontemporaryaestheticproduction”

disparagingly adding “even if it doesmake for neater theorizing.” Understanding the role of

parodyformodernChineseartiststhusrequiresasomewhatnuancedunderstandingofnotjust

what is communicated through this art form but also in the ease and safety which imitated

imageryprovidesinsendingmessageswithpoliticalconnotations.Thus,ifweaccepttheplight

of currentChinese artists underErickson’s convincing ‘double –marginalization’ framework

thenapplyingHutcheon’sdefinitionofpasticheas‘adoublevoicedhybridization’revealsexactly

why the art form is so relevant to encode theirmessages today.Through the employmentof

tensions between past and present, internationally and domestically recognizable imagery,

Chineseartistsarepresenting“conventionalnotionsoftheself,theother,China,andtheWest”

(Lu2001,192).


Section4: Case Studyof Sui Jianguo (Sculpture) ‘ClothesVein

Study’(1999)

Figure 3: Sui Jianguo, Discobolus (with Mao jacket) (1998), Fiberglass, 172 x 110 x 80 cm

Figure 4: Sui Jianguo, Dying Slave (with Mao jacket) (1998), Fiberglass, 232 x 90 x 90 cm

Figure 5: Sui Jianguo, Anatomy (with Mao jacket) (1998), Fiberglass

Figure 6: Sui Jianguo, David (with Mao jacket) (1998), Painted Bronze, 120 x 40 x 40 cm


4.1ArtistBackgroundPoliticalcommentinChina’spostmodernistartworkinthe1990sismostclearlydiscernible

throughsculpture.Thescopeforstrikingre-modellingofclassicaliconographyandformcreates

potential for a powerful transcontexual narrative. One sculpture, Sui Jianguo, has displayed

throughout his career considerable commitment to reinterpretation of sculptural tradition,

layeredwithpolitical andcultural commentonChinesemodern identity,priminghisbodyof

workasanelucidatingcasestudyforthepurposeofthisessay.

SuiJianguowasborninQingdaoin1956,receivingaBAinFineArtsDepartmentfromthe

ShandongUniversityofArts in1984andanMA in theSculptureDepartment from theChina

Central Academy of Fine Arts in 1989, where he remains today as director of the sculpture

department. The focus of Sui’s career depends considerably on the progression of his artist

development inhis formativeyears. Initially,Suiworked ina factorypropagandadepartment

immersed inSocialRealist technique.Yetwith increasingboredom in the repetitivework,he

requestedatransitiontocopyingoldinkmasterpieces,arequestgrantedbyhissupervisor.The

traditionalprocessoflearningfromSongmasterpieceswasmarredbythecontextofthecultural

revolutionunderwhichSuiwasdeveloping.Thevarietyofexposuretocontrastingcreativestyles

wasyetfurtherexpandedwhenin1977,SuienrolledinaneveningclassinWesternacademic

styles.TheclassicalsculpturallifestudiespresentedtoSuiinthisclassinstigatedhislong-lasting

passion for theart form,butaperspicuousviewercandetect fromhisbodyofwork that the

contextofSui’snon-westernbackgroundwasneverlostfromhispieces.

4.2MediumandTechniquesSui’ssoloexhibitionfirstunveiledin1999comprisesasetofGreco-Romanstatues,replicas

ofMyron’sDiscobolus(Figure3)orMichelangelo’sSlaves(Figure4)whoseusuallynaked,precise

anatomicalformsarehiddeninclothes,thequintessential,politicalchargedMaojacketatthat.

ThepieceAnatomy(Figure5)clearlydemonstratesthisvisualcomparison.Suiismimickingan

artiststudyingexercise,evidentinthename‘clothesveinstudy’,whichbecomesmoreclearwhen


we use the alternative English translation ‘drapery study’. This is in-of-itself an interesting

decisionintwosenses.Firstly,theadditionofclothesaddsalayeroftechnicalcomplexityonto

thesculpture,capturingthefluidityoffabricinamediumasinflexibleastheonesheuses..This

istestamenttotheprimarypurposeoftheclassicalsculpturesasapreciseanatomicalstudiesof

thehumanbodywhichonlya skilledhandcancapture toperfection in lifeless stone.Yet the

clothesaddnotonlymasterfulintricaciesandcomplexitytotheformbutalsotranscontexualise

thesculpturesintotheconditionofmodernhumans,whoareonthewholeuniversallyclothed.

Thus,intherepresentationofclothundertension,inthefoldsandthewrinkles,Sui’ssculptures

not only represents new technique but also novel comment on the modernity of human

representation. In corroboratory comment, Sui describes his own sculptures as “ingenious

fusionsofconceptandform”.

Consideringnextthematerials,Suiremasterstheoriginalmarbleinaselectionofindustrial

materialsincludingplaster,concrete,bronzeandfiberglass.Throughthesecompositematerials

we feel Sui’s reflection on themodernity, urbanity and even impurity of Chinese society. Yet

furthercommentcanbemade in the lineageof thesematerials throughoutglobalarthistory.

Marbleandbronzeprecedeconcreteandfiberglass,reflectingtheprecedenceofpasttopresent.

Therepeatedcycleofpredominanceofbuildingmaterialsreflectsthecycleofdestructionand

replacementahistoricalsense,refittingsocietyofteninunsustainablelayers.Inliteralterms,Sui

clarifiestheambiguouspositionofmodernChinainitslackofpermanentcreation,harkingback

towide-spreaddestructionintheculturalrevolutionofhistoricalmemorycraftedfromdiverse

materialsand thereplacementwithrapidlybuild,utilitarianconcrete-blockbuildings.Finally,

eventhesculpturesfastenedfromBronze,Suihaspaintedachalkywhitepaintovertheoriginal

castmaterial(SeeDavid,Figure6)Theactionofhidingoldwithanewbutthinlayeredfaçade

furtherexpressesChina’sconfusedculturalandpoliticalidentityinSui’sformativeyearsasan

artist.


4.3AnalysisandContextSuiJianguo’sbodyofworkdisseminatescommentonconflictingChineseculturalidentity

throughtwochannels.Mostobviouslythroughtheimportedadaptationofawesternstylejacket

butalso,atadeeper‘belowtheskinlevel,theadoptionofWesternidealsofphysicalbeautyand

forminartacademies.

4.3.1TheSymbolismoftheMaoJacketInchannellingthestrongiconographyoftheMaojacket,Sui’scommentisbolsteredbya

ubiquitously recognisable symbolofChina’smodernisationof identity. Yet the identityof the

jacket itselfrepresentsmanifold layersofconfusiondespite its initiallyclearand indisputable

distinctiveness.Firstly,eventhenameofthejacketitselfisfallacious,eponymoustothewrong

designer,Mao,whenitshouldbeattributedtoDrSunYatSen.Inequalfooting,‘Socialismwith

ChineseCharacteristics’,representsneitherofitstitularcomponentsinentirely.Bydemarcating

Chinesemodernidentitywiththisterm,theinterpretationofthisidentityisenforcedbythename

itself,evenifthisnameisnotfullyrepresentative.

Secondly,beyonditserroneousname,theMaojacketfurtherembodiesaconfusedeastern

andwesternamalgamatedidentity.Theoriginaljacketdesignwasfashionedinthe19thcentury

from Prussian and Japanese patterns. Even this symbol which has grown to become so

quintessentiallyChinesedemonstratestheproblematicculturalimportationofwesternidentity

in forming China’s modern sartorial. Alongside the importation of clothing style came the

concomitant importationofpoliticalandphilosophicaldirective fromRussiaandGermany. In

more recent years, the importation of capitalistic freedom, entrepreneurial spirit and free

marketsequallyrepresentsanotherparadigmshift.

Ateachstageoftheirintroduction,thesenewideaswerenotharmoniousnorendogenous

tothepre-existingChinesesystem,emergingasfractioustothesocietalnormsandbehavioursof

thetimebefore.Consider,forclarityofargument,theimpositionofMarxistphilosophyandthe

artificialcreationofconditionsforaproletariatrevolutioninabroadlyagrarian,non-urbanised


country like China, which in the mid 20th century scarcely reflected the conditions Marx

originallyprescribedinGermanyasapre-requisitefortheinstigationofsocialism.Inthesame

way,theMaojacketisstrikinglyoutofplaceonSui’sGreco-Romanstatues,China’s‘wearing’of

historicalsocialistmovementsandsubsequentdonningofmodernaspectsofWesterncapitalism,

is equally asynchronous or jarring. The Mao jacket thus represents this repeated cycle of

destruction, replacement and reconceptualization of the predominant cultural and political

system, where insertion of Western concepts in places they not to arise naturally creates a

persistentcontradictioninculturalidentity.

4.3.2TheTensionBetweenArtandArtAcademyDrawinginferencesbeyondtheMaojacketsymbolismalone,Sui’sbodyofworkinvitesthe

viewertothinkmorebroadlyaboutthehybridculturalidentityofChineseartbyquestioninghow

theproductionofartisderivativetoartistidealstaughtinartacademies.Sui’spositiontomake

thiscommentislegitimisedbyhisdualityofidentityasbothanartisthimselfbutsimultaneously,

asateacherinaclassicallyfocusedartschool.SuchapositiongivesSuithepowertochoosewhat

lessonsandartisticprocessestoimposeonhisstudents.Thepowerdynamicbetweenmasterand

student, literati and learner has beenwell-established for centuries, yet it no longer remains

contained stylistically within one cultural frame, and in the tumultuous 20th century, the

relationshiplostimmunitytopoliticalinfluence.Inaspeechin1942,Maodelineatedthepurpose

ofartandartacademiesinproducingthatartassubservienttothepeopleandtherevolution.

ThenewfoundeddominanceofSocialRealismwasdecidedbythoseinpoliticalpositionsbutit

was inflicted heavily on art academies, replacing traditionally taught techniques and styles.

ChineseartstudentsweresenttoLeningradforgreaterintensityofexposureandartteachers

wereimportedintoChineseartacademies(Ippolito2009).Eventoday,theroleofwesternart

idealsandtechniquesintheseChineseacademiesremainsacontentiousissue.Theleakageofthe

learning process to Western art is felt particularly acutely for students of sculpture. Sui’s

departmentmaintainsafocusinitsfoundationtrainingonwesternanatomicalsculptures,like

thoseSuidepictshimself..Despitethemanycenturiesthathavepassed,hisstudentsaresubjected


tohoursof anatomicalobservation justasMichelangelowas in theGreco-Romanconvention.

Concurrent to learning how to expertly shape the human form through these traditional

anatomicalstudies,studentsandtheirteachersarecontinuallyexposedtotheWesternidealof

themaleorfemalebody.Thus,inhiscoveringofthesebodiesinMaojackets,Suimakesastrong

commentaboutculturalidentitynotjustinthechoiceofcloth,butequallyintherejectionofthe

continualsubjugationofChineseartiststoWesternimportedtechniques,styleandevennatural

form.Sui’sdyadicidentitymakeshisdepthofcommentevenmorepalatable,asheisboththe

oppressorandtheoppressed.


Section5:CaseStudyofXinYin(Painter)‘AfterMasters’(2008)

Figure 7: Xin Yin, Dejeuner Sur L’Herbe After Manet (2008), Oil on Canvas

Figure 8: Xin Yin, Mona After Da Vinci, (2008), Oil on Canvas

Figure 9: Xin Yin, Venus and the Lute Player After Titian, (2008), Oil on Canvas


5.1ArtisticBackgroundSimilarlytoourfirstcasestudy,theartistcareerofpainterXinYinisderivativeinlargepart

tohisearlyartisticbackground.XinYinwasborninXinjiang,inthefar-westofChinaandsimilarly

toSui,hisbeginningsinlifecoincidedwiththebeginningstotheculturalrevolution,akeyperiod

ofshiftingChineseidentity.HisartistdevelopmentbeganbystudyingSocialRealismatartcollege,

copyingpropagandapaintingasamethod to learnpainting.When laterexposed toEuropean

masterpieceswhilestudyinginAustraliaandfinallysettlinginParis,Xincontinuedtocopythe

painting technique but transplanted his own cultural experiences onto these stylistic copies.

Accordingly,hisbodyofworkrepresentsauniqueamalgamationofclassicalwesternpaintings

transcontexualisedtoXin’sownculturalheritage.

5.2MediumandTechniquesThematerialsusedbyXinYin,mostcommonlyoiloncanvas,areunconventionallyChinese.

Throughout a country’s or a culture’s art history, medium and subject-matter are so often

contiguousthatourassociationofaparticularartisticstylebecomessynonymoustothepeople

orobjectspaintedinthatstyle.Forexample,aswesawinthiscourse,thetechniqueofchiaro

scurobecomesassociatedwithpaintingsofEuropeanemperorsorkings,whileChineseemperors

aredepicted in line form,avoiding thenegativeconnotationashadowbringswith itonto the

canvas.Yetfurther,evenperspectivewasconsidereddistinctlyWesterninusage,withZouYigui

presentingthefollowingcriticismofWesternpaintersascraftsmanbutnotartists:

“Westerns are skilled in geometry. They make precise measurements of light and shade,

foregroundandbackground…Theimagesinthepicturesaremeasuredwithasetsquaresothey

arereducedinsizeaccordingtodistance.Peoplealmostwanttowalkintothehousesandwalls

they have painted…Though meticulously executed, their works are those of craftsmen and

cannotbeconsideredaspainting”

ZouYigui(1686-1772)


5.3AnalysisandContextInreverencetotheaforementionedunusualmaterialsandtechniques,Xin’sbodyofwork

divorcesmediumandsubject-matter.Byoverridingthetraditionalassociationbetweenwestern

techniquesandwesternfaces,heencouragesaninterestingobservationonwhatitisthatmakes

usdelegateanimageasbelongingtoacertaincultureortimeframe.Xin’suniqueamalgamation

ofwesternclassicalartpopulatednotbyEuropeancourtiersbutbyAsianfaces,hintstousthat

theculturalidentityofartdependsontechniqueandsubject-matterasbothnecessarybutneither

sufficientfactors.YetblendingcompositionalandstylisticelementsofEuropeanpaintingswith

anotherculture’sdetailsofdailylife,introducesscopefordeepercommentontherepresentation

of that alternative culture. Xin’s transcontexualism aligns with a Hutcheonian definition,

incorporatingpasticheandparodyasanartformabletorepresentotherpeople,asrevealingthe

“politicsofrepresentations”(Hutcheon2000,90).NotecarefullythebaozisteamerinDejeuner

Sur L’Herbe AfterManet (Figure 7), the backdrop of karstmountains inMona After Da Vinci

(Figure8)andthewindowopeningontotheForbiddenCityinVenusandtheLutePlayerAfter

Titian(Figure9).Allthesereferencesareeternalizedbyanoldstylebutinternalizedbyagroup

of people not initially present in the old image. Xin purposefully reinvented the iconography

withintheclassicalframetorepresentmoreculturesandreinterpretthestoryformorepeoples.


Section6:ComparativeStudyofRenditionsoftheLastSupper

Figure 10: Leonardo Da Vinci, The Last Supper, (c.1490), 460 x 880cm, Mural Painting, Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan

Figure 11: Xin Yin, The Last Supper After Da Vinci, (2008), Oil on Canvas

Figure 12: Zeng Fanzhi, The Last Supper, (2001), 220 x 395cm, Oil on Canvas


6.1TheoryofVariation-RecognitionFinally,afullexpositionontheroleofparodyandpasticheincarryingcommenton

Chineseculturalidentityrequiresacomparativestudyofthepasticheandthepastiched.

Inclosingacomparisontooneparticularpaintingwhichistranscontexualisedacrosscultures

makesthepoliticalcommentmoreclearlydiscernible.Lopes’sTheory(1996)isappropriately

appliedhere,conjecturingourvariationinimagesisbasedonvariable-recognition.His

treatmentofcopiedelementsfrompaintingscontendswithminimalrecognizableelements,

whereourabilitytoparallelstosimilaritiesinoriginalpiecesisnotreducibletomeresubject

recognition(Valjakka2011).Crucially,itisboththeelementsthatareretainedandtheelements

thatarerepurposed,whatDyerwouldcallthe“likeness”butalsothe“deformationand

discrepancy”(Dyer2007,54)whichgivetheseparodiessuchpowerfulmeaningwhentakenin

conjunctionwiththeoriginalimage.Inmakingacomparisonbetweenthreeimagesof“TheLast

Supper”presentedabove,wecometounderstandtheinappropriatenessofaJamesonian

“blank”pastiche,favouringHutcheoniansympathytoparodicrecallwherepreciselythe

interrelationsoforiginalandthetranscontexualworkbecomeourkeyfocus.

6.2ArtistBackgroundFor sake of brevity, I will offer discursive analysis in only one pair-wise comparison,

betweenDaVinci’soriginal(Figure10)andZengFanzhi’srendition(Figure12),whorequiresa

briefintroductionofartisticbackground.ZengwasborninWuhanin1949,beforeattendingthe

HubeiAcademyofFineArts,wherehefocusedonWesternExpression.Throughouthisartistic

career,hisstylemaintainedparallelstoWesternExpressionbuthisworksareundeniablyhinged

on life experience and political condition. Once again, we see an artist effectively combining

imageryandtechniqueacrosscultures,andreinventingofpastandpresenttosuittheirportrayal

ofmessage.Commitmenttothisartisticmissionisdemonstratedinoneofhissoloexhibitions

entitled“InkArt:PastasPresentinContemporaryChina”whereherebrandedinkasamedium

ofmodernexpression through combiningphotographyof thehuman face as the canvas..The


desirabilityofZeng’suniquemeldedstyleisreflectedintheauctionpriceofhis“TheLastSupper’,

soldfor$23.3million,arecordforAsiancontemporaryart(Sotheby’swebsite)

6.3ThePastiched:LeonardoDaVinci‘TheLastSupper’The intentional distance between the reproduced work, and repetition or rejection of

certainelementsrequiresanunderstandingoftheoriginalimage.DaVinci’s“TheLastSupper”is

paintedonthenorthwalloftheConventofSantaMariadellaGrazieinMilan(Figure10).Itdepicts

the traditionalnarrativeofChrist’s final supperwithhis twelvedisciples, amomentofpause

immediatelybeforeJudas’betrayal.Itmustbenotedthatrepeatedappropriationoftraditional

storiesthroughreplicatedartisnotanewconcept.AsIppolito(2009)remindsus,Renaissance

mastersthemselvesreusedandsharedtraditionaliconsandthemes.DaVinci’sLastSupperisa

thematicreformationitselfofotherpaintingsfromtheLateGothicera.Thereare,infact,“Last

SuppersbyDuccio,Giotto,CastagnoandGhirlandaio”(Ippolito2009,2).However, it iskeyto

highlightthecleardifferencebetweenthismethodofpasticheandthecross-culturalcomparison

I am about to introduce. The former comprises western artists drawing on their western

predecessors,andinsuchaninstance,adrabJamesoniandefinitionofpastichecouldbeapplied

sincethesameaspectsofthesamestoryarebeingreplicatedwithoutclearadditionalmeaning

superimposedbythecopyingartist.

6.4ThePastiche:ZengFanzhi’s‘TheLastSupper’Previously, pastiche represented a method by which to learn technique or represent

continuity of important themes. Yet, in the postmodernist art movement in China, political

undercurrentsdominatethepurposeofthepastiche.Byrepurposinginternationallyrecognised

imageryandnarratives,Chineseartistsoffersnewclarityonapoliticalpositionwhichtheywould

otherwisebeunabletopubliclypromote.

Thus, in lieuof the traditional frame, nowconsiderZeng’s reinterpretation (Figure12),

offeringahighlyselectiveconnectionbetweenoriginalandtheparodywhichrunsfardeeperthan


surfacerepetition.Thereinventionofparticularelementsreflectthenewculturalcontext.The

translation of the traditional classroom into a prior religious setting represents the feverish

natureofre-educationacrossalldomainsoflifeincludingreligionitself.Thediscipleshavebeen

replacedbyRedGuards,whosedynamismon thecanvasowes toZeng’sdecision to recruita

groupofyouthsassitters.TheseRedGuardsarerecognisablebytheirredscarfs,acolourwith

robust connection to Chinese national identity. The similarity of the figures, almost seamless

replicas, is demonstrative of the communist ideal of collectivist identity. Further important

imageryliesinthemaskswornbythefigures.Masksliketheseareacommonreoccurringtheme

in Zeng’s work and in-of-themselves represents China’s lack of identity, most acutely in the

contrastoftheculturalrevolutionandthepost-reformerawhichZengexperiencedfirst-handas

a young artist. In defence of thesemasks, Zeng comments they represent “a brand, an easily

commodifiedimagethatreinforcedWesternpreconceptionsofChina”.

Yet above all this transcontexualised imagery, there lies one principally powerful

demonstrationofZeng’spoliticalsuggestion.Judas,satwithintheguards,issetapartfromhis

communistcolleaguesbyacontrastingyellowscarf.EvelynLin,headofSotheby’sContemporary

AsianArt,considersthisrepresentationoftheJudasfigureasrepresentativebetrayalofChina’s

strifeforcommunistidealsintroducedinthemovetowardscapitalism.Incontext,‘Socialismwith

Chinese Characteristics’ could also be considered a betrayal of pure socialism. The notion of

betrayaliscleverlyportrayedinthisdepictionofaclassicalartpiecesublimatedwithChinese

Figure 13: Details of Zeng Fanzhi, The Last Supper, (2001)


characteristics,creatingapiecewhichcanbeconsideredneithertrulyclassicalnortrulyChinese.

Crucially,weknowthisisthestorybeingpresentedbecauseweknowthestorythatliesbehind

theparody.BydeconstructingDaVinci’soriginal,Zeng’sworkrepresentsadistinctcommenton

condition of Chinese people in the cultural revolution and in the period of political reform

afterwards.Inreplicatingyetsubtlyreplacingtraditionalelementsofreligiosityandmorality,he

placesthenarrativeinagloballyrecognisablecontextofenforcement,restrictionandbetrayal.

ConclusionThisessayhaspresentedthecaseforpasticheandparodyasconduitsofculturalidentity

expressioninthepostmodernistrealm.Bycombiningtransculturalandintertemporalreferences,

pastiche enables Chinese artists to convey higher-order meaning. In polemic contrast to

Jameson’sdisparagingviewofpasticheas confused, schizophrenicandmeaningless, I instead

ascribetoHutcheon’sviewwherebyitisexactlytheblendofhistoricalandculturalartnarratives

whichrenderthisauniqueartform.Experienceofonlyonecontextualframelimitsoursenseof

understanding,existingin isolationdisallowsthecomparisontoothersconditionswhichadds

therequiredgradationtoourperception.Thecomplexityanduniquenessofconveyedmessages

throughparodicrecallisexemplifiedbythesculpturesofSuiJianguoandbythepaintingsofXin

Yin. The presented comparative study of repurposed thematic imagery in “The Last Supper”

convincingly reinforces the Hutcheonian outlook: it is “repetition with critical distance that

allowsironicsignallingofdifferenceattheveryheartofsimilarity”(Hutcheon2003,26).

Infinalsummary,IturntoDyer’seloquentwords.Hereiterates“‘Themostvaluablepoint

ofpasticheresidesinitsabilitytomoveusevenwhileallowingustobeconsciousofwherethe

meansofourbeingmovedcomefrom,itshistoricity’(Dyer2007,138).Inconcludingremarksof

myown, thisessayhassharedthebodyofworkofChineseartists,whothemselvessharethe

fascinating appropriation of postmodernist pastiche; a formof artistic expression selected to

distinctlyframeanddivertcommenttowardstherebuiltChinesesocietyasoneofcontradictory

culturalidentity,asapresentwhichattemptsbutfailstoobscurethepast.


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Websites(accessedMay2019)

https://www.saatchigallery.com/artists/artpages/last_supper_drawing_postpop_18637.htm

https://gagosian.com/artists/zeng-fanzhi/

http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2013/40th-anniversary-evening-sale-hk0488/lot.48.html

https://www.saatchigallery.com/artists/sui_jianguo_postpop.htm

https://www.suijianguo.com/

http://www.798district.com/en/798_artists/798_art/sui_jianguo/

http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2013/40th-anniversary-evening-sale-hk0488/lot.48.html

https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/06/business/record-asian-art/index.html

https://www.scmp.com/news/china/money-wealth/article/2025690/top-selling-chinese-artist-zeng-fanzhi-turns-back-his

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