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ASIAN JOURNA L OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION VOL.14 N O. l (JUNE 1992): 25-45

PUBLIC PERSONNEL A DM INISTRATION:

TRAD ITION , PROBLEM S AND ISSUESIN BANGLADESH

Ahmed ShafiquI Huque and Firowz Ahmed

Introduction

Public Personnel Administration (PPA) is an important element of all

administrative systems. While some form of PPA was obviously neces-sary and presen t in anc ient civilizations, it is extremely difficult to relate

the experiences in these civilizations with the modern variant of PPA.

Chan ges in the nature of states as well as new dim ension s in the system of

production and in the patterns of international relations ha ve all contrib-

uted to the current state of PPA .1

Not only have these factors com bined to

produce a new and distinct pattern of PPA, they have also led to the

emergence of new problems in the administration of personnel. In post-

colonial so cieties in particular, these problem s, combined with the exist-

ing social, cultural, political and economic situation, have acquired animm ensely comp lex nature. Con sequently, PPA has generally failed to

achieve its objectives.

Draw ing on the experience in the field of PPA, this pap er seeks to

exam ine the basic problem s of PPA to assess their impact on the adm in-

istrative system of Ban gladesh. The discussion is organized into two

sections. One section deals with the theoretical formulations of PPA and

the econo mic forces that have prom pted such conce ptualizations. Th is

part is based on the experience of the United States of America which

Ahmed ShafiquI Huque is Principal Lecturer at the Department of Public and Social Administra-

tion, City Polytechnic of Hong Kong; Firowz Ahmed is Assistant P rofessor at the Departm ent of

Public Administration, University of Dhaka.

25



Asian Journal of Public Adm inistration

occupies a leading position in the capitalist world and also exerts a m ajor

influence in the socio-economic dynamics of many developing statesincluding Bangladesh. The second section seeks to analyze PPA in

Bangladesh from the standpoints of history, culture, politics and society

to identify some basic problems-

PPA : Growth and Theoretical Form ulations

Any attemp t at understanding PPA must begin with a couple of assum p-

tions. These assumptions areintimateryrelatedtothe subjectveexpanations

as well as the objective and situational background of the developm ent ofPPA . First, theoretically P PA draws heavily from the field of manage-

ment, and both these disciplines are rooted in "non-public administra-

tion." Therefore PPA, as we know it, is an outgrowth of non-public

administration.2

Secon dly, in an applied sense , administration is directly

dependent on the social system as well as the system of production

preva lent in the society. Th e first assumption indicates the theroretical

position of PPA , while the second reflects the conflict situation that exists

in the environm ent. It must be remem bered that com plexities and

dysfunctions are likely to occur if theoretical advancements are notconsistent with the developments in the system of prod uction.

PPA may be considered from two interrelated points of view : theory

and application. Both m ust be considered in the light of environmental

factors to attain a proper understanding of the process. T he practice of P PA

has evolved in a continuum from the Classical Management theory,

through shifting emp hases on Behaviouralism, System s theory to Con tin-

gency theory. Add itionally - and this is perhaps m ore relevant to the

discussion - there is a need to consider the historical background of the

evolution of P PA . This aspect is also related to the background of socialevolution. "The development of modern management thought and prac-

tice can be traced by examining the evolution of societies as they have

passed from pre-industrial economic structure."3

The same applies to

PPA . There appears to be a correlation between a com plicated system of

production and the progress of the techniques of adm inistration.

26



Public Personnel Administration

Administration, or more specifically management, began as a

spontaneous process, with hardly any trace of planning. Som e sem blanceof planning becam e n oticeable with the advent of systematic a gricultural

activities. It developed in phases along with the transformation of feudal

society. These ph ases are categorized as pre-industrial societies whe re the

practice of ma nagm ent w as consistent with the simple system of produc -

tion. Daniel Wren observed that two themes [which] dominated in pre-

industrial soc iety [were] (1) peo ple had a relatively parochial view of the

role that managers could play in the organization and (2) the prev ailing

culture viewed profit making unfavourably.4

It should be noted that

although profit-motive is derided in m ost cultures, the concep t has beenthe key factor in many efforts aimed at the improv em ent of adm inistration.

Later, the erosion of feudal society, the development of industrial

society, the industrial revolution, and the capitalist mo de of produ ction led

to new issues and problems in the field of adm inistration. T he history of

mo dern adm inistrative and m anagem ent thought and theories is related to

these developm ents. Specialization cam e to be recognized in other areas

as well as management, and the administration of personnel was a by-

produ ct of these circum stances. S tiff com petition in the wo rld m arket, the

rise in the number of destitutes across the world, the frustration among

industrial labourers, and other inherent weaknesses of the capitalist

system added to the importance of PPA. The introduction of Scientific

Management, Behaviouralism and the formulation of Systems and Con-

tingency theories are related to this background . There are amp le reasons

to doubt that an objective situation for Behavioural scientists like Elton

M ayo wo uld have prevailed had the Russian Revolution not preceeded the

Great Depression in the United States.5

The general Systems theory

formulated in the area of the natural sciences provided the prospects of

introdu cing such a theory for organizations. "T he shaping of the globe into

a single, coheren t system - built on exploitation - is the first and foremost

produ ct of the pursuit of the volarization of capital."6

In the same way,

com petition o ver markets (wh ich even led to the outbreak of tw o Wo rld

Wars) has produced a Contingency theory based on Social Darwinism.7

27




Loo king at the Am erican exp erience, it can be said that in the initial

years, PPA did not assume any concrete form. Most of the basic issuesw ere still in disorder, and remained dependent m ainly on patronage and

the spoils system. Laissez-faire econom y was encou raged as the state

adopted a policy of minimu m interference. There w as little concern for

the provision of employm ent opportunities for the public. On the other

hand, private enterprises offered employment to a larger number of

citizens.

The situation began to change towards the end of the nineteenth

century. Discontent w as becom ing evident against the spoils system and

dem ands w ere voiced for entry into the public service based on dem ocraticprinciples. The two reasons w hich had contributed to such demand s were

the increasing rate of unemployment, and the need to make American

administration mo re dynam ic by recruiting efficient public personne l on

the basis of merit and open comp etition. An unfortunate incident in 1881

influenced the turn of events in these directions in spite of reservations

within the government about accepting changes in the area of PPA.

President Garfield of the U SA was shot by a dissatisfied job-seek er and

those in favour of change who "took a moralistic tone to begin w ith were

suddenly able to equate the spoils system with m urder."8 Eventually, thePendleton A ct was adopted in 1883 to provide for the establishment of the

United States Civil Service Comm ission. This event can be identified as

the beginning of mo dern PPA in the United States. Ho wever, the

organization of "P ub lic" Personnel Adm inistration had to depend prima-

rily on " Priv ate" Personn el Adm inistration. Th e literature on recruitm ent,

selection, promotion, training, transfer , compensation, separation and

other such concepts had to be borrowed from personnel ad ministration as

it was practised in private organizations.

There are various aspects related to PPA in the United States which

are useful for the understanding of this issue in developing countries.

First, Personnel A dministration h as developed in conjunction with socio-

econom ic forces along with the growth of capitalistic industries. Th is has

influenced the formulation of theories of Personnel Administration.

Secondly, there are similarities in "public" and "private" personnel

28




adm inistration that may have resulted from the nature of the state and the

system of production. Consequently, public administration and privatemanagement complement one another. And thirdly, as a captialist coun-

try, the Un ited States does have certain elements w hich are essential for

the expansion and maintenance of markets across the world. The dev elop-

m ent of PPA has also been influenced by these elem ents.

How ever, A merican scholars are still taking stock of problem s that

seem to exist in the area of PPA . These have been sum med up by Do nald

Klingner w ho found the emergence of PPA to be so sudden and rapid that

there was little scope for the developme nt of a sound theoretical base. This

explains the reliance on "private" personnel managem ent. Klingnernoticed attempts to eliminate political discretion in personnel adm inistra-

tion by utilizing law s, rules and regulations. He also detected a general

neglect of personnel m anagem ent by academ icians who consider it to be

the realm of practitioners.9

Co nsequen tly, personne l functions suffer from

a lack of conceptual framework and continuity among different phases.

The result is an emphasis on techniques with little attention to their

cum ulative imp act on public em ployees. M oreover PP A , generally

considered to be value-free, operates in a political atmosph ere. The se

problems of PPA are quite relevant to the situation in Bangladesh, towhich we now turn.

Bangladesh: H istorical and Traditional Dimensions

An analysis of the situation in Bangladesh m ust begin with a consideration

of the position of the country in the international political and e conom ic

order as w ell as its internal environm ent. A t first glance, it appears that

Bangladesh possesses a framework of PPA which has been developed

largely on the basis of the system prevailing in the United States, and

which was initally packaged in the form of technical assistance. At the

same time , a long period of British rule, 1757 to 1947 A .D., has left its

imprint on administrative structures and processes on the subcontinent.

But it is not unreasonable to expect that the most profound influence has

resulted from the ancient tradition of pub lic administration that prevailed

29




in this area before external interven tions dislocated the system. Unfortu-

nately, the tradition has been destroyed so effectively that there is littletrace of ancient thoughts and values in the present system of adm inistra-

tion in Bangladesh. N evertheless, a brief overview of the adm inistrative

process will be helpful to comprehend the current state of personnel

administration in Bangladesh.

It cannot be said that much of the early traditions have been p assed

on to the present system of PPA in Bangladesh. N one of the theoretical or

applied considerations from the Vedic age (1500-1000 B.C.) can be

found, nor has there been any transfer of ideas during the reign of the

Buddhist and early Muslim rulers (approximately 750 A.D.-1130 A.D.and 1199 A.D.-153 3 A.D.) But the indigenous ancient systems of

adm inistration have contributed to a world-view-based culture. Although

there have been philosophical diversities and breakdown s in the adm inis-

trative systems, the cultural background survives. In Bangladesh, the

administrators cannot be considered in isolation from this culture al-

though , in practice, PPA is conducted along the lines of the British-Indian

tradition.

The industrial revolution and growth of the capitalist system in

Britain led to the colonization of many pa rts of the world. The p rocess

affected the normal system of production in the colonized countries.

Com bined w ith the capitalistic heg emo ny, colonizaton stunted the growth

of indigenous indu stries. Thu s, the Indian subcontinent was deprived of

the experience of the growth of dynam ic private enterprise. Colonization

also obstructed the prospects of developing personnel administration

theories on the basis of indigenous con ditions. Since PPA has develope d

in isolation from the existing system of production, the continuity and

consistency between private and public personnel adm inistration that are

noticeable in Britain and the United States cannot be found in Ba ngladesh.

M oreover, the system w as originally established to suit the conv en-

ience of imperialist and capitalist interests. The system did undergo

periodic internal adjustments to serve the interests of colonial pow ers and

their supporters am ong local elites, but it did not allow for philosophical

or qualitative chang es. Policies were formulated and sources of personn el

30



Public Personnel Adm inistration

were cultivated with imperialist interests in mind. One consequence of

such acts was the establishment of educational institutions which weresubstantially different from indigenou s traditional scho ols. Th is brought

about a totally alien system of education which was aimed mainly at

supplying personnel for colonial administrative services. This was the

principal reason behind the establishment of the Fort W illiam C ollege and

Presidency College in Calcutta, which were the predecessors to modern

educational institutions on the Indian subcontinent.

W hile the adm inistrative system did acquire a definite shape in the

British period, PPA did not attain a similar level of stability. Ad ministra-

tive elites, devoid of political direction, kept on pressing for a strong

position for themselves in the name of the Indianization of the civil

service. The rulers acceded to such demands and made chang es in the

adm inistrative structure and personn el adm inistration, but not at the risk

of jeopardizing their own interests. The East India Charter Act, 1793

prohibited the app oinmen t of Indians to senior posts in the civil service.

The Charter Act of 1833 did away with this provision, but the change

could not be implemented due to the system of patronage that was

prevalen t at the time. Th e system of open competition for recruitment w as

adopted in The G overnment of India Act, 1853. But this step was m ore a

response to the demands of the Ox-Bridge fellowship winners than to

those of educated Indian s seeking public emp loym ent. The concession to

dem ands for ap pointment to the civil service as a dem ocratic right did not

bring about the desired results. The tests we re held in Lon don , and no

Indian could be appointed for several years. Som e could not afford the

trip, and others were discouraged by religious restrictions on sea travel,

age bar or general backwardness in education.

Two specific demands were voiced towards the end of the nine-teenth century for the Indianization of the civil service. Political support-

ers of the colonial rulers who received the benefit of British education

asked that: (1) the recruitmen t tests be held in London and India simulta-

neously; and (2) the age limit for participating in the tests be raised.10

As

a result, The Government ofIndia Act, 1870 provided for the appointm ent

of Indians through nom ination. Later, the Act o f1879 stipulated th aton e-

31




fifth of the positions must be filled by nomination from among the

Indians.x l But none of these acts could appease the educated Indian s, norwere the circumstances conducive to their appeasement. Up to 1871, only

four Indians succeeded in entering the higher civil service, and none of

them was nominated.12

Since non-political efforts to include Indians in the higher civil

service did not bring abo ut the exp ectedre sults, the dem ands w ere later put

forward in the form of a political platform . Th e first po litical party in India

- the Indian N ational Cong ress - was founded in 18 85. In its first meeting,

speakers criticized the process of nomination to the civil service as

"humiliating", and called for the government's acceptance of the twospecific de ma nds voiced earlier. The governmen t responded by forming

the Aitchison Commission in 1886. The Commission recommended

raising the age limit, but rejected the call for holding tests simu ltaneously

at two loc ations.13

A num ber of changes were recommen ded in the service

structure by the Aitchison Com mission, and the practice of appo intment

through promotion was adopted for provinical services.

Obviously, the history of British-Indian PPA is simply one of

Indianization. The trend continued up to the end of British rule in India

in the 1940s and con tributed to a num ber of features of PPA that are now

noticeable in Ban gladesh. These can be summ arized as follows:

(1) PPA has not been based on the indigenous system of produc tion, nor

has it been adjusted to the changes that have taken place in society over

time. It has rathe r been directly related to the British imp erialist system of

production;

(2) Th e adm inistrative system has sought to obstruct, rather than

develop, the indigenous system of production. Self-reliance of agricul-

ture-based villages has been destroyed through m ajor changes in the landsystem. At the sam e time, all poss ibilities of indus trial progress ha ve been

subverted;

(3) PPA has concerned itself mainly with controversies over the issue

of recruitment and selection for m any years, w hile other equally impo rtant

issues have been neglected;

(4) Princip les of PPA adopted for the British capitalist industrial system

have no t been ad opted to suit the Indian situation; and

32



Public Personnel Adm inistration.

(5) PPA has been operating as a closed system and, in practice, has been

isolated from the society as a whole.

It should be noted that und er colonial rule, conflicts inh erent in PP A

did not arise from ad ministrative ideals; neither were they manifestations

of conflicts between imperialist and indigenous systems of production.

On the contrary, these conflicts stemmed from the expectations of local

allies of the imp erialist forces for more facilities. It must also be

men tioned that the British felt the nee d to Indianize the civil service in its

own interest, particularly following the First W orld War. Industrial

developm ent in some E uropean cou ntries gave rise to comp etition at theinternational level am ong capitalist forces as they tried to capture markets.

Naturally, the British sought to strengthen their own position in the

colonies. For this purpo se, they tried to win over native administrators and

political elites by granting them various concessions. Th us, PPA in the

British period m ay be viewed as the product of conflicts inherent in w orld

capitalism as well as among opportunists and indigenous elites.

The First World W ar failed to bring abo ut a long-term equilibrium

in the capitalist world. Thu s, the Second World W ar wa s destined to affect

the political geopgraphy of the wo rld. New nations were born across the

globe including the Indian sub continent, and indigeno us elites constituted

the forces that came to pow er and prominenc e after these chang es. They

were supported by local industrial entrepreneurs who expected the sup-

port to be mutual. But the ruling elites failed, in most cases, to provide

oppo rtunities for adequate developm ent of the system of produ ction. At

the same time, they were unable to ensure uninterrupted growth of

indigenous industries. Two explanations can be put forward for such

failures. First, the rulers of newly indepe ndent c ountries were prac tically

oblivious to or unconcerned about the ills of world capitalism . Second ly,

the economy of most of these new states was crippled by their total

dependence on external assitance. Governements w ere unable to proceed

with industrial production or expan sion. Similar failures w ere eviden t in

the case of private industrial production. Con sequently, PPA could not

develop in conjuction with the changes in the system of production in new

states.

33




The termination of British rule in 1947 ushered in a period ofPak istani colonial rule. PPA, historically based on the British colonial

tradition, began to be tinged by inputs from Am erican scholars and experts

through advice and programmes of technical assistance as Pakistan

developed very good relations with the United States. But the results

continued to be the same. The prospects of developing PP A on the basis

of indigenous culture were still not explored. Private sector developm ent

was encouraged in Pakistan, but this sector was com plimentary to the

world capitalist system and, therefore, did not allow PPA to develop

spontaneously. PPA w as not approached from a comprehensive point ofview e ither in the pub lic or the private sector. As a result, PPA continued

to suffer from similar problems and shortcomings although the situation

was expected to change after the departure of the British colonial rulers.

Issues and Problems in Bangladesh : Contemporary Dim ensions

Bangladesh becam e independent in 1971 after a traum atic war of libera-

tion. After the nationalist leaders came to pow er, there were exp ectations

of major changes in several areas of personnel administration as theseleaders had been very critical of the Pakistani system of administration.

But due to a num ber of reasons, such changes have not materialized. The

systems of produ ction and adm inistration have not yet been estab lished on

indigenous bases even after two decades of independ ence. Since the

problem s can n o longer be attributed solely to colonial rule, an attempt

should be made to identify other pos sible causes. It is clear that PPA has

not made any progress. It remains infested w ith problems and is affected

by a num ber of issues that have their roots in the legacy of colonial rule.

But there are other causes related to the culture, state, constitutionalresponsibilities, civil service, administrative agencies and institutions,

and personnel policy of the governm ent of Bangladesh. This section

provides an overview of the issues and problems of PPA in B angladesh.

34




Nature of the State

Bang ladesh inherited a num ber of problem s from Pakistan at the time of

indepe nden ce, and som e of them were in the area of public adm inistration.

The country has constantly suffered from poverty and instability. It has

been un der intermittent m ilitary rule for long periods since indep ende nce,

and brief periods of dem ocratic and civilian rule enjoyed by the co untry

can best be described as one-party rule. One constant feature is the

disagreements and controversies on various issues am ong the key actors

in the system. These include: the form of governm ent (parliamentary or

presiden tial), nature of the econom y (socialist, capitalist or mix ed), anddevelopment strategies.

Th e lack of an ideological stand on the part of the governm ent adds

to the confusion. Co mm issions are constituted for draw ing detailed

programmes to bring about major changes in the system. But the social

background of the mem bers appointed to such Com missions do not seem

to be consistent w ith the tasks to which they are assigned. M oreov er, the

dom inance of the civil-military bureaucracy is so strong that recom me n-

dations affecting the position of these groups are often not im plem ented.

For instance, recommend ations m ade by the Administrative and S ervices

Reorgan ization Com mittee (1972) could not be implem ented, while those

of the Pay and Services Commission (1976) were implemented with

certain modifications.14

There is a lack of consensus on many vital issues, and popular

opinion and demands are not taken into consideration in the making of

crucial decisions. T he legislature has always been dom inated by the ruling

party and laws are enacted with total disregard to the sentiments of the

opposition mem bers in the Parliament. Even elections are no longerconsidered as indicators of the popularity of the elected as rigging is very

com mo n. The stand of the governmen t on various matters of national and

international impo rtance is not clear. Contradictory positions seem to be

favoured at different times, depending on the convenience of the ruling

elite. As a resu lt, it is extrem ely difficult to pred ict the dec isions and

actions taken by the governm ent. A chaotic and confusing situation

35



Asian Journal of Public Administration

prevails, both un der civilian as well as military rule. Th us, the nature of

the state has not allowed a consistent development of programmes andpolicies in any area. This state of affairs inevitably has an even more

adverse effect on PPA which has always been neglected.

Historical and Cultural Traditions

Historically, PPA in Bangladesh has been influenced by divergent tradi-

tions. In the past, the area had been subjected to rule by feudal chiefs,

independent kings, landlords, and representatives of the rulers at Delhi

and Islamabad as well as Great Britain. Naturally, public administrationwa s organized in different ways to suit the needs of the rulers, while those

of the public and the country were neglected. The system became more

organized during the Mugh al period (1576-1707 A .D.), but it w as aimed

mainly at the setting up of an efficient machinery in Bengal for the

collection of revenue. Later, the British rulers continued the colonial

prac tice of administration in relation to perso nne l, further o rgan izing the

system. But most of the changes resulted from developm ents and d em ands

made in Great Britain, and not according to indigenous needs. The net

effect has been a PPA system which w as established without con sidera-tion of all factors essential to its sound development.

Culturally, the region has been influenced by brief periods of

independen ce followed by long periods of dom ination by external pow ers.

The topograph y and climate have been very favourable to cultivation, and

the abundance of crops has contributed to a peaceful atmosp here. But it

also led to repeated attempts to colonize the area by foreign powers.

Colonial rulers enforced rigid systems that were not responsive to public

needs. They emphasized loyalty to procedures and unquestioned obedi-

ence in the system of PPA . Conseq uently, the PPA system in Bangladesh

has not developed the capacity to respond to the needs of the public and

the adm inistrators or to changes in the environm ent.

In the post-indepen dence period , Bangladesh ran into several prob-

lems. Prevalent economic and social conditions contributed to a large

extent to the process. The state could not recover fully from the dama ges

36




incurred in the liberation w ar. M oreover, due to repeated shocks in the

political system, the situation deteriorated. A high percentag e of unem -ploym ent continued wh ile the country suffered from a shortage of skilled

ma npow er. Reso urces for experim ents and research in the area of PPA

were no t available, and all governm ents that came to pow er demonstrated

their preference to accord priority to other areas. H uge amounts of money

from the national exchequ er as well as foreign assistance were spent on

development projects and building of physical infrastructures, while the

crucial task of PPA continued to be neglected.

Constitutional Responsibility and the Failure of the Private Sector

One of the constitutional responsibilities of the Government of the

Peo ple's R epublic of Bangladesh is the provision of employm ent to the

public.15

The private sector in Bangladesh has not develop ed adequ ately

to absorb a large section of the em ploya bles. Therefore, the gov ernm ent

must assume this formidable responsibility which is discharged in a

disjointed manner. One example is the Food-for-Works programme

which is aimed at providing agricultural labourers with employment.16

The employables produced by the educational institutions are provided

for in a haphazard manner through occasional recruitment to the civil

service and other nationalized organizations and agen cies. Increased

em phasis is now place d on large-scale recruitment exe rcises for the armed

forces and other param ilitary services. But these attemp ts do not serve the

needs of the country, and represent only unsystematic and inadequate

efforts to maintain the equilibrium of the system. The pressure on the

system is very strong, while little is done to provide employment to the

large number of em ploya bles. Con sequently, a healthy system of PPA has

not been ab le to take an institutional sh ape.

Conflicts within the Public Service

There are a num ber of controversies w ithin the service which contribute

to the prob lem s of PPA in Bangladesh. Conflicts between specialists and

37




generalists are commonplace in all countries of the world, although the

ma inifestations may vary. The tradition of public administration inBangladesh has always been biased in favour of the generalists. Th ey have

held and exercised more power, while the specialists have been given

authority only on techn ical matters. The latter group is dissatisfied since

technical competence is not given adequate w eight and they are unable to

perform duties in the best way. They feel that major administrative

decisions pertaining to technical matters require a substantial degree of

expe ritse in the related field, and this is not app reciated by the gene ralists

who wield a considerable amount ofpow er. Consequ ently in 1985, a joint

platform of engineers, agricultural specialists and physicians launched amo vem ent for bringing about changes that wou ld place the specialists in

better positions and allow decisions to be m ade with ad equate input from

the technical personn el. The professionals w ent on strike from No vem ber

22 ,19 85 . Several resigned from their job s, while fourteen were dismissed

by the government in this confrontation. Abstention from work by the

professionals resulted in serious disruptions in administration, particu-

larly at the hospitals. Early in 1986, the President of Bangladesh inter-

vened , reinstated the dismissed professionals, and instituted a Com mittee

for considering the dema nds of the professionals. Chaired by the D eputyChief M artial L aw A dm inistrator and Chief of N aval Staff, the Committee

included the incumbent M inisters of Health, Agriculture, Land A dm inis-

tration and Land R eforms, and Labour and Social W elfare. The m ove of

the government succeeded in stemm ing the mom entum of the mo vement.

Subsequ ent political unrest (1987-90) and change of governm ent (1990 -

91) dom inated the national agenda in the following years, and the issue has

remained unresolved.

There are other divisions, although not always apparent, amo ng the

public servants in Bangladesh. Immediately after independence, officials

w ho participated in the freedom mo vem ent received a bonus of "two years

seniority" and were given preferential treatment over the non-freedom

fighters for their services towards the independe nce of the country. They

were able to get rapid promotions and soon came to occupy crucial

positions in impo rtant administrative agen cies. The non-freedom fighter

38




officials rallied and w ere able to regain their position since they outnum-

bered the freedom fighters. Th e decline of enthusiasm ov er the liberationwar as time we nt by also helped their cause. The conflict be tween these

two groups affected PPA in Bangladesh for a long time, and continues to

add to conflicts that arise in other areas.

A related issue is the conflict between the mem bers of the former

Civil Service of Pakistan (CSP) and officers belonging to the other

services. The CS P officers constituted the highest level of public service

in pre-independence Bangladesh and occupied the most powerful posi-

tions in th government. After independence, the government looked to

these officers for leadership in the public service. Unfortunately, theattitudes and practices of the pre-independence period persisted, even

though they were not consistent with the needs of the new state. M oreover,

the CSP officers expected certain privileges due to their position, e xperi-

ence and perceived superiority in comparison to the other pub lic officials.

Naturally, this resulted in resentmen t am ong the other officials and add to

the number of conflicts within the service.

An example of the confused, attempt to resolve such conflicts was

the organization of the Senior Services Pool in 1979 "to constitute a new

apex cadre of senior officials of proven quality drawn from all branches

of the civil service on the basis of merit and ability to be tested in an

objective manner."17

This resulted in a sense of resentment among the

non-cad re civil servants. After almost a decade and a chan ge of govern-

ment, a cabinet Sub-Committee was constituted to examine the issue.

Consequently, the Senior Services Pool was abolished in 1989. This

tendency by g overnm ents to "u nd o" the deeds of previous rulers ob structs

the development of policy.

A recent development in the public service of Bangladesh is an

increase in the appointment and deputation of armed services personnel to

civil administrative positions.18

Officers are not ready to accept these

infiltrators from outside the public service, and there are resentments

against such dep utations, expecially from those wh o feel that such a ctions

may lead to obstructions in their progress through the hierarchy. Th e

conduct of PPA becom es extremely difficult with such diverse kinds of

division and fragmentation along different lines.

39



Asian Journ al of Public Ad ministration

Dispersal of Authority and Responsibility

PPA in Bangladesh is conducted under the supervision of a number of

authorities. The M inistry of Establishment (ME) is the principal agency

performing this task. The M E is responsible for most of the activities

related to personne l adm inistration including formulation of recruitmen t

policies, staffing, training, promotion, com pensation, discipline and g en-

eral supervision of all such activities. But the M E is depend ent and linked

intimately with a number of other ministries and agencies wh ich collabo-

rate to accomplish the functions associated with PPA .

The Bangladesh Public Service Commission advertises vacancies,conducts tests for the selection of certain categories of civil servants and

submits a list of eligible and available applicants to the ME . The M inistry

of Finance ov ersees its own cadre of finance services and is instrumental

in determining overall salary policy. The M inistry of Law and Justice is

also a participant in the process of PPA. It oversees PPA from a judicial

point of view, and must be consulted on legal aspects of personnel

adm inistration by all ministries and divisions. Ad ditionally, the offices of

the President and the Prime M inister are parties to the process of PPA as

certain appointme nts, prom otions and terminations m ust be approved andendorsed by the head of state or go vernm ent.

Thus, the authority to organize and operate PPA in Bangladesh is

dispersed amon g various agencies and offices. Th is results in overlapping

jurisdictions and, sometimes, crucial decisions are delayed. Complica-

tions arise frequently as all the agencies involved in the process c anno t be

coordinated very effectively. Dispersal of authority and decision-mak ing

power on personnel matters appears to be a major problem in the

organization of PPA in Bangladesh.

Lack of a Pragmatic Personnel Policy

M ost of the problem s m entioned earlier can be linked to one deficiency in

the administrative system of Bangladesh - the absence of a practical

personnel policy. As already discussed, the historical and colonial

40




tradition of Bangladesh did not allow the development of a suitable

personnel policy and post-independence rulers have accorded moreimp ortance to other areas. During the colonial period, cosm etic chang es

were m ade in the interest of the colonial rulers and long-term projections

were not even contemplated as the intention was simply to extract and

transfer resou rces. Later, post-indep ende nce needs were not considered

and PPA remained in a disorganized state. Over the years, incremental

changes hav e been m ade to resolve problems as they crop up. But an all-

encom passing, realistic and public-oriented pe rsonnel policy ha s not been

developed. Consequently, the country suffers from discrepancies and

inconsistencies in a number of areas.

All the bodies constituted for reform and reorganization have

lamented the lack of, and suggested the need for, a person nel policy. They

have, however, been unable to put forward concrete proposals in this

regard . Th e principal cause is that reforms hav e not been attempted under

a stable political system. Imm ediately after indepen den ce, the objective

was to transform a provincial adm inistrative system into a national one .

Subsequ ent attempts we re made gen erally after takeov er by the military,

and the exercises were aimed at pointing out the defects of the previous

regime, thereby establishing excuses for overthrowing civilian govern-

ments. M emb ers of such bodies recomm ending reforms were drawn from

experts sympathetic to the regime in power, and there was no com prehen-

sion or consideration of the relationship between the system of produ ction

and personnel adm inistration. For exam ple, the Administrative and S erv-

ices Reorganization Com mittee (1972) seemed eager to take steps consist-

ent with the ideology preached by the government, but there was no

attempt to implement the recomm endations by the regim e, which w as not

sure of its ideological stand. M ost of the other attempts at reform ended

in revision of pay scales, or other minor changes. The C om mittee for

Ad ministrative Reform and Reorgan ization (1982) ended up with recom -

mendations for major changes in the area of local government, while

suggesting minor changes for public and personnel administration.

The issues raised in this article have their impact on particular

aspects of PPA in Bangladesh . Recru itment to the pub lic service through

41




a central agency such as the Public Service Com mission can be supported

in the interest of maintaining uniform standards, facilitating the tasks ofadministering tests and evaluating applicants and, indeed, economy of

scale. But such an arrangement also bears the danger of overlooking the

needs of particular agencies and positions as well as the importance of

concentrating evaluation in the hands of a small number of exam iners to

offset the variations that may o ccur among a large num ber of exam iners.

Thus, it is necessary to reconsider the merits of recruitment by a ce ntral

agency against departmen tal authority over recruitmen t.

Th e area of training for pub lic service is also affected. Th ere are no

fixed rules for the assessment of training needs and for the identificationof personn el w ho m ust improve their skills or remedy their defects through

a systematic process of learning. M oreover, questions can be raised about

the relevance of training that is imparted to the public sevants, and how it

is utilized in the performance of their duties. Due to the nature of the

system, training opportunities are awarded selectively to individuals who

are favoured by the ruling group.

A similar situation prevails in the areas of promotion and transfer.

Promotions are not always consistent with performance and there are

frequent allegations that officials get promoted without possessing therequired qualifications o r achieving an excellent record of performance on

th e job. Similarly, transfers are m ade or viewed m ore as punishments and

reward s rather than as opportunities to broaden the horizon of kno wledg e

of the official or to place an individual in a position wh ere he or she will

be more effective.

Th e nature of the state and the society is reflected in the area of pay

and com pensation. Ow ing to the absence of a concrete manpo wer plan,

among other things, the government's control over the job market is

minimal. The unplanned growth of the public sector has resulted in a

situation where there are rampant discrepancies in pay and allowances

between the public and private sectors. Salaries for qualified personn el

are much higher in the private sector. Consequ ently, the government has

to settle for em ployees willing to take a chance to appear for public service

exam inations. They are promised only a chance to sit for an ex amination

and, if successful, to be offered employm ent on an unkn own date (since

42




exam inations are postpon ed) and at an unknown place (that is , the agency

and location of appointm ent) for a fixed salary, which ca nnot be raised toattract the most deserving or extraordinary em ployee .

19Even at the end of

service, there are com plications and delays in settling pension a nd othe r

claims.20

Thus, PPA in Bangladesh m ust operate from a disadvantageous

position in terms of attracting and retaining the best talents by offering

competitive terms and conditions of service.

Th e practice of collective bargaining can serve a s an invalua ble aid

to the process of PPA. It provide s a channel for the presentation of the

demand s of public employees to managem ent. But the independence of

Bang ladesh was followed, within a few years, by the adoption of a single-party system, and thereafter Bang ladesh has remained essentially a single-

party dom inated system. The Bangladesh Aw ami Leag ue, the Bangladesh

Nationalist Party and the Jatiya Party have successively dominated the

political scene since independence, and have not allowed a second

political party to play a significant role during their rule. Th is has affected

the process of collective bargaining as the labour fronts of these political

parties have dom inated the negotiations. Therefore, the political system is

not conducive to the execution of PPA functions in the most effective

man ner. Collective bargaining in the public service is profoundly influ-

enced by p olitical considerations and does not serve the interests of pu blic

em ploye es. Rather it seeks to protect the interests of a few powerful

people who have developed links with the ruling elites.

Thus, the issues of conflict and controversy prevailing in the area of

PPA in Bang ladesh manifest themselves in the form of prob lem s. Ra mi-

fications beco me eviden t in such areas as recruitment, training, prom otion

and transfer of public emplo yees. Com plications arise in the determina-

tion of pay and comp ensation and even after retirement. It can be said thatthe problems are multiplied due to the combined effect of historical,

cultural, political, social and environmen tal factors.

Observat ions

To sum up , PPA h as suffered generally from neglect. It is an area which

has not been taken seriously by scholars, even though it is an essential

43




component of the system of public administration. This shortcoming is

reflected in the state of PPA. Althoug h efforts are m ade to unde rstand theprocess by d rawing u pon know ledge in other areas of study, these are still

not adequate for the comprehension and development of an effective

process of PPA.

The situation in B angladesh is even more com plicated. The country

is confronted with problem s in man y areas including PPA . W hile som e

problem s stem from the non-developm ent of theories on PPA , others are

related to the particular situation prevailing in Bangladesh. These can b e

attributed to the history of long colonial rule, the nature of the post-

independence political system as well as social, economic and culturalfactors. The coun try has not been able to recover fully from the traumas

of the liberation w ar, nor from post-independence blows to the stability of

the system. The tradition of a group of person nel isolated from society

seems to appeal to the rulers who do not display preference for a change

in attitudes. The deve lopment of PPA in isolation from the society and its

needs has shaped the relationship betw een the public and the civil service.

The prime n eed seems to be a com prehensive rethinking on PP A in

Bang ladesh. There must be an assessment of the needs of the time,

expectations of the public and civil servants and determination of priori-ties on the part of the governm ent. M ost of the problem s can be dealt with,

as a beginning, by developing a comprehensive, relevant and concrete

personnel p olicy for the country. Unless PPA is recognized as an impor-

tant element of the administrative system and a serious, result-oriented

personnel policy is formulated, the problem s will continue to imp ede the

process of sm ooth public administration in Bang ladesh.

N O T E S

1. L. Me gginson, Personnel and Human Resources Administration (Homewood, Illinois : R.D. Irwin,

1977), pp . 46-61.

2. W. W hitman, "Preface," in D.E. Klingner, Public Personnel Management: Contexts and Strategies

(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-H all, 1980), p. ix.

3. M J Gannon, Management • An Integrated Frame work (Boston: Little, Brown and Com pany, 1977),

p. 8.

44




4. See D. Wren, The E volution of Managem ent Thought, 3rd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1987).

5. F.E. Kast and J.E. Rose nzw eig, Organization and Management, A Systems and Contingency

Approach (New York: McGraw Hill, 1979). pp . 32-36.6. H. Addo et al., Development as Social Transformation' Reflection on the Global Problematique

(London: Hodder, 1985), p. 3.

7. Kast and Rosenzw eig, Organization and Management.

8. J.M. Shafritz, A.C . Hyde and D.H. Rosenbloom, Personnel Management in Government:Politics and

Process (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981), p. 8.

9. D. Klingner, Public Personnel Management, p. 5.

10. M. A. Chaudhuri, The Civil Service in Pakistan (Dhaka: N ational Institute of Public A dministration,

1969), p. 20.

11. A. Ahmed, Role ofHigher C ivil Servants in Pakistan (Dhaka: National Institute of Pub lic Adm inis-

tration, 1968), p. 44 .

12. For details, see L.C.C. O'Malley, The IndianCivil Service (1601-1930) (London: Frank Cass, 1931).

13. M.M. Khan, Bureaucratic Self-Preservation • Failure ofMajor Adm inistrative Reform Efforts in the

Civil Service of Pakistan (Dhaka: University of Dhaka, 198 0), p. 86.14. See M.M. Khan, "Politics of Administrative Reform and Reorganization in Bangladesh," Public

Administration and Development 7 (4, December 1987) : 351-62.

15. Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Constitution of the People's Republic of

Bangladesh (Dhaka: Bangladesh Government Press, 1972), Article 15B.

16. The Food-for-Works programme is basically a relief-oriented programme that became popular

following floods and famine in the early 1970 s in Bangladesh. It provides the rural poor and unem ployed with

the opportunity to take part in the construction of physical infrastructures that can be accomplished with

unsk illed labour. The surplus labour is used to execute public works projects. The workers are compensated

with wheat. Through this programme, a largenum berofjobs are created in the rural areas forunskilled workers,

particularly agricultural workers in the season of high unemployment.

17. S.G. Ahm ed, Public Personnel Administration in Bangladesh (Dhaka: University of Dhaka, 1986),

p. 172.

18. S.S. Islam, Bangladesh: State and Economic Strategy (Dhaka: University Press Limited, 1988), p.164; and A.S. Huqueand M.Y. Akhter, "Militarisation and Opposition in Bangladesh: Parliamentary A pproval

and Public Reaction," The Journal of Commonwealth and Com parative Politics 27 (2, July 1989), p. 175.

19. Examinations for recruitment to the public service have not been held regularly in Bangladesh. There

have been postponemen ts of examinations and delays in the publication of results, as w ell as prolonged waits

before appointments cou ld be m ade. It has not been possible to hold the exam inations at regular intervals.

20 . Such com plaints are very comm on in Bangladesh. Letters to the editor are published in newspapers

frequently describing the plight of pensioners and asking for intervention by higher authorities. The final

settlement of the accounts of a retired public offic ial may take a few years and, in some instances, much longer.

Mea nwh ile, the person has to suffer due to delay on the part of the administration w hich h e or she has served

for years.

civil service problems

Documents