Class IV: New Testament Class IV: New Testament Textual Criticism: The Textual Criticism: The

Reliability of The NT Text.Reliability of The NT Text.

Glenn GilesGlenn Giles

ApologeticsApologetics

December, 2009December, 2009

NT Greek MSS Textual CriticismNT Greek MSS Textual Criticism

A. Definition of Textual Criticism:A. Definition of Textual Criticism:““Textual criticism is the study of copies of Textual criticism is the study of copies of any written work which the autograph (the any written work which the autograph (the original) is unknown, with the purpose of original) is unknown, with the purpose of ascertaining the original text” ascertaining the original text” (Greenlee, 1, see class notes for all references in this (Greenlee, 1, see class notes for all references in this

ppt).ppt).

B. Goal of New Testament Textual Criticism: B. Goal of New Testament Textual Criticism: When applied to the New Testament, it has When applied to the New Testament, it has the task of attempting to restore the original the task of attempting to restore the original text of the New Testament Greek documents text of the New Testament Greek documents (Briggs, 31).(Briggs, 31).

The Need For The Need For NT Greek Text CriticismNT Greek Text Criticism

C. The Need:C. The Need:

1. There are no extant original documents 1. There are no extant original documents (whole or part) of any New Testament (whole or part) of any New Testament

book.book.2. While the text of the NT is over 95% 2. While the text of the NT is over 95% certain certain (Briggs, 51),(Briggs, 51), there are still “roughly there are still “roughly three hundred three hundred thousandthousand variant variant readingsreadings” from copyist ” from copyist errors in the errors in the “5500 Greek MSS and perhaps “5500 Greek MSS and perhaps nine nine thousand versional MSS.” thousand versional MSS.” (McKnight and Osborne, 59).(McKnight and Osborne, 59).

Bible Times Book/Scroll Bible Times Book/Scroll PreparationPreparation

D. Biblical times book/scroll preparation D. Biblical times book/scroll preparation and writing and writing

1. Ancients used clay (Ezek. 4:1), 1. Ancients used clay (Ezek. 4:1), Stone Stone

(Ex. 31:18), and wood tablets, (Ex. 31:18), and wood tablets, leather leather scrolls (Jer. 39:23).scrolls (Jer. 39:23).

2. In later times they used 2. In later times they used papyruspapyrus (paper made from papyrus reed, (paper made from papyrus reed,

its its inner bark extracted and dried).inner bark extracted and dried).

Bible PreparationBible Preparation

3. Also, used 3. Also, used parchment/vellumparchment/vellum (small (small animal skins), scrolls (see II Tim. 4:13). animal skins), scrolls (see II Tim. 4:13).

4. 4. Scrolls Scrolls were papyrus, leather, or were papyrus, leather, or parchment sheets joined together in long parchment sheets joined together in long rolls, about 10-12 inches wide and up to rolls, about 10-12 inches wide and up to 35 feet long with 3-4 inch columns. 35 feet long with 3-4 inch columns. Sometimes writing was on both sides (Rev. Sometimes writing was on both sides (Rev. 5:1; Ezek. 2:10). 5:1; Ezek. 2:10).

5. 5. The CodexThe Codex (a book of papyrus sheets) (a book of papyrus sheets) was also used by the mid First Century AD.was also used by the mid First Century AD.

Bible Preparation Bible Preparation

6. Writing of NT Greek MSS had very 6. Writing of NT Greek MSS had very little punctuation, no paragraph little punctuation, no paragraph divisions, no sentence divisions, and divisions, no sentence divisions, and no spaces between words. no spaces between words.

--This made copying without errors --This made copying without errors very difficult. Copying mistakes were very difficult. Copying mistakes were made frequently. But no errors have made frequently. But no errors have been found that are theologically been found that are theologically significant.significant.

Examples of Types of Errors FoundExamples of Types of Errors Found

--The following were facilitated by the lack of --The following were facilitated by the lack of spaces between letters and words in spaces between letters and words in writing and copying the Greek texts and writing and copying the Greek texts and could be called “sight errors”.could be called “sight errors”.

Omissions (haplography)Omissions (haplography) Duplications (dittography)Duplications (dittography) Jumping from the “same letter or group of letters to Jumping from the “same letter or group of letters to

another” at the beginning of a word (homoioarcton), another” at the beginning of a word (homoioarcton), or at the middle of a word (homoiomeson), or at the or at the middle of a word (homoiomeson), or at the end of a word (homoioteleuton) (McKnight, 61).end of a word (homoioteleuton) (McKnight, 61).

Change of the order of words (metathesis)Change of the order of words (metathesis)

Three Major Three Major MSS Families DiscoveredMSS Families Discovered

1. Alexandrian text witnesses1. Alexandrian text witnesses: : These have the earliest and best These have the earliest and best quality of MSS and considered by quality of MSS and considered by scholars to be the “best” MSS.scholars to be the “best” MSS.

2. Western text witnesses2. Western text witnesses have an have an “early but generally unreliable form “early but generally unreliable form of the text” of the text” (Green. 135)(Green. 135)

MSS FamiliesMSS Families

3. 3. Byzantine text witnessesByzantine text witnesses “which include “which include the vast majority of later manuscripts, are the vast majority of later manuscripts, are the most universally judged by scholars to the most universally judged by scholars to preserve an inferior form of the text” preserve an inferior form of the text” (Green. 135).(Green. 135).

King James VersonKing James Verson (Textus Receptus) is of (Textus Receptus) is of this family. The King James Debate this family. The King James Debate supporters opt for this “majority” text supporters opt for this “majority” text reading to be the inspired one. But does reading to be the inspired one. But does majority=accuracymajority=accuracy

--On this see D. A. Carson, --On this see D. A. Carson, The King James The King James Debate: A Plea For RealismDebate: A Plea For Realism (Grand Rapids: (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979).Baker, 1979).

The Reliability of the NTThe Reliability of the NT

Four witnesses supporting the integrity of the Four witnesses supporting the integrity of the New Testament text.New Testament text.

1.1. Oral TraditionOral Tradition VerbatimVerbatim Memorization Memorization TechniquesTechniques of the Day of the Day

--A Scandinavian Scholar, Birger Gerhardsson, in his --A Scandinavian Scholar, Birger Gerhardsson, in his book called book called Memory and Manuscript: Oral Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and written Transmission in Rabbinic Tradition and written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early ChristianityJudaism and Early Christianity translated by Eric J. Sharpe (Lund, Sweden: C. W. K. Gleerup, translated by Eric J. Sharpe (Lund, Sweden: C. W. K. Gleerup,

1961)1961) shows how rabbis in the shows how rabbis in the secondsecond century AD century AD taught memory techniques to their disciples taught memory techniques to their disciples which enabled them to which enabled them to remember verbatimremember verbatim teaching they had heard. teaching they had heard.

Oral Tradition Kept From ErrorOral Tradition Kept From Error Gerhardsson shows evidence that the Gerhardsson shows evidence that the

rabbis of the rabbis of the firstfirst century AD probably had century AD probably had access to these techniques also. access to these techniques also.

This gives support to the possibility of This gives support to the possibility of Jesus’ disciples being able to remember Jesus’ disciples being able to remember (not even considering the inspiration of the (not even considering the inspiration of the Holy Spirit!) verbatim what Jesus said and Holy Spirit!) verbatim what Jesus said and thus writing down exactly what they heard. thus writing down exactly what they heard.

Unlike in today’s world, they had trained Unlike in today’s world, they had trained themselves how to listen and retain themselves how to listen and retain information accurately. information accurately.

Argues against assumptions of Form Argues against assumptions of Form Criticism Criticism

Ancient Greek NT ManuscriptsAncient Greek NT Manuscripts

2. The Testimony of Ancient Greek Manuscripts2. The Testimony of Ancient Greek Manuscripts. .

--There are over 5000 existing Greek Manuscripts of --There are over 5000 existing Greek Manuscripts of the New Testament or portions of it. the New Testament or portions of it.

--They all speak to the reliability of the New --They all speak to the reliability of the New Testament. Testament.

--There are very few differences and those that exist --There are very few differences and those that exist are not theologically significant. are not theologically significant.

--In fact there are so many manuscripts that one can --In fact there are so many manuscripts that one can trace different families of manuscripts and find trace different families of manuscripts and find when a variant occurred. when a variant occurred.

--These manuscripts span a time period of from --These manuscripts span a time period of from 125AD to the end of the middle ages. 125AD to the end of the middle ages.

NT Text Criticism Greek MSSNT Text Criticism Greek MSS

(1)(1) John Rylands Manuscript (125-130AD). John Rylands Manuscript (125-130AD). --Found in Egypt. --Found in Egypt. --Measures “only 3.5 by 2.5 inches (8.9 by 6 cm) --Measures “only 3.5 by 2.5 inches (8.9 by 6 cm)

at its widest; and conserved with the at its widest; and conserved with the RylandsRylands Papyri Papyri at the at the John John RylandsRylands University Library University Library The front contains lines from the The front contains lines from the Gospel of JohnGospel of John 18:31–33, in 18:31–33, in GreekGreek, and the , and the back contains lines from verses 37–38” back contains lines from verses 37–38” (From Wikipedia)(From Wikipedia)

--It is important in that the Gospel of John can no --It is important in that the Gospel of John can no longer be dated by liberal scholars at 200AD.longer be dated by liberal scholars at 200AD.They once dated it this late to account for They once dated it this late to account for John’s so called “developed theology.” John’s so called “developed theology.”

NT Greek PapyriNT Greek Papyri

(2) Chester Beatty Papyri (200-(2) Chester Beatty Papyri (200-300AD).300AD).

--This contains major portions of the --This contains major portions of the New Testament, including portions of New Testament, including portions of the Gospels and Acts, the Catholic the Gospels and Acts, the Catholic Epistles, 10 of Paul’s letters and the Epistles, 10 of Paul’s letters and the Book of Revelation.Book of Revelation.

Ancient Greek NT MSSAncient Greek NT MSS

(3) Bodmer Papyrus II (150-(3) Bodmer Papyrus II (150-200AD).200AD). This contains John’s Gospel. This contains John’s Gospel.

(4) Diatesseron,(4) Diatesseron, a harmony of the a harmony of the Gospels by Tatian (AD160). Gospels by Tatian (AD160).

Ancient Greek NT MSSAncient Greek NT MSS

(5) Codex Sinaiticus (350AD): Aleph ((5) Codex Sinaiticus (350AD): Aleph (aa)) --Contains --Contains allall the New Testament except the New Testament except

Mk. 16:9-20 and Jn. 7:53-8:11. Mk. 16:9-20 and Jn. 7:53-8:11. --It was found in 1844 in a Mt. Sinai --It was found in 1844 in a Mt. Sinai

(Traditional site) monastery. (Traditional site) monastery. --It was found in a waste basket where --It was found in a waste basket where

monks there had been using old monks there had been using old manuscripts as firewood to keep warm! manuscripts as firewood to keep warm!

--It was discovered by Tischendorf and is --It was discovered by Tischendorf and is now in London.now in London.

Ancient Greek NT MSSAncient Greek NT MSS

(6) Codex Vaticanus (325-350AD): B (6) Codex Vaticanus (325-350AD): B

----Housed in the Vatican libraryHoused in the Vatican library

--contains nearly all the Bible (OT and --contains nearly all the Bible (OT and NT) but omits the book of Revelation.NT) but omits the book of Revelation.

(7) Codex Alexandrinus (400AD):A.(7) Codex Alexandrinus (400AD):A.

--It is in the British Museum. --It is in the British Museum.

--Contains most of the NT and OT. It --Contains most of the NT and OT. It doesdoes contain Revelation. contain Revelation.

Greek NT MSSGreek NT MSS

(8) Codex Ephraemi (400s AD):C.(8) Codex Ephraemi (400s AD):C. --Housed in Paris--Housed in Paris--it contains every NT book except II --it contains every NT book except II

Thessalonians and II John. Thessalonians and II John. --It contains much of the OT. --It contains much of the OT. --History: About the 12th century it was --History: About the 12th century it was

broken up and only 208 leaves survive. broken up and only 208 leaves survive. These leaves had been erased and These leaves had been erased and rewritten with something else. But with the rewritten with something else. But with the use of chemical agents they are able with use of chemical agents they are able with some difficulty to read and reconstruct the some difficulty to read and reconstruct the original writing on much of the codex.original writing on much of the codex.

Ancient NT Greek MSSAncient NT Greek MSS

(9) Codex Bezae (450+ AD).(9) Codex Bezae (450+ AD).

--Housed in Cambridge --Housed in Cambridge

--contains the Gospels, Acts, and the Catholic --contains the Gospels, Acts, and the Catholic epistles in Greek and Latin (Greek on left, epistles in Greek and Latin (Greek on left, Latin on right).Latin on right).

(10) Codex Washingtonensis (450-(10) Codex Washingtonensis (450-550AD).550AD). – –

--Contains the 4 Gospels.--Contains the 4 Gospels.

(11)(11) Codex Claromontanus (500s AD).Codex Claromontanus (500s AD).

--Housed in Paris it contains Pauline epistles.--Housed in Paris it contains Pauline epistles.

NT Text IntegrityNT Text Integrity

When compared to other ancient When compared to other ancient writings, support for the New writings, support for the New Testament text Testament text integrityintegrity is incredibly is incredibly abundant abundant

Note the following chart from Josh Note the following chart from Josh McDowell’s book McDowell’s book Evidence that Evidence that Demands a VerdictDemands a Verdict, 48. Compare , 48. Compare these ancient writings and see which these ancient writings and see which one you would conclude has the best one you would conclude has the best attestation for the original text. attestation for the original text.

NT And Other NT And Other Ancient Writings ComparedAncient Writings Compared

AUTHOR WHEN WRITTEN EARLIEST COPY TIME SPAN # OF COPIESAUTHOR WHEN WRITTEN EARLIEST COPY TIME SPAN # OF COPIES

Caesar 100-44BC 900AD 1000 years 10 Caesar 100-44BC 900AD 1000 years 10

Plato 427-347BC 900ADPlato 427-347BC 900AD 1200 years 1200 years 7 7

Tacitus 100AD 1100AD 1000 years 20 Tacitus 100AD 1100AD 1000 years 20

Suetonius 75-160AD 950AD 800 years 8Suetonius 75-160AD 950AD 800 years 8

Herodotus 480-425 BC 900 AD 1300 years 8Herodotus 480-425 BC 900 AD 1300 years 8

NT And Other NT And Other Ancient Writings ComparedAncient Writings Compared

Sophocles 496-406 BC 1000 AD 1400 years 100 Sophocles 496-406 BC 1000 AD 1400 years 100

Euripides 480-406BC 1100 AD 1500 years 9 Euripides 480-406BC 1100 AD 1500 years 9

Aristotle 384-322BC 1100AD 1400 years 5Aristotle 384-322BC 1100AD 1400 years 5

Aristophanes 450-385BC 900 AD 1200 years 10Aristophanes 450-385BC 900 AD 1200 years 10

NT 49-96AD 125AD 30-75 yrs 5000+NT 49-96AD 125AD 30-75 yrs 5000+

Which one would you choose for having integrity in Which one would you choose for having integrity in determining the original text?determining the original text?

The Testimony of Ancient The Testimony of Ancient Versions/Translations.Versions/Translations.

3. The Testimony of Ancient 3. The Testimony of Ancient Versions/Translations.Versions/Translations.

--There are in existence over 9,000 --There are in existence over 9,000 copies of early versions (translations) copies of early versions (translations) of the NT. of the NT.

--These all give witness to the Greek --These all give witness to the Greek text. text.

The Testimony of Ancient The Testimony of Ancient Versions/Translations.Versions/Translations.

(1)(1) Syriac Peshitta Version Syriac Peshitta Version (400s (400s AD)—AD)—

--translated about 150-250AD. --translated about 150-250AD.

--There exist more than 320 extant --There exist more than 320 extant manuscripts of this version. manuscripts of this version.

--There is also an Old Syriac Version --There is also an Old Syriac Version copied about 300-400 AD which copied about 300-400 AD which contains the four Gospels contains the four Gospels

Ancient VersionsAncient Versions

(2) Old Latin Versions including (2) Old Latin Versions including the Latin Vulgate the Latin Vulgate by Jerome (366-by Jerome (366-384AD).384AD).

(3) Coptic (Egyptian) Versions (3) Coptic (Egyptian) Versions including Sahidic which dates to the including Sahidic which dates to the early 3rd centuryearly 3rd century

(4) Armenian Version(4) Armenian Version (From the 5th (From the 5th century AD)century AD)

Ancient VersionsAncient Versions

(5) Ethiopic Versions (5) Ethiopic Versions (From the 5th (From the 5th century AD)century AD)

(6) Georgian Versions (6) Georgian Versions (From the 5th (From the 5th century AD)century AD)

(7) Old Slavonic (7) Old Slavonic (From the 9th (From the 9th century AD).century AD).

Early Church Father’s QuotationsEarly Church Father’s Quotations

d. The Testimony of the Early d. The Testimony of the Early Church Fathers. Church Fathers.

----There are over There are over 37,000 quotations 37,000 quotations from the New Testament in Greek from the New Testament in Greek from the early church leaders/fathers from the early church leaders/fathers which speak to the reliability of the which speak to the reliability of the New Testament and its integrity.New Testament and its integrity.

Early Church Father’s QuotationsEarly Church Father’s Quotations

(1) Clement of Rome (1) Clement of Rome (90-100AD). He (90-100AD). He quotes much from Paul and other NT quotes much from Paul and other NT writers.writers.

(2) Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (2) Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (70-(70-110AD). He quotes from 15 NT Books.110AD). He quotes from 15 NT Books.

(3) Polycarp, a disciple of John the (3) Polycarp, a disciple of John the Apostle Apostle (70-156AD).(70-156AD).

(4) Justin Martyr(4) Justin Martyr (133AD) has 330 quotes (133AD) has 330 quotes from the NTfrom the NT

Early Church Father’s QuotationsEarly Church Father’s Quotations

(5) Clement of Alexandria (5) Clement of Alexandria (150-220AD) (150-220AD) has 2,406 quotes from all but 3 NT books.has 2,406 quotes from all but 3 NT books.

(6) Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons (6) Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons (170-(170-200AD) has 1,819 NT quotes.200AD) has 1,819 NT quotes.

(7) Tertullian (7) Tertullian (160-220AD) has 7,258 (160-220AD) has 7,258 quotes/references to the NT.quotes/references to the NT.

(8) Origen (8) Origen (185-254AD(185-254AD)) has 17,922 quotes has 17,922 quotes of the NTof the NT

Early Church Father’s QuotationsEarly Church Father’s Quotations

(9) Hippolytus(9) Hippolytus (170-235AD) has 1,378 (170-235AD) has 1,378 NT quotesNT quotes

(10) Cyprian (10) Cyprian (d. 258AD) has over 1000 (d. 258AD) has over 1000 NT quotesNT quotes

(11) Eusebius (11) Eusebius (330AD)(330AD) the early the early church historian quotes 5,176 times church historian quotes 5,176 times from the NT.from the NT.

Significance of These Four Significance of These Four Witnesses to the NT TextWitnesses to the NT Text

Frederick KenyonFrederick Kenyon (an authority on the NT text) (an authority on the NT text) says, says,

““It cannot be too strongly asserted that . . . the text It cannot be too strongly asserted that . . . the text of the Bible is certain: Especially is this the case of the Bible is certain: Especially is this the case with the New Testament. The number of with the New Testament. The number of manuscripts . . ., of early translations from it, and manuscripts . . ., of early translations from it, and of the quotations from it in the oldest writers of the of the quotations from it in the oldest writers of the church, is so large that it is practically certain that church, is so large that it is practically certain that the true reading of every doubtful passage is the true reading of every doubtful passage is preserved in some one or other of these ancient preserved in some one or other of these ancient authorities. This can be said of no other ancient authorities. This can be said of no other ancient book in the world”.book in the world”.[1][1]

[1][1] (Josh McDowell, (Josh McDowell, Evidence that Demands a Verdict, Evidence that Demands a Verdict, vol. 1, 45).vol. 1, 45).

Examples of DiscoveredExamples of DiscoveredVariants in the TextVariants in the Text

1. Acts 8:37.1. Acts 8:37. Omitted by Aleph, A, B, Omitted by Aleph, A, B, C. and papyrus P47 (3rd century AD). C. and papyrus P47 (3rd century AD). King James has this verse because it King James has this verse because it was based on later manuscripts was based on later manuscripts which had included this. One of the which had included this. One of the earliest manuscripts which include earliest manuscripts which include this is dated about the 6th century this is dated about the 6th century ADAD

Some NT VariantsSome NT Variants

2. John 5:3b-4.2. John 5:3b-4. Not in the earliest mss: P46 Not in the earliest mss: P46 (2nd-3rd century), P75 (3rd century), Aleph, B, (2nd-3rd century), P75 (3rd century), Aleph, B, C, D and others. A (5th century) includes it.C, D and others. A (5th century) includes it.

3. John 7:53-8:11.3. John 7:53-8:11. Omitted by P66 (2nd-3rd Omitted by P66 (2nd-3rd century), p75 (3rd century), Aleph, A, B, C, century), p75 (3rd century), Aleph, A, B, C, and others. It is included in D (5th or 6th and others. It is included in D (5th or 6th century). --Some later mss place it after Luke century). --Some later mss place it after Luke 21:38, or Lk. 24:53, or Jn. 7:36, or Jn. 21:25. It 21:38, or Lk. 24:53, or Jn. 7:36, or Jn. 21:25. It seems to have been a floating story which seems to have been a floating story which some felt should be in the Bible and so placed some felt should be in the Bible and so placed it there.it there.

Some NT VariantsSome NT Variants

D. Mark 16:9-20D. Mark 16:9-20. Not found in the earliest mss. Might . Not found in the earliest mss. Might have been a lost end or originally in a book that lost have been a lost end or originally in a book that lost its cover (and first and last pages). It is omitted by its cover (and first and last pages). It is omitted by Aleph and B (4th century mss). Is found in A, C, D (5th Aleph and B (4th century mss). Is found in A, C, D (5th and 6th century MSS). This ending is a long ending. and 6th century MSS). This ending is a long ending.

--There also exists a shorter ending. See the NASB which --There also exists a shorter ending. See the NASB which gives the following as an alternate ending after verse gives the following as an alternate ending after verse 8:8:

““And they promptly reported all these instructions to And they promptly reported all these instructions to Peter and his companions. And after that, Jesus Peter and his companions. And after that, Jesus Himself sent out through them from east to west the Himself sent out through them from east to west the sacred and imperishable proclamation of eternal sacred and imperishable proclamation of eternal salvation.”salvation.”

NT Greek Text Criticism ResultsNT Greek Text Criticism Results

The text of the NT is virtually certainThe text of the NT is virtually certain Of the variants found, there are no Of the variants found, there are no

theologically significant ones that theologically significant ones that change the basic tenants of change the basic tenants of Christianity.Christianity.

New Greek Texts with Apparatus New Greek Texts with Apparatus have been published with the have been published with the variants for everyone to study.variants for everyone to study.

Two NT Greek TextsTwo NT Greek Texts

1. UBS Greek Text1. UBS Greek Text--Apparatus--ApparatusA= Text is certainA= Text is certainB= Text is almost certainB= Text is almost certainC= There is difficulty deciding which variant is C= There is difficulty deciding which variant is

the correct onethe correct oneD= There is great difficulty in arriving at D= There is great difficulty in arriving at

which variant is the correct one (used very which variant is the correct one (used very rarely)rarely)

2. Also there is a Nestle-Alan Greek Text2. Also there is a Nestle-Alan Greek Text with different apparatus. with different apparatus.

Greek Texts As a Result of NT Greek Texts As a Result of NT Textual CriticismTextual Criticism

1. 1. Novum Testamentum GraeceNovum Testamentum Graece, 27th edition, edited , 27th edition, edited by Eberhand Nestle, Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland by Eberhand Nestle, Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland (Stuttgart: Duetsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1993).(Stuttgart: Duetsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1993).

2. United Bible Societies’ 2. United Bible Societies’ The Greek New TestamentThe Greek New Testament 4th Revised Edition, edited by Barbara Aland, Kurt 4th Revised Edition, edited by Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, and Bruce M. Metzger (Stuttgart: Duetsche and Bruce M. Metzger (Stuttgart: Duetsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1993). This was produced Bibelgesellschaft, 1993). This was produced specifically for Bible specifically for Bible translators.translators.

3. For further study see Bruce M. Metzger, 3. For further study see Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th Edition) and Restoration (4th Edition) (New York: Oxford, (New York: Oxford, 2005).2005).