CITY OF GOD by SAINT AUGUSTINE

Historical Background

This book is written by Saint Augustine of Hippo in the early 5th centuryAD & one of his major works, dealing with issues concerningGod,martyrdom,Jews, and other aspects ofChristian philosophy.

Saint Augustine wrote the dissertation to explain Christianity's relationship with competing religions and philosophies, and to theRomangovernment with which it was increasingly intertwined. Despite Christianity's designation as theofficial religion of the empire, Augustine declared its message to be spiritual rather than political. Christianity, he argued, should be concerned with the mystical, heavenly city theNew Jerusalem rather than with earthly politics.

The book presents humanhistoryas being a conflict between what Augustine calls the City of Man and the City of God (a conflict that is destined to end in victory of the latter). He describes two cities: Earthly city-- contains the damned, which God has not chosen to save. City of God -- it refers to the collection of good people on the earth, and the good society they can form among themselves, those who have been 'repaired' by God's grace, and who are therefore able to escape vanity, to love God as they should, and therefore merit salvation.

Aim of the Book

This dissertation was written to: clarify that Christianity was not to blame for the fall of the Roman Empire;

reveal that even the most evil actions of fallen angels and sinful man cannot stop the unfolding of Gods eternal plan;

propose that the fall of the Roman Empire was insignificant in the context of the eternal plan of God; and

describe the choice we must all make - choose to occupy either the City of God or the City of Earth - the consequence of which is eternal.

Saint Augustine aimed to present a perfect society based in Christian philosophy. He also enlightened old beliefs and concepts using Christian doctrines with emphasis on the argument that only the scriptures can give instructions to man about the highest form of good and evil. He also pointed out that any human endeavor done without the guidance of the Bible is of no purpose. He attempts to justify the fall of Rome in opposition to the charges of the pagans. He wrote this book in defense to Christianity which was blamed for the catastrophe that befell upon Rome. He argues that everything is in accordance to Gods plan and that the purpose of history is to show the unfolding of Gods plan which includes cultivating the City of God and filling it with only the worthy citizens.

Brief Description of the Book

Saint Augustine presented another approach towards the concept of the best state. He provided an extensive explanation and justification to the various happenings down the history especially about the destruction of the Roman Empire but, he banked on his arguments according to the scriptures. His discussion was not confined to only political philosophies; he explored other streaks of the society which also needs attention which is the impact of the church or specifically moral and spiritual values. These essential factors were profoundly explained by St. Augustine to go along with his notion of the two cities. He demonstrated careful analysis on the City of God and the City of the World but he somehow presented a very broad view on the subject and his move toward on the theme was somewhat dawdling. He had many pauses in order to address many questions of detail though his use of lines from both the Old and New Testament did help in elucidating the subject.

This dissertation was completed in twenty-two books. The first five refuted those who fancy that the polytheistic worship is necessary in order to secure worldly prosperity, and that all these overwhelming calamities have befallen us in consequence of its prohibition.

In the following five books, Saint Augustine address himself to those who admit that such calamities have at all times attended, and will at all times attend, the human race, and that they constantly return in forms more or less disastrous, varying only in the scenes, occasions, and persons on whom they light, but, while admitting this, maintain that the worship of the gods is advantageous for the life to come. In these ten books, then, he counter these two opinions, which are as groundless as they are antagonistic to the Christian religion.

But that no one might have occasion to say, that though he had counter the doctrine of other men, he had omitted to establish his own, he devote to this object the second part of this work, which comprises twelve books, although he have not scrupled, as occasion offered, either to advance his own opinions in the first ten books, or to demolish the arguments of his opponents in the last twelve. Of these twelve books, the first four contain an account of the origin of these two citiesthe city of God, and the city of the world. The second four treat of their history or progress; the third and last four, of their deserved destinies.

Summary of the BooksThe dissertation The City of God was divided into two (2) parts.

The first part consisted Book I Book X. The first ten books reply to contemporaries of Saint Augustine who saw the sack of Rome as a judgement on the feebleness of the Christian God. The second part is interpretative. In it, Saint Augustine took the Biblical narrative as a chronology (which is normative in all modern scholarship, but which is by no means the natural interpretation or the only one). Saint Augustine then retells the Old Testament stories and binds them into a narrative of the City of God. At the heart of the narrative is moral decision and ethical integrity, but the story told by Saint Augustine included the entire past and future of the whole universe. It is eschatological morality. From the conceptual depth and breadth of the story, it is an unmistakable masterpiece. Book I

Pagans claimed that Rome fell because the Christian religion had weakened it. In truth, the blessings and difficulties of life happened to good and bad alike - misfortune happened to everyone. In fact, the barbarians who stormed the city spared, for Christs sake, their adversaries. It was unusual that the conqueror would show mercy to the defeated out of respect for their gods. The Romans themselves, when conquering cities, did not spare the lives of the defeated. The cruelties that occurred during the capture of Rome were in agreement with the convention of war, but the acts of mercy were the result of the influence of the name of Christ. Although

imprisoned and mistreated, the saints lost nothing by losing their earthly possessions. Even when subjected to violations during their captivity, their own will did not consent and their souls were not contaminated.

Saint Augustine responds to those Romans who blame the fall of Rome on the abandonment of Roman Gods in favor of Christian Gods by suggesting that rather than abandonment of Roman Gods being responsible for the sack, instead it was the Christian God who made survival possible. He suggests that this was unique and attributes it to the strength of Christianity, then goes on to cite numerous examples of where this has not been the case in the past. He makes specific mention of the reliquaries of the martyrs and the churches of the Apostles being instrumental to this exceptional event (i.e. refuge for some of the citizens of Rome) and he also draws a parallel between earthly sanctuary and spiritual sanctuary

In this book, Saint Augustine introduces Virgils Aeneid as history, specifically to point out the uselessness of relying on Roman Gods. Indeed, Saint Augustine reiterated some of the facts recounted by Virgil Troy itself, Mother of the Roman people. But note that he also goes on to recognize that while the story is true in the sense that it reflects what usually occurs it may not have happened in actuality as it is described; this reinforces what we have been discussing thus far; that is: while the modern mind requires something to have actually happened to be considered true, in the pre-modern times, truth was not necessarily dependent upon actuality.

Saint Augustine reiterated that even Romans did not grant such sanctuary and thus again raises the debate of whether places are made Holy or sacred by events and actions, or whether the events and actions merely confirm their holiness either way the Churches of the Apostles and the reliquaries of the martyrs have gained sacred status. When the customs of war slaughtered many people, the church of Christ showed clemency to the people.

This book tackles how God willed that the good and evil things of this world should be common to both. The mercy of God invites the wicked to repentance, just as the discipline of God teaches forbearance to the good. Saint Augustine justified why good are afflicted with temporal evils. It is to test the human spirit, to measure the goodness among them and to strengthen their faith and love to God.

In here, Saint Augustine also introduced the notion of a community as a collection of individuals. He introduced the theme of the Christian as a pilgrim on his way to the heavenly country Therefore the idea of a Promised Land pilgrimage. He also introduced the notion that while the City of God, is not the same as the Earthly City, its potential exists within the geographical location that is the earthly city thus making even those within the City, pilgrims within their own City.

Saint Augustine clearly stated that the Sack of Rome and its bad events were intended as a spur to repentance out of bad shall come good out of the earthly City can come the City of God. He reiterated that among the enemies, someone who can become a citizen maybe hidden. Among our most declared enemies lies some who are predestined to be our friends. In this world, the two cities (City of God and Earthly City) are indeed entangled and mingled with one another. They remain so until the last judgement separate them. In the end, the glory of the City of God will shine all the more brightly compared to the other city. Let us not forget that there is only one true God. In the City of God and true godliness and the worship of God lies the true promise of the eternal blessedness.Book IIBefore the time of Christ, Rome had suffered hardships and tragedies. Although its people had worshipped false gods, they were not protected from misfortune. To the contrary, the Romans suffered the greatest calamity of all- they became weak due to moral and spiritual corruption. Their gods did nothing to protect them; instead, totally devoid of holiness of life, their worship leads them further into depravity. This was not, by any means, a unique event in human history. Since Christian beliefs result in healthy living, and since history shows many examples of the unhealthy consequences of paganism, it benefited Romans to renounce their pagan practices.In this book Saint Augustine reviewed those calamities which the Romans suffered before the time of Christ, and while the worship of the false gods was universally practiced; and demonstrated that, far from being preserved from misfortune by the gods, the Romans have been by them, overwhelmed with the only, or at least the greatest, of all calamities the corruption of manners, and the vices of the soul.

Saint Augustine wrote that he have shown that people need to attribute actions of luck or good fortune to God. He also explained why bad things happen to the good and the wicked. He stated how Rome was founded by ancient heroes, but that their descendents have destroyed it and how the destruction and downfall of Rome has contributed to the rise of Christianity. He said that he must write for ignorant men because most of the population of the world believes that Christianity caused the terrible events and disasters. He asked that if Christianity did cause these disasters, why did the other gods not stop them?

Also in this book, Saint Augustine implied the evil and bad nature of man, and wondered why the other so-called true gods never intervened or created mechanisms to help their devotees live more religious and virtuous lives. He said that his true God has shown the devotees a true way to achieve a virtuous life.

Saint Augustine discussed Plato and his arguments against certain aspects of his own government. He suggested that the laws the gods of ancient Greece and Rome held themselves and their believers to low standards and that they lacked any set standards of morality or behavior (and thus any method of virtue).He wrote: It is obvious, therefore, that the Romans could not receive, nor reasonably expect to receive, laws for the regulation of their conduct from their gods, since the laws they themselves enacted far surpassed and put to shame the morality of the gods.He discussed the depravity of the Roman republic and how evil and corrupt it was. There was a lack of law and order and no virtue. Christians must be able to endure these terrible conditions (with the help of their God). He also focused on the nature of law to defend acts against property rather than acts against other humans. He basically railed against Roman society and the evil nature of a focus on earthly pleasures and goods.

The 21st Chapter of this book is a critique using Cicero of the Roman republic, and more largely the concept of government in general. He quoted, so, where reason is allowed to modulate the diverse elements of the state, there is obtained a perfect concord from the upper, lower, and middle classes as from various sounds, suggesting the need for reason in deliberation of matters of the state. Republics can only be called republics when they are justly and fairly governed; when they are not, then they stop being republics at all. Saint Augustine wrote that Romesrepublic was less republican than they would like others to believe; moreover, he argued that the only true republic with justice and virtue is that founded under Christ.

Lastly, on this book, Saint Augustine dealt with the nature of Christianity as healing. He wrote about the evil nature and bad tendencies of men and how Christianity lifts them out of these things. There was an implicit assumption by Saint Augustine as to the evil nature of man here, as he viewed Christianity as raising men out of it.Book IIIEven when false gods were worshipped by the Romans, the world continually suffered. Why did they not defend Rome in the past? Before the advent of Christ, Romans were subjected to calamities - physical and bodily disasters. Consider the adultery of Paris, the fratricidal act of Romulus, the destruction of Ilium by Finbria, the wickedness of the war waged against the Albans - actions brought about by their own moral and spiritual degradation. Romans suffered incredible disasters during the Punic Wars - no protection was provided by their gods. Yet, these things are set aside in memory when considering the reason for Romes downfall. It is effrontery to impute the present troubles to Christ and His followers, since even when the gods were worshipped, such calamities befell the people.In this book, Saint Augustine proved the external and bodily disasters, that since the foundation of the city, the Romans have been continually subject to them; and that even when the false gods were worshipped without a rival, before the advent of Christ, they afforded no relief from such calamities.

A brief introduction that includes a look-back at what has been discussed as well as a defense of the claims made in the first book against the non-Christians. This portion also tackled the nature of Christianity as related to other religions. A discussion that was mainly focused on the nature of government and the role of religion in government formation was also included in this book. This is done in discussing the evils of the Roman Empire and how they got to be that way.

Saint Augustine gave an example of two men, one rich and one poor.The rich man has great materials wealth but is very scared, anxious, and constantly fighting off evil temptations. The poor man is content with his lifestyle and wants nothing else. He concluded that the latter man was more desirable and that the world should be ruled by such persons as they do not harm themselves and their souls as the first man does. But the bad man, even if he reigns, is a slave, and that not of one man, but, what is far more grievous, of as many masters as he has vices.

This section deals with the expansion of an empire. Saint Augustine stated that if people had not sought out new territory there would be many more small kingdoms in the world. He goes onto say that it is not right for the lesser to rule over the more righteous person. Rome made out the foreigners who they waged war against to be more unjust than they, so that the way was justifiable.

In this book, the seemingly conflicting or competing notions of felicity and fortune was also dealt. Saint Augustine suggested that if felicity is present, then nothing else is needed as one will be happy. He also wondered why people ask for fortune when it can be good or bad. He therefore concluded, Felicity is she whom the good have by previous merit; but fortune, which is termed good without any trial of merit, befalls both good and bad men fortuitously, whence also she is named Fortune. All of this was dealt with under a veil of polytheistic religion with these forces being represented as goddesses.

Book IVThe long duration of the empire of Rome is not to be attributed to the worshipping of the heathen gods, who failed to defend Rome throughout a history abounding with disaster. Have earthly kingdoms been aided or thwarted through intervention by these gods? Has the worship of these gods been of service to obtain or extend Romes empire? Or, is there one true God, the giver of virtue and felicity who held the past, present, and future in His hand? Consider the kingdom of the Jews; it was founded by the one and true God and preserved by Him as long as they remained steadfast in their worship of Him alone. The times of all kings and kingdoms are ordained by the judgment and power of the true God.In this book, Saint Augustine laid down that justice is to be set before power, and that alike by nations and individuals. We come to the maxim on which so much more must be said: Remota justitia, quid regna nisi magna latrocinia. The Roman Empire appeared on the whole to have viewed as a just reward earned partly as the due of Roman virtue and partly in compensation for unjust attacks; but he is not always consistent. He speaks of the lust of power of Ninus and the Assyrian Empire. He argued in favour of a society of small States, 'little in quantity and peaceful in neighbourly agreement,' as against the aggregations of empire. Once more he makes easy game of the puerilities of polytheism, and denounces its obscene festivals. Then he passed to the more serious doctrine of Varro, for whom Augustine entertained the greatest respect. Varro was a Theist or Pantheist of a kind, and like Saint Augustine worshipped Providence, the bestower of kingdoms, who grants his boons to bad no less than good, like a parent giving toys. The book concludes with the assertion that God is the giver of all kingdoms and the determiner of their end.Book VThe power and increase of the Roman Empire, and all other kingdoms, cannot be attributed to false gods. The cause is neither fortuitous nor does it consist in the position of the stars. In a sense, this power and increase was due to the virtue of the ancient Romans themselves, but ultimately to the counsel of God - He rewarded their virtue by increasing their dominion even though they did not worship Him. Totally ignorant of the true source of the success, the Romans boasted of their greatness. In contrast, Christians know they must be far from boasting, for they know the true source of their success. All they do is for love of their eternal home, whereas the Romans did all for human glory and an earthly dominion. There is a vast difference between true glory and the desire of domination. Although they did not acknowledge it, the Romans enjoyed a dominion that was granted by Him from whom all power emanates and by whose providence all things are ruled.In this book, Saint Augustine first discussed the doctrine of fate, for the sake of confuting those who are disposed to refer to fate the power and increase of the Roman Empire, which could not be attributed to false gods, as has been shown in the preceding book. Despite his strong predestinarian doctrine, Saint Augustine was no believer in a blind fate--any more than was Calvin. The Empire he stated has been given to the Romans as the reward of certain terrestrial virtues. Great qualities of courage and self-sacrifice belong or did belong to Roman patriots. No pagan could be more eloquent than he is on their grandeur.Saint Augustine proved that there is no contradiction between God's prescience and our free will. He then spoke of the manners of the ancient Romans, and showed in what sense it was due to the virtue of the Romans themselves, and in how far to the counsel of God, that he increased their dominion, though they did not worship him. Finally, he explained what was to be accounted the true happiness of the Christian emperors. He despised earthly honors and endured worse torments. The Romans had not the true end of doing God's will. Hence, they could have no eternal hope. Their relative goodness would have gone unrewarded, and God's justice therefore would forever be assailable, had not an earthly sovereignty been their reward. Saint Augustine's first part concludes with Book V. He is now to be occupied in showing that paganism is wrong even as a method of approach to the True God.

Book VIAre the heathen gods to be worshipped for the sake of eternal life? Through the worship of these gods, are we assured eternal happiness? Varro, the most esteemed writer on heathen theology, divides theology into three kinds - mythical, natural, and civil. Varro himself reveals that neither mythical nor civil theology can assure happiness in future life. Other pagan authors and teachers attempt to show natural explanations for their gods. But, once the vanity of these gods has been exposed, it becomes obvious that they are unable to bestow eternal life on anyone; they do not afford help even with respect to the present, the things of this temporal life.Hitherto the argument has been conducted against those who believe that the gods are to be worshipped for the sake of temporal advantages, now it is directed against those who believe that they are to be worshipped for the sake of eternal life. Saint Augustine devoted the five following books to the confutation of this latter belief, and first of all shows how mean an opinion of the gods was held by Varro himself, the most esteemed writer on heathen theology. Of this theology Saint Augustine adopted Varro's division into three kinds, mythical, natural, and civil; and at once demonstrated that neither the mythical nor the civil can contribute anything to the happiness of the future life. Book VIICan eternal life be obtained by the worship of Janus, Jupiter, Saturn, or other selected gods of civil theology? Who are the selected gods? For what reasons do they occupy offices above the commoner gods? According to Varro, god is the soul of the world and is manifested in various parts or souls whose nature is divine. Even Varro himself pronounced his own opinions of these parts, or souls - whether named Janus, Jupiter, Terminus, Pecunia, Saturn, Mercury, Mars, Apollo, Diana, Neptune, Salacia, or Venilia - as ambiguous. He affirmed Earth to be a goddess since that part of what he defines god to be encompasses it. In reality, all of these things which the physical theologists refer to as parts, or souls, ought to have been recognized as characteristics of the one true God. Only by distinguishing the Creator from the creation can the truth of one Author be acknowledged. An interesting appreciation of Varro precedes an account of his book on 'Human and Divine Antiquities' which indeed we know largely through the use Saint Augustine makes of it. Varro divides religion into three stages, somewhat after the manner of Comte. There is (a) the mythical, followed by (b) the natural and (c) the civic. He preferred the second. Saint Augustine tried to show the connection between the two, and denies that paganism can be detached from its darker side. It is vain to worship pagan deities in the hope of eternal bliss. Book VII carries the matter a little further, and argues the inconsistency of Varro.In this book it is shown that eternal life is not obtained by the worship of Janus, Jupiter, Saturn, and the other select gods of the civil theology.Book VIIIMythical and civil theologies are of no avail toward securing a blessed eternal life. Will the worship of the gods of natural theology secure blessedness in the life to come? To answer this question, philosophers of more excellent wisdom must be consulted. Plato, uppermost disciple of Socrates, provides a useful foundation in his threefold division of philosophy. So, it is the Platonists opinions, in particular, that are preferred in this ongoing dispute concerning matters of theology, since they excel in logic and rational thinking. Platonists also exude strength in moral philosophy, coming nearest of pagan philosophers to Christian faith, though the Christian religion is above all the science of philosophers. Even the Platonists, who often refer to one true God, continued to suggest that sacred rites were to be performed to honor many gods. Concerning these gods, Plato defined them as good, as friends of virtue. The Platonist Apuleius discussed the manner and actions of demons. They were to be worshipped and employed in order to gain favor in the eyes of the gods. What religion would believe such a thing? And, to the point of the gods using demons as messengers and interpreters, do they do so willingly or without their knowledge? In no way can men be reconciled to good gods by demons. Demons are the slaves of vice. They delight in and patronize what good and wise men abhor and condemn blasphemous fiction and magical arts. Regardless of the opinion of Apuleius, we must reject the worship of demons! The superstitions and idolatry must be abolished.This book tackles the Platonic doctrine of God. Apuleius, the African representative of paganism, was discussed. We have vigorous words in abuse of magic. The heathen practice of apotheosis is contrasted with the honours given to the Christian martyr. This, he says, is high reverence, but in no sense do we treat the martyrs as gods.Also in this book, Saint Augustine began his argument by admiring the entire effort of philosophy made by Socrates. He was described as the first to change the focus of philosophy from physics to the correction and regulation of morals. He might believe, as Saint Augustine explained, that it must have been difficult to answers for physical questions on eternal and divine things. Socrates concentration on ethics comes to the realization that these could not be comprehended other than by a mind which has been cleansed. The same understanding on purification can also be found in the thought of Platonist. Because of their opinions about in corporeality of God, the Philosophy of Platonists surpasses the mystical and the civil theology. The Platonists thought that no corporate body was God and in going beyond all material things, they searched for God. Book IXAmong the demons, are there distinctions between good and bad? Are there good demons who can assist the human soul to reach true blessedness? Apuleius ascribes no virtue to demons. He explains that it is gods who dwell in Heaven, demons who occupy the air, and men who inhabit Earth. Platonists suggest that the souls of men become demons upon vacating the body. Consider, since demons are not blessed like the gods nor wretched like men, can demons mediate between gods and men when they have nothing in common with either? Christ Jesus is the only true mediator between God and men, being both God and man. To obtain the blessed life and partake in the supreme good, man needs mediation not by a demon but by Christ alone. Though demons may make promises of godly intercession, their true goal is to turn men from the path of truth. Christ alone provides men with eternal blessedness.Book IX is concerned with a further condemnation of the doctrine of mediating spirits and demons. Thence Saint Augustine passes to the doctrine of the One Mediator, and argues the possibility of the Incarnation. The Book shows that the debate between the Christian apologist and his assailants is at bottom a conflict between two forms of mediation.Book XBook X contains a further analysis of Plotinus, whose doctrine Augustine paralleled with the Logos doctrine of S. John I. He contrasts the one sacrifice, once offered, with the offerings to idols; and the Christian with the pagan miracles. In Chapter 25 he argued that all good men in every age are saved, but saved through faith in Christ, e.g. the saints of the Old Testament. Then we have more argument for the Incarnation. Augustine saw the fundamental difficulty in Incarnation, a self-limitation of God which is all but intolerable. It is this doctrine of the humility of God at which imagination boggles. 'These proud fellows scorn to have God for their Master, because the Word became Flesh and dwelt among us.'The angels of Heaven want only God, whom they serve, to be given divine honor through sacrifice or latreia (sacred service). The Platonists believe that God alone can bestow happiness on men or angels, but it is yet to be decided whether the spirits want sacrifice offered to them or to the one God alone. Although Platonists have some knowledge of the Creator, they misunderstand true worship of God, evidenced by their ascribing divine honor to both good and bad angels, rather than understanding that sacrifice is due to the true God only. Angels holy angels - motivated by love, desire that we not worship them but worship instead the one true God. Unfortunately, some Platonists, such as Porphyry, remain connected to demon worship. True miracles are created by the one true God and are delivered through the ministry of His holy angels. Men are to worship God for both eternal blessings and earthly prosperity because all things are ordered by His divine intervention. The purpose of holy angels is to fulfill the providence of God. No holy angel will demand divine honor for himself but only for God. As a fulfillment of the Ark of the Covenant, the promises, and the requirement of sacrifices, the supreme and true sacrifice, Jesus Christ, the mediator between God and men, was provided by God Himself. Only through Christ do saints derive power against demons and true purification of heart.

Platonists state principles by which the soul is purified, but there is only one true principle that purifies and renews the human soul the sacrifice of Christ Jesus. Men are justified and made pure by faith in the mystery of Christs incarnation. Porphyry, whose mistakes are even worse than those of Apuleius, is weakened by his wavering between the confession of the true God and the worship of demons. How could he be so blind as to not recognize the truth Christ Jesus? The grace provided through Christ has alone provided the universal way of the souls deliverance.

In this book Augustine taught that the good angels wish God alone, whom they themselves serve, to receive that divine honor which is rendered by sacrifice, and which is called latreia. He then goes on to dispute against Porphyry about the principle and way of the soul's cleansing and deliverance.

Book XIHerein begins the explanation of the origins, histories, and destinies of the two cities - the earthly and the heavenly - formed by the separation of the good and bad angels. First, let it be clear that there is no knowledge of God but through the mediator between God and men, Christ Jesus. It is not wise to attempt to understand the infinite ages of time before the creation of the world nor the infinite realms of space. The world and time had one beginning; one did not precede the other. God created all and on the seventh day He rested. When it is said that God rested on the seventh day from all His works, and hallowed it, we are not to conceive of this in a childish fashion, as if work were a toil to God, who spoke and it was done, - spoke by the spiritual and eternal, not audible and transitory word. But Gods rest signifies the rest of those who rest in God, as the joy of a house means the joy of those in the house who rejoice, though not the house, but something else, causes the joy.Saint Augustine begins by proving that the universe and time began together. The City of God begins with the creation of light, i.e. with the angels; and the other with the sin of Satan. The doctrine of the Trinity is expounded, and Saint Augustine emphasized his view that evil is a defect of will, not of nature, once more attacking the Manichean dualism. 'Let there be light' signifies the creation of the angelic hierarchy.

Although the Bible does not record the exact moment when the angels were created, we know that by their very nature they are light. God, the good and unchangeable Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is one God in whom substance and quality are identical. In this blessedness the angels were created. From all this, it will readily occur to any one that the blessedness which an intelligent being desires as its legitimate object results from a combination of these two things, namely, that it uninterruptedly enjoy the unchangeable good, which is God; and that it be delivered from all dubiety, and know certainly that it shall eternally abide in the same enjoyment. That it is so with the angels of light we piously believe; but that the fallen angels, who by their own default lost that light, did not enjoy this blessedness even before they sinned, reason bids us conclude.

Two different communities of angels existed, signified by the names Light andDark. The wickedness of Dark is not nature, but contrary to nature, and has its origin, not in the Creator, but in the will. This was not a surprise to God, for He uses for good even the evil committed through the will.The Problem of Evil and the Irrationality of Created Will natural evil is some defect arising with necessity from the contrary actions of things of limited nature moral evil consists in the misdirection. (i.e. the lack of proper direction, of the will) The only free agent with absolute omniscience and benevolence is God only a free agent of this kind can have an absolutely immutable, unfailing good will thus, free agents of limited perfection have mutable wills such agents can be free only if they can choose evil however, the realization of this possibility is entirely dependent on the autonomous abuse of their freedom problem for God: how can you make a free agent of limited perfection, and hence of a volatile will, freely and yet unfailingly choose what is the best? answer: through divine pedagogyBook XIIIn this book, Saint Augustine once more discussed the relations of the good and evil angels. He met and denied the doctrine of the longevity of the world, of the Antipodes, of an eternal recurrence. Then he went on to the creation of man.Regarding the angels, is there in some a good will and in others an evil will? The nature of angels, both good and bad, is the same. The difference between angels of light and angels of darkness lies not in a difference in their nature and origin, since God created them both, but in a difference in their wills and desires. Angels of darkness were not content to continue in the eternal truth and love of God. They, instead, became enamored with their own power and in so doing, traded the dignity of Gods eternity for pride and vanity, which lead to deception and envy. Regarding the creation of man, he is not from eternity, but was created by the one true God. In this first man, who was created in the beginning, there was laid the foundation, not indeed evidently, but in Gods foreknowledge, of these two cities or societies, so far as regards the human race. For from that man all men were to be derived - some of them to be associated with the good angels in their reward, others with the wicked in punishment; all being ordered by the secret yet just judgment of God.Book XIIIBook XIII describes the fall, and its consequence in death. Saint Augustine combats the view that death was inevitable, not penal.

By Adams original sin did death come to be. Unlike the angels who cannot die, man was created to live by condition- if he lived in obedience to his Creator, he would enjoy angelic immortality and blessed eternity; if he disobeyed, he would experience death. What then is death? First, there is the death of the mortal body, but here the issue of death of the soul is addressed. The soul was created to be immortal, yet can experience a kind of death in itself when separated from God. The death, then, of the soul takes place when God forsakes it, as the death of the body when the soul forsakes it. And so, there are two deaths - the death of the body and the death of the soul. Of the first and bodily death, then, we may say that to the good it is good, and evil to the evil. But, doubtless, the second, as it happens to none of the good, so it can be good for none.Addressing the question of why anyone would want to sin, we should realize in the first place the paradoxical nature of sinning. For if the will is rational desire, as it is defined by Aristotle, then it seems natural that they will would always choose the best alternative presented as such by reason. So, perhaps, there is something that somehow makes the will disoriented, thereby making it miss its goal, namely, choosing the best possible alternative. Apparently, this is precisely the line of reasoning behind two paradigmatic answers to the problem of the origin of moral evil, both of which were explicitly rejected by Augustine.

The Socratic answer on what makes the will go wrong is our ignorance, some cognitive failure, on account of which we mistake the apparent good for the real good so we rationally, but mistakenly, choose the lesser good, or something that is in itself evil. The Manichean answer: according to this conception, although the will in itself is good and striving after the good, sometimes it is simply overwhelmed by some evil, material principle, so it is some extrinsic compulsion that eventually makes a person do wrong. To be sure, this compulsion may not be extrinsic to the man who has the will, but it is extrinsic to the will or the soul trying to fight this compulsion, such as drug addiction or something like it.

Saint Augustine rejected both of these answers, because these, instead of explaining the origin of moral evil, rather seem to provide excuses for the evil deeds of rational, free agents, whose responsibility is diminished precisely by these factors, namely, ignorance, on the part of our limited cognitive powers, and compulsion, on the part of our limited active powers. So, Saint Augustine located moral evil precisely in the wills free, deliberate act itself, when it does something wrong knowingly, deliberately, and in its full capacity to do otherwise. It is this deliberate, and intentional turning away from what is good and pursuing what is bad that is the archetypal moral evil Saint Augustine is after, first exemplified in the fall of angels, and then in the fall of man. Since it goes against reason, there is no rational explanation for such an act, for it is inherently irrational. The only thing that somehow accounts for its occurrence is the root of all evil, the pride of a free agent of limited perfection, arrogantly affirming the God-given gift of freedom by abusing it.

But then, why did God give the dubious gift of freedom in the first place, if He could foresee that it would be abused by some free creatures? Saint Augustines answer to this question is simply that this is just another manifestation of divine goodness: God gives freedom to His creatures without which the perfection of creation would not be complete, even if he foreknows that they will ungratefully abuse His gift. So, if God foreknew all this, and Gods knowledge is infallible, then isnt sin inevitable? Indeed, since Gods knowledge and will are the same, did he also want that his free creatures would sin? And if he did want this, isnt sin even more inevitable? After all, who could resist Gods will? Book XIVThrough the original sin of Adam, all men would have been doomed to the endless misery of the second death had not God intervened, through His grace, by providing a Savior in Christ Jesus. This Savior is needed by all of mankind for all are sinners. The sin of men is not caused by the flesh but by the soul. The misery contracted from sin is not the sin itself but sins punishment. Despite the falling of angels and the sin of men, Gods will is still carried out.As a result of sin, two cities were formed - the earthly and the heavenly. The earthly city is ruled by love of self; the heavenly city, by love of God and contempt of self. The first seeks glory from men; the latter from the Lord. The first delights in its own strength; the latter says, I will love thee, O Lord, my strength (Psalm 18:1). And therefore the wise men of the one city, living according to man, have sought for profit to their own bodies or souls, or both, and those who have known God glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful, but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened; professing themselves to be wise, - thats, glorying in their own wisdom, and being possessed by pride,- they became fools, and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things. For they were either leaders or followers of the people in adoring images, and worshipped and served the creature more than the Creator, who is blessed forever. (Romans 1: 2125). But in the other city there is no human wisdom, but only godliness, which offers due worship to the true God, and looks for its reward in the society of the saints, of holy angels as well as holy men, that God may be all in all (1 Corinthians 15: 28).Saint Augustine again tackled on the sin of the first man, and teaches that it is the cause of the carnal life and vicious affections of man. Especially he proves that the shame which accompanies lust is the just punishment of that disobedience, and inquires how man, if he had not sinned, would have been able without lust to propagate his kind. In this book we proceed to the ordinary doctrine of the eruption of grace. After dilating on the evils of sin, he describes the two cities more at large in Chapter 28.

'Two loves therefore have given original to these two cities--self-love in contempt of God unto the earthly; love of God in contempt of one's self to the heavenly. The first seeks the glory of men and the latter desires God only as the testimony of conscience, the greatest glory. That glories in itself and this in God. That exalts itself in self-glory; this says to God, "My glory, the lifter of my head." That boasts of the ambitious conquerors, led by the lust of sovereignty: in this everyone serves the other in charity, both the rulers in counseling and the subjects in obeying. That loves worldly virtue in the potentates; this says unto God, "I will love thee, O Lord, my strength." And the wise men of that follow either the good things of the body or mind or both, living according to the flesh, and such as might know God honored him not as God, nor were thankful, but all were vain in their own imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened; for professing themselves to be wise-- that is, extolling themselves proudly in their own wisdom-- they became fools, changing the glory of the incorruptible God to the likeness of the image of a corruptible man and of birds and four-footed beasts and serpents: for they were the people's guides or followers into all those idolatries, and served the creature more than the Creator, who is blessed forever. But in this other the heavenly city, there is no wisdom of man, but only the piety that serves the true God, and expects a reward in the society of the holy angels and men, that God may be all in all.'

Book XVIn this book, Saint Augustine reiterated his position, I classify the human race into two branches: the one consists of those who live by the human standards, the other of those who live according to Gods will. I also call these two classes the two cities, speaking allegorically.

Here, Saint Augustine equates the standard of the flesh with human standards and the standard of the spirit with Gods will. By human here, Augustine means it in thepejorative sense of human all -too- human, something contemptibly human. Human standards, however, are those which generally prevail.Having treated in the four preceding books of the origin of the two cities, the earthly and the heavenly, Saint Augustine explained their growth and progress in the four books which follow; and, in order to do so, he explained the chief passages of the sacred history which bear upon this subject. In this fifteenth book he opens this part of his work by explaining the events recorded in Genesis from the time of Cain and Abel to the deluge.Book XV begins with the contrary course of the two cities in history. Cain built the first city; not Abel, who was always a pilgrim.

'It is recorded of Cain that he built the city, but Abel was a pilgrim and built none. For the city of the saints is above, though it have citizens here upon earth, wherein it lives as a pilgrim until the time of the kingdom come, and then it gathers all the citizens together in the resurrection of the body and gives them a kingdom to reign in with their king forever and ever.'

Chapter 4 describes the earthly city. Peace is the aim of its life. This it can win only by war. Cain's effort is compared with the building of Rome by Romulus, who also slew his brother. Once more he compares them in regard to Seth and Enos.

In Chapter 21, Saint Augustine summed it up: 'Thus the two cities are described to be seated, the one in worldly possession, the other in heavenly hopes, both coming out at the common gate of mortality, which was opened in Adam; out of whose condemned race, as out of a putrefied lump, God elected some vessels of mercy and some of wrath; giving due pains unto the one, and undue grace unto the other, that the citizens of God upon earth may take this lesson from the vessels of wrath, never to rely on their own election, but hope to call upon the name of the Lord: because the natural will which God made (but yet here the Unchangeable made it not changeless) may both decline from Him that is good and from all good to do evil, and that by freedom of will: and from evil also to do good, but that not without God's assistance.'

Book XVI

In the former part of this book, from the first to the twelfth chapter, the progress of the two cities, the earthly and the heavenly, from Noah to Abraham, is exhibited from Holy Scripture: In the latter part, the progress of the heavenly alone, from Abraham to the kings of Israel, is the subject.Book XVI goes on with the history. Saint Augustine condemned in parentheses the idea of inhabitants at the Antipodes. The supreme type of the earthly city is the Tower of Babel. The course continues until the second period, that of Abraham, and the third, that of the Mosaic Law. From now onwards the city of God becomes represented for practical purposes by the Hebrew nation. Therefore it takes on some of the qualities of an earthly State. This gives occasion to Saint Augustine to argue that all the promises of permanence in the Old Testament could not refer to the Jewish State but must have their fulfillment in that city eternal in the heavens.

Book XVIIIn this book the history of the city of God is traced during the period of the kings and prophets from Samuel to David, even to Christ; and the prophecies which are recorded in the books of Kings, Psalms, and those of Solomon, are interpreted of Christ and the church. Book XVIII

Saint Augustine traced the parallel courses of the earthly and heavenly cities from the time of Abraham to the end of the world; and alludes to the oracles regarding Christ, both those uttered by the Sibyls, and those of the sacred prophets who wrote after the foundation of Rome, Hosea, Amos, Isaiah, Micah, and their successors.In Book XVIII we get to the course of the civitas terrena, i.e. the whole topic of Vico. That is represented in the Assyrian monarchy; but certain criticisms of Grecian myths and Egypt occur.Prophecy comes in and the conflicts of philosophers. The rise and early progress of Christianity are now described. The City of God is beginning to be identified with the Church; but Saint Augustine emphasized the uncertainty of its true membership owing to the scarcity of the elect. The book thus concludes the history on earth:'Now it is time to set an end to this book, wherein, as far as need was, we have run along with the courses of the two cities in their confused progress, the one of which, the Babylon of the earth, has made her false gods of mortal men, serving them and sacrificing to them as she thought good; but the other, the heavenly Jerusalem, she has stuck to the only and true God, and is his true and pure sacrifice herself. But both of these do feel one touch of good and evil fortune, but not with one faith, nor one hope, nor one law: and at length at the last judgment they shall be severed forever, and either shall receive the endless reward of their works. Of these two ends we are now to discourse.'

Book XIX

In this book the end of the two cities, the earthly and the heavenly, is discussed. Saint Augustine reviewed the opinions of the philosophers regarding the supreme good, and their vain efforts to make for themselves a happiness in this life; and, while he refuted these, he took occasion to show what the peace and happiness belonging to the heavenly city, or the people of Christ, are both now and hereafter.Book XIX proceeds to the discussion with which we began, the thought of the summum bonum (the highest good). Saint Augustine stated that this can be found only in the world beyond. After admitting that society is integral to human life, he points to some of its inevitable miseries on earth--war, insecurity--and becomes eloquent on the value of peace.'We may therefore say that peace is our final good, as we said of life eternal. Because the Psalm says unto that city, whereof we write this laborious work: "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem, praise thy Lord, O Sion; for He hath made fast the bars of thy gates and blessed thy children within thee; He giveth peace in thy borders." When the bars of the gates are fast, as none can come in, so none can go out. And therefore this peace which we call final is the borders and bounds of this city; for the mystical name hereof, Jerusalem, signifies a vision of peace. But because the name of peace is ordinary in this world where eternity is not resident, therefore we choose rather to call the bound, wherein the chief good of this city lies, "life eternal." . . . The good of peace is generally the greatest wish of the world, and the most welcome when it comes. Whereof I think one may take leave of our reader, to have a word or two more, both because of the city's end, whereof we now speak, and of the sweetness of peace, which all men do love.'

The two ends described; one is earthly peace alone, the other has its other-worldly reference. Yet this heavenly city has members in all earthly cities, gives them true peace and the heavenly hope. Saint Augustine went on discussing Cicero's definition of a republic in which justice is an integral element. On that hypothesis Rome never was a commonwealth, since justice cannot be where the true God is not worshipped. But in Chapter 24 he gave another definition under which any stable state can be grouped. No true virtue exists apart from God, yet earthly peace is needed and must be used by the citizens of the heavenly state.Saint Augustine made clear that peace is the same as eternal life; he had preferred to use the latter term until here (he stated) to denote the supreme good of the city of God He now takes up 'peace' because by the word, he doesn't mean only a minimal absence of conflict, but human wellbeing, as in Jer. 29: "Seek the shalom of the city" - peace + welfare. As he used it, then, 'peace' itself implicitly expresses his opening affirmation that the human good is social. Peace may be used "in application to events in this mortal state, where there is certainly no eternal life", in a way the latter, for this reason, cannot. He showed in vivid language the pervasiveness of the aspiration to peace in human existence - within each person and among persons, even in the worst kinds of conflict including war. He also points to the instinct towards peace among non-human creatures. So the term 'peace' enables Saint Augustine to articulate how the supreme good of the city of God and the goods of this life are related.

Book XXThis book concerns the last judgment, and the declarations regarding it in the old and new testaments.Saint Augustine argued that the first resurrection has already taken place in the conversion of sinners to Christ. The millennial kingdom is not, as the Chiliasts say, a future reign of Christ in the world, but is the present kingdom of the Church. This is the binding of the devil. It began with the spread of the Church outside of Judaism. The 'thrones and they that sat upon them' are the rulers of the Churches. The souls that reign with Christ a thousand years are the martyrs. The beast is the society of wicked man, opposed to the company of God's servants and fighting against His holy city. This society consists not only of open enemies but also of tares among the wheat. More apologetic discussion concludes the book.Book XXIOf the end reserved for the city of the devil, namely, the eternal punishment of the damned; and of the arguments which unbelief brings against it.In this book, the nature of the punishment which is also to be visited upon devil and all who belong to him when the two cities have reached their deserved ends through Jesus Christ the Judge of the living and the dead. Saint Augustine mentioned in this book that the blessedness of the good is sometimes put first as in the words, They that have done good, unto the resurrection of damnation. But sometimes it is put second as in The Son of man shall send forth His Angels, and they shall gather out His Kingdom all things which offend, and shall cast them into a furnace of fire: there shall be wailing and gnashing of teeth. Then shall the righteous shine forth as the sun in the kingdom of His Father.On the 14th Chapter of this book, Saint Augustine mentioned that we come across those who suffer no punishment in this life, but only after it. However, mortal life itself is wholly one of punishment for it is all temptation, as the Scripture declare, Is not the life of man upon earth a temptation?Anyone who desires to escape everlasting punishment requires not only to be baptized, but also to be justified in Christ, and so to pass over from the devil to Christ. He should not suppose that any pains will be purgatorial, except for those which will precede that final and tremendous judgment. However, it is certainly not to be denied that the intensity of the eternal fire itself will differ according to the deserts of the wicked. For some it will be milder, and for others more grievous. Perhaps this will be accomplished by a variation in the heat of the fire itself in proportion to the punishment of each sinner, or perhaps the heat will remain the same, but all will not feel its torment with equal intensity.Book XXII

The earthly city shall end. What will be the future of the heavenly city - the City of God? There will be an eternal happiness of the saints the inhabitants of the heavenly city. There shall be a new heaven and a new earth: and the former shall not be mentioned, nor come into mind; but they shall find joy and rejoicing in it: for I will make Jerusalem a rejoicing, and my people a joy. And I will rejoice in Jerusalem, and joy in my people, and the voice of weeping shall be no more heard in her (Isaiah 65:1719).The saints will experience the resurrection of the body - not just their earthly bodies, but bodies made new, bodies with all blemishes that marred human beauty removed.

The saints, clothed in immortal and spiritual bodies, shall be occupied by praising and worshipping God. How great shall be that felicity, which shall be tainted with no evil, which shall lack no good, and which shall afford leisure for the praises of God, who shall be all in all! For I know not what other employment there can be where no lassitude shall slacken activity, nor any want stimulate to labor. I am admonished also by the sacred song, in which I read or hear the words, Blessed are they that dwell in Thy house, O Lord; they will be still praising Thee (Psalm 84:4).

The saints will want for nothing and discontent shall be nonexistent. But who can conceive, not to say describe, what degrees of honor and glory shall be awarded to the various degrees of merit? Yet it cannot be doubted that there shall be degrees. And in that blessed city there shall be this great blessing, that no inferior shall envy any superior, as now the archangels are not envied by the angels, because no one will wish to be what he has not received, though bound in strictest concord with him who has received; as in the body the finger does not seek to be the eye, though both members are harmoniously included in the complete structure of the body. And thus, along with his gift, greater or less, each shall receive this further gift of contentment to desire no more than he has.They shall experience abundant free will. Neither are we to suppose that because sin shall have no power to delight them, free will must be withdrawn. It will, on the contrary, be all the more truly free, because set free from delight in sinning to take unfailing delight in not sinning. For the first freedom of will which man received when he was created upright consisted in an ability not to sin, but also in an ability to sin; whereas this last freedom of will shall be superior, inasmuch as it shall not be able to sin. This, indeed, shall not be a natural ability, but the gift of God.They shall carry no weight of guilt for their past sins. The saints shall forget their past ills, for they shall have so thoroughly escaped them all, that they shall be quite blotted out of their experience. But their intellectual knowledge, which shall be great, shall keep them acquainted not only with their own past woes, but with the eternal sufferings of the lost. For if they were not to know that they had been miserable, how could they, as the Psalmist says, for ever sing the mercies of God? Certainly that city shall have no greater joy than the celebration of the grace of Christ, who redeemed us by His blood. The saints will throughout eternity carry out Davids words, Be still, and know that I am God (Psalm 46:10).In this last book, Saint Augustine discussed the Idea of History as the Completion of Mans Creation. History is Gods providential plan for raising His children from the savagery of sinful self-subjection to the desire of things beneath them they can become the humans they were meant to be only if they gain their genuine freedom through learning from their own faults in history when the number of saints with unfailing good will equals the number of fallen angels, then history reaches its end: then the City of God is completeThis book treats of the end of the city of God, that is to say, of the eternal happiness of the saints; the faith of the resurrection of the body is established and explained; and the work concludes by showing how the saints, clothed in immortal and spiritual bodies, shall be employed.

AnalysisThis brief outline makes this much clear. The City of God is apologetic [1] and theological. It is not a treatise on polity, whether ecclesiastical or civil. All Saint Augustine's philosophical reading has left traces-- and every kind of dialectic is displayed. As apologetic it is more effective against paganism than against the Platonists. Too much is assumed in regard to Jewish and Christian history. The book might reassure those within the Church whose faith was shaken. It would hardly arrest those without. It has the interest and also the coruscating irrelevance that comes from a great variety of topics. The thread is there, but sometimes it is hard to disentangle. Compare this book with such a work of apology as that of Origen against Celsus. We note how much larger the Church looms in the view of Saint Augustine. It is no set of propositions which he is defending in a dialectic debate with other philosophers; although he can do this and does it in detail. But it is a social life which he sets up against another form of social life. The treatment is less individualist than that of Origen--though the latter had to follow the course taken by Celsus. First we may observe that what impressed Augustine was the witness of the vastness of the Church and its triumph. As he says in a sermon:'What do we see which they saw not? The Church throughout all nations. What do we not see which they saw? Christ present in the flesh. As they saw Him and believed concerning the Body, so do we see the Body; let us believe concerning the Head. Let what we have respectively seen help us. The sight of Christ helped them to believe the future Church; the sight of the Church helps us to believe that Christ has risen. Their faith was made complete, and ours is made complete also. Their faith was made complete by the sight of the Head, ours is made complete from the sight of the Body.' (Sermon lxvi. (cxi.) 6.)

Probably those are right who say that in this respect also - if in nothing else Saint Augustine is epoch-making, that his entire apologetic rests on the idea of Church. This characteristic would be developed in the Donatist controversy. It must be admitted, however, that such a view of him is not universally held, and some would put the distinctive basis of Saint Augustine in the idea not of the Church, but of grace.

Secondly let us note the aggressive tone of the book. Despite his references to Plato and his real debt to Plotinus and Porphyry, Saint Augustine is far more intransigent than Clement of Alexandria, who would treat Christianity as but the coping-stone of Greek thought. It is not as a superior gnosis (knowledge), but it is as a scheme of Redemption, that Saint Augustine commends Christianity, and values it for himself. The cause of this lies partly in that doctrine of original sin which was so strongly held by Saint Augustine, and even was in some degree being developed while this book was in process. It is the point of the whole book.

Another note is the stress laid on the ethical difference between Christianity and its competitors--though that is not a novel feature. He knows that it is not speculative truth but conduct that shows the greatest difference. Also he is aware that he is dealing with a dying interest. Paganism was uttering its death-cry (for the time). Clear is his note of triumph in the conquering and universal power of the Church.

History including miracle plays a great part. The destruction of Jerusalem following the rejection of Jesus by the Jews is an emphatic evidence of the Gospel. The argument from miracles he states as many would state it now. A miracle is not contrary to nature but to what we know of nature. The argument depends on our conception of God. Saint Augustine had no notion of the distinction between the natural--i.e. the physical --and the supernatural. Nature means the whole world of God's order--all that happens. The problem is whether God's Will be paramount.

Above all we must bear in mind that the whole course of created existence is seen by Saint Augustine as a conflict between two societies. However little some may make use of the figure of The City of God, they have no right to deny its implications as against a doctrine purely individualist. Sin in Adam has become the property of the race; it is needful to show redemption in the order of historical development. The apologetic rests on a philosophy of history.

Finally it is of and in the antique world that Saint Augustine wrote. The notion of him as medieval in temperament may have some evidence, yet it must be understood with care. The atmosphere of the book is of the old world. It is before Gelasius with his doctrine of the two powers, before Justinian. Only a little over a century had passed since Diocletian's effort at exterminating the Church. Less than that divided Saint Augustine from the reaction under Julian.

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Footnote[1]apologetic discipline of theology that seeks to respond to objections raised to Christian belief or to problems that seems to be internal to the Christian faith.

Note: The first five books refute those who attribute prosperity and adversity to the cult of the gods or to the prohibition of this cult.

Note: Books VI - X are against those who hold that ills are never wanting to men, but that worship of the gods helps towards the future life after death

Note: The second part of the work contains twelve books (from Book 11-22). The first four (Books 11-14) describe the birth of two cities, one of God, the other of this world.

Note: The Books XV-XVIII provides a detailed account of human history, as the story of the separation of the two cities in humanity, based on their ends, leading one part of humanity to salvation and the other damnation.

Throughout the Old Testament, we see the cities develop the earthly by the children of the flesh and the heavenly by the children of promise. The parallel courses of the earthly and heavenly cities were highlighted in Scriptures, from Abraham to the Old Testament prophets, and then to Christ.

Note: Books XIX-XXII lays out the ultimate ends themselves, the complete separation of the two cities in the resurrection, leading to eternal damnation for the wicked and to the eternal peace for the blessed. Regarding the two cities, what then is their destiny? The heavenly city, the City of Supreme God, is destined for eternal life while the earthly city is destined for eternal death.