Movement is essential to enhance infants' brain development and the establishment ofneurological pathways. These practical ideas suggest ways to incorporate activities andtoys into everyday caregiving routines.

On the Move: Environments ThatStimulate Motor and CognitiveDevelopment in Infants

Christy Isbell and Rebecca Temple Isbell

From the first moments of life,infants begin the exciting journey togain control of their bodies. Thesebeginning movements are an essen-tial way of playing and learning forinfants. During their first year, infants learn more motorskills than at any other time in their lives. Infants whoare encouraged to experiment with different ways ofmoving gain essential information about their environ-ment: objects, materials, and people (Thompson, 2001).Infants' growing motor abilities help expand their worldin many domains, including cognition, social-emotion-al, sensory, and language (Schiller, 2003).

Brain research has revealed that the motor area of aninfant's brain is developing at a rapid rate between birthand 2 years of age (Restak, 2001). Activity during thissensitive period provides the foundation for motor skillsthat will be used throughout hfe (Jensen, 2005).

It is essential for caregivers to understand the impor-tance of movement and how it impacts infants' braindevelopment and the establishment of neurologicalpathways (Leppo, Davis, & Crim, 2000). Babies whospend too much time in cribs, highchairs, swings, orother confming equipment will not develop adequately(Sorgen, 1998). Environments should be designed soinfants are introduced to a variety of developmentallyappropriate activities that will encourage their achieve-ment of motor competency (Gallagher, 2005).

One of the ways that infants learn is by examiningand handling objects. By trying different ways to movethemselves to objects and to manipulate objects, infantsbegin their first experiments with cause and effect. Atfirst, infants put their hands in their mouths, grasp their

Babies develop at theirown rates.

feet, and blow "raspberries." Withpractice, they begin to bang, push,puil, and take objects apart.

Infants are learning many grossmotor skills during the first year.

TTiese are highlights of those milestones:• In the first 2 months of life, many infants lift

and turn their heads while lying on their stomachs.• By 6 months of age, most infants sit independendy

and are able to roll.• At 9 months, many babies are practicing the

challenging movement of crawling.• Next, infants learn to pull up, stand, and cruise

along flirniture or other objects.• Accomplishing these motor skills is the foundation

for independent walking, which the majority ofbabies achieve sometime after their first birthday

Christy Isbell, Ph.D., OTR/L (Occupational Therapist^gistered/Licensed), is Associate Professor of Occupation-al Therapy, Milligan College, Tennessee. She has more than16 years of experience as an oocupational therapist in pedi-atrics, having worked in early intervention, school systems,hospitals, and outpatient facilities. Isbell has co-authoredseveral books, including The Complete Learning Spaces Bookfor Infants and Toddlers.

Rebecca Temple Isbell, Ed.D., is Director of the Center ofExcellence in Early Childhood Learning and Developmentand Professor of Early Childhood Education, East TennesseeState University. Johnson City. She is the author of numer-ous books on early childhood and lectures internationally onthe topic. She has assisted early childhood programs indesigning environments specifically for infants and toddlers.

30 Volume 35, Number 3 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Fall 2007

Michael Talley

Different floor heights encourage standing, pulling up, and cruising Risers at appropri-ate heights enable infants to stand securely and cruise. Placing interesting objects on thecatpeted riser provides another incentive for both cruising and manipulation.

(Alexander, Boehme, & Cupps,1993).Most infants become mobile,able to move from one place toanother between 6 and 14months. During this period,infants may move in many dif-ferent ways, including rolling,scooting, crawling, or cruising.

Infants should spendmany of their wakinghours on the floor.

Spaces ThatEncourage MotorLearning '

When designing play spaces forinfant care in groups, each infantschronological and developmentalage must be considered. Babies areat different levels of development,even if they are very close in chrono-logical age.

For instance, Jeremiah may begin

cruising around furniture at 8months of age, which is develop-mentally early, while another 8-month-old, Cassandra, may berolling from place to place. Each ofthese infants needs different chal-lenges in their spaces. To meet theneeds of these two mobile infants,the motor space in an infant roomshould include a variety of surfacesand surface heights. Jeremiah needsa variety of heights to practicecruising, while Cassandra needs asoft, impact-absorbent surfacewhere she can roll safely.

Babies develop at their own rates.The range of typical motor develop-ment and achievement of milestonesis wide. Many genetic and environ-mental factors must be considered.Some infants are born with leanbodies and good muscle tone, whichmay encourage acquisition of motorskills. Other babies may be large andhave more difficulty moving theirbodies than the lean-bodied babies.In addition, infants tend to focus onone or two areas of development at

a specific time. For example, Lucasmay concentrate on learning tocrawl and be less interested in com-municating with others. After he hasconquered crawling, he may begindeveloping additional languageskills (Isbell & Isbell, 2003).

Movement activities should befrequent parts of infants' daily rou-tines. For example, well-informedcaregivers sing while changing dia-pers and, after explaining what theyare going to do, might move chil-dren's legs from side to side with therhythm of the song. Or, with chil-dren's awareness of the activity,teachers could gently bend theirknees to the beat of the music. Atmealtime, place the food on a lowtable and encourage mobile infantsto move themselves to the meal.Outside on the playground, amound covered with grass facilitatessafe rolling and crawling, both for-ward and backward.

During the day, it is critical thatinfants spend many of their wakinghours on the floor, where they canmove around and practice theirmotor skills. An open and safe floorarea allows infants the freedom tomove their bodies in many differentways. The space works best if it islarge enough for a few infants andadults to move around at one time.It should be located away from cribsor sleeping areas, because movementencourages infants to make noise.

Follow infants' leads.

The space designated for motorlearning should have a firm, impact-absorbent surface, to facilitate safeexploratory movements. Carpet,area rugs, and floor mats are excel-lent methods for adding cushioningto a floor. Blankets are another inex-

Fall 2007 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 35, Number 3 31

Michael Talley

An effective learning space provides infants with a variety ofopportunities to practice their evolving motor skills repeated-ly. Low, unbreakable mirron on the wall allow babies towatch themselves move and enjoy repeating their actions.

pensive option that can providecomfortable and washable places forbabies to have tummy time. Firmpillows of varying sizes and fabriccoverings give infants soft spots toland. These pillows also may bestacked to expand challenges forinfants who are crawling and stand-ing.

Babies learn motor skillsthrough repetition.

The motor space should includedifferent floor heights to encouragestanding, pulling up, and cruising.Risers at appropriate heights enableinfants to stand securely and cruise.Placing interesting objects on thecarpeted riser provides anotherincentive for both cruising andmanipulation (Isbell & Isbell, 2003).

Babies learn eachmotor skill throughrepetition, which isoften referred to aspractice play (Piaget,1963). For example,babies may practicepulling up on acouch or riser hun-dreds of times beforethey are able toaccomplish this skill.Often, they will con-tinue to repeat themovement, evenafter mastering theskill, perhaps tocelebrate their suc-cess. An effectivelearning space pro-vides infants with avariety of opportu-nities to practicetheir evolving motorskills repeatedly.Low, unbreakable

mirrors on the wall allow babiesto watch themselves move andenjoy repeating their actions.

Suitable ToysEncourageDevelopment

Safe and developmentally appro-priate toys enable infants to manip-ulate these objects as they puii,push, climb, stand, cruise, and walk.These are some examples.

• Activity gyms, push and puiltoys, and riding toys encour-age gross motor skills andcause-and-effect learningopportunities.

• Large, squishy balls in a varietyof sizes, such as beach balls orexercise balls, are open-endedand are favorites of many

mobile infants.• Boxes, baskets, or large plastic

containers for ball play extendinfants' involvement and pro-vide new challenges as theyplace balls into the containersand then empty them.

• Unusual materials, such assticky-backed paper, piecesof shiny fabric, and small sheetsof bubble wrap encouragetouching and moving.

• Musical toys, and other toysthat are responsive to infants'movements, provide an incen-tive for them to continue toexplore while rewarding theirinvolvement.

Carefully select a few develop-mentally appropriate toys or objectsfor mobile infants to play with atany one time. Avoid too manychoices, which will overwhelminfants and discourage focusedattention. When infants becomeaccustomed to objects or materialsin their environment, they maybecome disinterested and are lesslikely to participate in movementopportunities. Alternate toys andmaterials that are offered to babiesduring the week. Careful observa-tion will determine each infant'sinterest and participation level sothat new objects may be addedwhen needed.

Offer open-ended motorexperiences.

The positioning of toys andobjects in the room also afifectsmobile infants' motor development.Placing toys slightly out of the reachof mobile infants encourages themto move to get the objects. Forinstance, if babies are beginning topull to standing, place objects on

32 Volume 35, Number 3 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Fall 2007

low tables. Observe as infants try toget the objects. If the toys are too faraway, infants will give up. If they aretoo close, infants quickly becomebored. If the challenge is just right,infants will want to repeat the tasksagain and again. Follow infants'leads. When they tire of an activity,move on to something else.

Designing a MotorLearning Space

A Motor Learning Space is acarefully designed environmentwhere materials and activities aregrouped together. This area andequipment allows infants to explorewith their bodies in ways that matchtheir developing motor abilities.Mobile infants are able to move tolearning spaces on their own,enabling them to influence theirenvironment. The opportunity tomake a personal selection of materi-als increases the possibility offocused attention and persistence onmotor tasks. A Motor LearningSpace gives infants adequate spaceand responsive objects to encouragetheir motor development in mean-ingful ways.

In a Motor Learning Space,infants have the opportunity toachieve objectives such as these:

• develop gross motor coordina-tion

• enhance body strength• increase exploration of the envi-

ronment through movementand interactions

• repeat and refine skills• learn the properties of objects

and materials• gain confidence in motor

abilitiesThe Motor Learning Space

should include activities and propsthat provide a "just right" challenge

Michael Talley

Encourage infants to look at the pictures and move an oatmeal container covered withfamiliar photos. This activity provides opportunities for infants to push and roll pho-tos, while moving to view or retrieve the container.

for individual infants. These experi-ences should be open-ended, so theyadapt and respond to the interestsand needs of each infant. Children'sfamilies are usually happy to shareideas about the types of movementand equipment their children enjoymost at home, and these activitiescan also be incorporated into thespace. These are a few examples ofactivities and props to include in aMotor Learning Space.

Bouncing Babies: Caregiversgently bounce an infant on theirknees while singing or playingrhythmic music. Begin with easy.

rhythmic bouncing. When infantsare ready, move toward more excitedbounces. Include words to describethe movement such as, "bounce,bounce, and bounce" or "up anddown."

Light in the Box: Find a largecardboard box, iridescent self-stickpaper, and a flashlight with an easy-to-operate switch such as a pushbutton. Cut ofFone side of the box.Cover the inside of the box with thesticky paper. Show the infant how toturn the flashlight off and on. Placethe flashlight inside the box. Amobile infant can move inside the

Fall 2007 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 35, Number 3 33

box and use the flashlight to makereflections. The beam of light alsowill respond to movement, encour-aging activity.

Ball Play: Collect a number ofsoft rubber or plastic, lightweightballs of various sizes, such as beachballs, sponge balls, kick balls, nubbyballs, or exercise balls. Sit on thefloor a few feet away from one ormore infants. Roll the ball to infantsand ask them to roll it back or toeach other. Sing or describe the play,

"You roll the ball to me. I roll theb ii ^'

all to you.At flrst, the ball may stick to their

fingers or slip out of their hands.Encourage them to keep trying. Ifthe ball rolls away, encourage infantsto roll, crawl, or walk to get it. Afterretrieving the ball, resume the game.During this activity, infants usemotor skills and learn about theproperties of balls, which enhancesboth physical and intellectual devel-opment.

Rolling Photos: Collect a largeoatmeal container with a lid, severalphotographs of the infants and/ortheir families, and both clear andcolored self-stick paper. Cover thecontainer and lid with coloredpaper. Securely tape pictures to thecontainer. Cover the entire contain-er with clear self-stick paper.Encourage infants to look at the pic-tures and move the container. Thisactivity provides opportunities forinfants to push and roll photos,while moving to view or retrieve thecontainer.

Dangling Objects: Select objectsthat are suitable for hanging fromthe ceiling or a sturdy bookcase.Attach objects, such as beach balls,soft books, or scarves from the ceil-ing of the room with string, yarn, orelastic. Suspend objects close

enough to the floor so that infantscan touch, pull, hit, and shakethem. Make sure the toys areslightly higher than the infants*heads, so they do not pose a chok-ing or tripping hazard. Objectsshould be securely fastened to theceiling and checked periodicallyfor safety. Attentive adult supervi-sion is essential at all times. Thehanging objects encourage infants'movements in new ways, as theyvisually focus on the moving targetand watch the response.

Follow Up on Books: Manyboard books inspire movement (seesidebar). Share them with infantsand encourage appropriate actions.After infants are familiar with thepictures, text, and movemems, addthe books to the Motor LearningSpace. Infants can then experiencethe books and accompanying activi-ties at their own pace.

Mobile infants want to move andenjoy participating in the process ofeveryday experiences. By designingand setting up an environment thatencourages developmentally appro-priate motor activity, infants becomemore competent in using their bod-ies, and expand their cognitive abili-ties at the same time. Providing care-fiilly selected materials and open-ended props enables babies to makemovement choices based on theirindividual preferences. Opportuni-ties to select and move in individualways build confidence and feelingsof self-worth, while promotingmovement skills that infants will usethe rest of their lives.

ReferencesAlexander, R., Boehme, R., & Cupps. B.

(1993). Normal deveiopment of func-tional motor skills: The first year of life.Tucson, AZ: Therapy Skill Builders.

Gallagher. K.C. (2005). Brain research and

Children's Books ThatInspire Movement

Carle. E. (1997). From Head to Toe.New York: HarperCollins.

Oxenbury, H. {\ 987 a). All Fall Down.New York; Simon and Schuster.

Oxenbury. H. (1987b). / Can. Cam-bridge. MA: Candlewick Press.

Wardlaw, L. (1999). First Steps. NewYork: HarperCollins.

Williams, S. (1996). / Wrm Walking.New York: Harcourt.

early childhood development: A primerfor developmentally appropriate prac-tice. Young Children, 60{4), 12-18.

Isbell, R., & Isbell, C. (2003). The com-plete learning spaces book for infants andtoddlers. Beltsville, MD: GryphonHouse.

Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brainin mind. Alexandria, VA: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Devel-opment.

Leppo, M.J., Davis, D., & Crim, B.(2000). The basics of exercising themind and the body. Childhood Educa-tion,760), 142-147.

Piaget. J. (1963). The origins of intelligencein children. (M. Cook. Trans.). NewYork: Norton.

Restak, R.M. (2001). The secret life of thebrain. Washington, DC: Joseph HenryPress.

Schiller, P. (2003). Bright beginnings forbabies. Child Care InformationExchange, 150, 8-12.

Sorgen, M. (1998). Brain research: Implica-tions for teaching and learning. Paperpresented at the Maryland Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Devel-opment State Conference, Ocean City.

Thompson, R.A. ( 2001). Development inthe first years of life. The Future ofChildren, 2{l), 20-35.

34 Volume 35. Number 3 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Fall 2007

Pat These Ideas Into Practice/ *On the Move: Environments Thot Stimulote Motor

ond Cognitive Development in InfontsChristy Isbell and flebecco Isbell

Play ball with infants(6-14 months)

J

Offer a variety of balls• beoch balls i• kick balls '• tennis balls ,•nubby bails ''• large exercise balls• fabric bolls• rubber balls

I

Ways to use ballsInfants choose the balls that are of interest to them Demonstrate how to move bolls

• Roll back and fortb• Drop fhe boll• Toss the ball• Push the ball• Roll on the boll• Bounce on the ball

Use language to describe the balls and how their actions aftermovement of the ballsEncoumge infants to participate in interactive ball picyHang ball from ceiling, just above head heightOffer cardboard or plastic contoiners for children \o

• put tfie bolls in• take the balls out• dump the balls• fill another container with balls• stir the balls with arms• climb in tfie bolls

Motor skills thotbobies leorn by moving

• Crawl • Creep • Push' Pull • Carry • Roll • Toss• Cruise • Hand to hand(transferring objects from

one hand to the other)

New vocabulary

•{ Note: Oimensions of[aily r/if/t/Zroorf readers ore encoufoged to copy this material for eorly childhood students os well as teochers of young children os a professional development tool.

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