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City Branding of Lahore: Participatory Place Branding
By
Ayesha Ahmad
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
(Marketing)
MANAGEMENT SCIENCES DEPARTMENT
Capital University of Science and Technology
ISLAMABAD
January, 2017
ii
City Branding of Lahore: Participatory Place Branding
By
Ayesha Ahmad
A research thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of “MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT SCIENCES (Marketing)”
to the Department of Management and social Sciences,
Capital University of Science & Technology, Islamabad
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES
JANUARY 2017
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City Branding of Lahore: Participatory Place Branding
By
Ayesha Ahmad
MM133045
Supervisor
Mr. Aamir Khan Khattak
A Research thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
(Marketing)
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences
Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad
2017
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
CAPITAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY, ISLAMABAD
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“City Branding of Lahore: participatory place branding”
By
Ayesha Ahmad
(MM133045)
THESIS EXAMINING COMMITTEE
S.No. Examiner Name Organization
(a) External
Examiner
Dr. Abdul Qayyum
(b) Internal Examiner Dr. Sajid Bashir CUST, Islamabad
(c) Supervisor Aamir Khan Khattak CUST, Islamabad
______________________________
Aamir Khan Khattak
Thesis Supervisor
______________________________
Dr. Sajid Bashir
Head of Department
Department of Management and social
sciences
Dated :
___________________________
Dr. Arshad Hassan
Dean
Faculty of Management and social
sciences
Dated :
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Dedication
This work is devoted to my Father.
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Copyright © 2016 by Ayesha Ahmed
All rights reserved. No portion of the material protected by this copyright notice may be
replicated or utilized in any arrangement or by any means, electronic or mechanical including
photocopy, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system without authorization
from the author.
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Acknowledgement
Foremost, my sincere thanks to my thesis supervisor Sir Aamir Khan Khattak for his support
and guidance. In particular, I am very thankful to Mr. Sajid Bashir for teaching me everything
about research.
I would thank all my fellows especially Shazdeh Gul for helping me and senior fellow
Mubashir Hassan who has been very kind, bearing and helpful. Last but not the least, I would
mention my family especially my father and mother whose prayers have enabled me to complete
this task.
Ayesha Ahmad
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Certificate
This is to verify that Ms. Ayesha Ahmed has integrated all comments, suggestions and
observations made by the external evaluators as well as the internal evaluators and thesis
supervisor. Her thesis title is: City Branding of Lahore: Participatory Place Branding
Forwarded for necessary action
__________________________________
Aamir Khan Khattak
(Thesis Supervisor)
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Abstract
In the face of substantial research on City Branding, there is still a plethora of avenues to explore
in the domain of Participatory branding of cities. This study aimed at analyzing the behavioral
outcomes of brand associations of a city. The study fills a contextual and relative gap in the
previous literature by examining the brand associations of a city brand. A questionnaire was used
to collect data from a sample of 290 respondents of Lahore to empirically test the hypothesized
relationship. The findings accepted all other hypothesis except significant relationship of attitude
towards branding and self-brand connection with brand advocacy. The mediating role of self-
brand connection had a significant relationship with all the brand associations. This study would
help city governance to understand the participatory approach for improving brands of cities,
hence promoting tourism and visitors.
Keywords: Self Brand associations, Brand advocacy, Participatory Place Branding.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................................................... vii
Certificate ................................................................................................................................................... viii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Gap Analysis in the literature ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Research objectives ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Significance of the Study .................................................................................................................. 4
1.6. Theories Supporting Research ...................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................................. 7
2 Literature Review .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.1. Brand Advocacy: .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Self-Brand Connection:................................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Attitude towards Brand: .............................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Brand uniqueness: ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.5. Brand Trust: ................................................................................................................................ 15
2.6. Perceived quality: ........................................................................................................................ 16
2.7. Research Model .......................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 22
Methodology and Research Design ............................................................................................................ 22
3.1. Type of Study and Type of Investigation: .................................................................................. 22
3.2. Time Horizon: .................................................................................................................................. 22
3.3. Study settings and level of interference: .......................................................................................... 22
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3.4. Unit of Analysis: ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.5. Research Instrument: .................................................................................................................. 22
3.6. The Sampling Technique: ........................................................................................................... 24
3.7. The Population and Sample: ....................................................................................................... 24
3.8. Statistical Analysis: ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.9. Table Demographical Frequencies ................................................................................................. 25
3.10. Table Instruments and Reliability ......................................................................................... 27
3.11. Data Analysis Tools and Techniques: ......................................................................................... 28
Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.1. Results ......................................................................................................................................... 29
4.2. Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................................................................ 29
Table 4.2 .............................................................................................................................................. 30
4.3. Correlation Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 31
Table 4.3: ............................................................................................................................................. 31
Table 4.4. ............................................................................................................................................. 33
4.5. Regression Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 34
4.6. Mediation Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 35
Table 4.6.1. ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Table 4.6.2. .......................................................................................................................................... 38
Table 4.6.3. .......................................................................................................................................... 40
Table 4.6.4. .......................................................................................................................................... 42
Summary of Hypothesis (Accepted/ Rejected) ........................................................................................... 44
Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
5.1. Discussion: ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................................................... 48
6.1. Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................................... 48
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6.2. Research Implications and Recommendations for Future Research ............................................... 50
References ................................................................................................................................................... 51
Appendices .................................................................................................................................................. 60
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CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Branding has arisen as the priority of the upper management in the last few decades due to the
emerging awareness as “brand” the most treasured immaterial assets a firm can have (Keller,
2006). Regions are also being endorsed through branding policies like goods or services are
branded. Cities and destinations have various topographies which include their art, culture,
landscapes or food. Such distinguished features are used in creating brand imageries and
associations (Kemp, Childers & Williams, 2012). Though marketing places is trickier then
branding goods and services because of large group of stakeholders and establishment’s stake in
it. Place branding is creating some uniqueness, which distinguishes one place from others in
order to gain an economical brand value. A distinct characteristic is necessary regarding
branding, which is every so often assumed as the creation of symbols and catchphrases on the
city’s publicity collateral.
Nonetheless, branding is an extensive course that offers a discrete emphasis on the
communicative feature of all marketing procedures without substituting the marketing procedure
(Kavaratzis, 2004). Kotler et al. (1993) says that most primitive literature on destination
marketing has identified three key stakeholders in city branding i.e. residents, companies, and
visitors. Hence, measurement of brand loyalty and brand equity is more challenging to measure
and achieve making it more crucial to create effective branding strategies that cater all
stakeholders. We will discuss the role of residents in branding their city and how they will
advocate their city and improve its image and branding.
There has been a clear focus of city branding studies regarding their external relevance i.e. the
understanding of how using the destination brand behavior of the tourist or visitor’s behavior can
be molded (Pike, 2004) with the intentions of revenue generation for the region (Morgan,
Pritchard and Piggott, 2002). Place marketers face numerous restraints when struggling to relate
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marketing policies in a municipal framework. Similar to other methods of governance, place
branding includes several different actors who may have difference of opinion about the
marketing tools or the brand that best seizes the desired distinctiveness of the city. Some might
look from resident perspective and some as a resident’s perspective which changes their view of
the city and its fundamentals. For instance, assessment making can be troubled if the division of
accommodation supports a campaign that wants to brand the city as a peaceful housing area,
whereas the economics department desires to highlights the business venture opportunities.
Place or region branding reveals the mounting attention in the ways that societies, cities, states
and countries market themselves. Place branding highlights the marketing and branding of cities
to the residents as a residence and to industries as a place to capitalize.
In place branding many factors help together to form a strong image of a destination. Marketing
places is trickier then branding goods and services because of large group of stakeholders and
establishment’s stake in it. (Leisen, 2001). Consumers need associations and pathways in their
schemas to enable them to reach to that brand and to remember it.
Community history, inheritance and beliefs are important machineries of city branding, and
research has delivered historic interpretations of how cities have branded and promoted
themselves (Runyan and Huddleson, 2006). Csaba (2005) says that growing research on city
branding to attract tourists and visitors has its benefits yet some limitations, multiple identities of
cities, branding conflicts; conflict of interest among stakeholders not only contributes to the lack
of unity for a brand development but is also fundamental to successful branding.
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1.2. Gap Analysis
City Branding researches revolves around the city governance and stakeholders involved in the
city i.e. residents, companies, and visitors are usually not involved in the process of
strengthening a city as a brand, literature lacks the study on participatory behaviors of city
branding stakeholders used as a tool in marketing the city’s uniqueness in art, culture and food.
The importance of internal audiences is highlighted in participatory approach of branding (Ind &
Bjerke, 2007). This approach actually positions the branding procedure as a dialogue and
negotiation between stakeholders (Hatch & Schultz, 2009).
Theory and practice of place branding indicates substantial shortcomings in considering the role
of the citizens in the city branding process (Braun, Kavaratzis & Zenker, 2013). Therefore, the
aim of this research is to analyze the multidimensional role of residents in this process. This
study will investigate the aspect where visitors, residents and businesses in the city can
voluntarily advocate their city.
There are few knowledge gaps regarding city branding which need to be recognized. Firstly,
Investigations have been done for ethnic and heritage brands, but studies offered merely a
developed and advanced country standpoint (Balmer, 2011). The concept of city branding is very
popular in the rest of the world but in Pakistan it’s relatively a newer concept which is why the
main gap we found is contextual, where Lahore has never been studied for City branding but it
has a great potential to become a strong city brand. Pakistan has suffered a lot because of
terrorism in the area. Also According to Haq and Wong, (2010) Pakistan can be a good place to
study place branding, as no study has yet studied destination branding concerning the numerous
destinations traced all across Pakistan.
As a nation there is a huge need to change that image and brand our cities using our culture,
food, festivals and historical landscapes. Using city branding as a tool we can change the way the
world looks at us and it will help in increased number of visitors and economy will flourish.
Lahore has rich historical background with landscapes to flaunt from the Mughal era. It has rich
cuisines which represent not only history but people with the love and passion for food and
people with generous hearts.
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The objective of this study is to discover how vital concepts like branding and marketing can be
useful for place branding. It purposes to study in what manner internal stakeholders, precisely the
people who are residing in the city are fundamental in the process of brand development.
1.3. Research Questions
On the basis of gap analysis, this particular research proposed to study the affiliation of Brand
advocacy and self -brand connection and would provide an answer to the questions:
Question No.1:
Do self brand connections have positive and significant effect on brand advocacy?
Question No.2:
Whether self brand connection has the mediating effect on the relationship between brand
advocacy and brand associations of a city?
1.4. Research objectives
The foremost objective of this study is
a) To examine the applicability of Brand associations to predict Brand advocacy in case of
City branding as it does in other products/service brands. Additionally, the study also
aims at exploring whether lf self brand connection mediates the relationship between
brand association and brand advocacy or not.
1.5. Significance of the Study
The capability to identify, evaluate and use information concerning the relationships that buyers
take part in with the products of a particular brand they buy is of certain significance to experts
and academics in the marketing field.
Assessment of cities in expressions of diverse brand image positioning, with a highlighting on
the pursuit for a distinct and distinctive position has been found in present city branding
literature, which manifolds the appeal of that city for its residents and others (Merrilees, Miller &
Herington, 2009). This paper drives it more and tries to enlighten the city brand attitudes’
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determination. Classification of the city brand attitudes’ determinants offers an unfathomable
indulgence of branding process in this specific situation and offer a context which may help in
residents in the modification of approaches for the public good.
This study progresses city or place branding study abundantly. Mainly, Paradigm of the city
branding has recently shifted to overall brand assessment globally. Brand associations provide an
estimation of the strong suit of the city brand and the relationship side of the brand by
highlighting the associations residents or prospect residents have for the city .Furthermore, the
paper enunciates a structured model of the city brand attitudes’ determination, allowing the
recognition of central city brand attitudes.
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1.6. Theories Supporting Research
This paper draws on social identification theory to study the connection of self-brand connection
with brand advocacy. Latest consumer behavior studies have considered the psychological and
emotional connections different individuals form with brands, brand societies and the brand
affiliations that exceed reliability (Fennis & Pruyn, 2007). Specifically, the self-brand connection
factor of brand identification described more adjustment of consequent variables containing
feelings like loyalty, inclination to pay premium prices and be brand advocates (Carroll &
Ahuvia, 2006). According to Stets and Burke (2000) the social identity theory helps one in
identifying oneself and elaborates the way how a person relates himself to a particular social
group or community.
Underpinning social identity theory gives answer to why people buy a certain brand or product, it
is because such a purchase makes them feel more esteemed in their social group and leads them
towards loyalty (Marin, Ruiz & Rubio, 2009). In the light of existing literature, it is assumed
that these theories would provide a strong theoretical background for this study and contribute to
literature of marketing and city branding significantly.
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CHAPTER 2
2 Literature Review
2.1. Brand Advocacy
Brand advocacy proposes a range outside probable future support behaviors and shares
information describes just one feature of customer advocacy. It serves as the “communication
between consumers about a product, service, or a company in which the sources are considered
independent of commercial influence.” (Litvin, Goldsmith & Pan, 2007). These stimuli are of
great significance in the tourism industry, because of the tangibility of the products prior to
consumption (Litvin, Goldsmith & Pan, 2007). Having expanded work on customers and their
behavior, Bettencourt (1997) used specific terms like “loyalty”, “cooperation” and
“participation” for customers keeping in view their voluntary performance.
Decision making is also highly influenced by Brand advocacy source as it plays a progressively
vital part in it. Consequently, it is extremely vital for marketers to comprehend how to take
control, and not be controlled, by this force (Litvin, Goldsmith &Pan, 2007).The decisive inquiry
of “Would you recommend us to a friend?” is important since it studies performance, value,
features and associative touch point like brand links and emotions. The influence of WOM
activism is in its consistency as an evidential source (Rusticus, 2006). Fournier (1998) and Aaker
(1999) explicitly plead to scholars concerning the prerequisite for research in marketing to study
the profound, persistent brand relationships that promise favorable consequences for firms. K.
Murray (1991) also highlighted the importance of WOM in its credibility as a source of
information which is not biased.
Brand advocacy seems dependable as it is passed by unbiased parties and it involves one to one
communications (Sahinaand & Baloglua, 2014). Customers who have developed a relationship
of trust and commitment are more loyal to the brand and Those loyal customers are more likely
to bring in more attention by advocating for the brand and recommending it to friends, relatives,
and other potential consumers (Schultz, 2005). Brand trust are likely to create personal
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connections with the brand itself which makes customers justify their loyalty and commitment in
the social circle making them brand advocates.
Individuals are driven to make a noble and worth impression to achieve community approval and
for the primary and deep-down satisfaction of a constructive self-image (Schlenker, 1980). So
we can say that people are likely to go for the referrals of the brand that they think of as
congruent in terms of their self-brand connection. Reference groups in Consumer studies have
verified congruency between group association and brand norm (Bearden & Etzel, 1982).
Cognitive dissonance reduction strategies begins even before contentment judgments are
properly fashioned, leading new customers to strive to communicate the “goodness” of their
choice to others. This is done either to prove them or to inhibit others from turning a blind eye to
their skill of making good choices (Wangenheim & Bayón, 2007).
The instrument of resident input is often raised as one way out for such conflicts, but it remains
scholastically vague how and particularly why this perception should be effective. However,
since the original aim of marketing is to recognize and satisfy the consumer’s needs and wants
(Kotler and Levy, 1969). Place marketing aims to maximize both the economic and social
functioning of the area concerned (Zenker and Martin, 2011), resident participation could be
perceived as one way to progress the involvement of the citizen with the city.
Residents are not only the passive beneficiaries or place customers in place branding, but also
co-producers and active allies of public goods (Olsson & Berglund, 2009). Thus, they
increasingly demand a more participatory role in city branding activities (Braun et al., 2013).
Freire (2009) and Hospers (2010) have stated the impression of residents as the active
participants for branding of a city. Major part of the past literature on inner-city governance
highlights the significance of resident involvement in governance processes (Zenker & Seigis,
2012), and factors into the discussion amongst marketing scholars about participatory branding
(Warnaby, 2009). In this paper we shall highlight in what way brand trust, brand uniqueness and
perceived quality can spur brand advocates. Klijn, Eshuis, & Braun (2012) and Eshuis &
Edwards (2013) indicate that citizens have a highlighting part in the word of mouth for a city
since their word is taken for it as a party which is unbiased.
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The paper aims at developing and presenting involved place branding method to help place
managers device such a structure.
2.2. Self-Brand Connection
Brands helping consumers to demonstrate their chosen concepts of themselves have high
consumer commitment levels (Cooper, Schembri & Miller. 2010). The concept of self-
fulfillment need of consumers is one normally established viewpoint inhibiting from the
literature of consumer behavior (Belk, 1988; Dolich, 1969). Matching process, blending or
combining helps consumers in picking brands that are conforming to their opinion of themselves
(Chaplin & John, 2005). According to Escalas and Bettman (2003) such connections are shaped
when brands aggravate solid and promising brand associations from the consumer’s standpoint
Hankinson (2004) vouches that self-image concept can be the decisive point for consumers to
buy a brand or not. Service brands usually emphasis on creating favorable experiences for
consumers by ensuring satisfaction with service performance and provision of value (Lovelock,
Patterson, & Walker, 2007).
According to Escalas (2004) and these favorable service experiences are expected to facilitate a
Self brand connection. Consumers having elevated self-brand connections reply to undesirable
brand information as they do to their own letdown and failures — a hazard is experienced by
them to their positive self-image. Consumers with extraordinary SBC, similarly, kept promising
brand assessments regardless of adverse brand information. Though, when they accomplished a
separate self- pronounced task, they drop their brand assessments the same as low. This outcome
advises that high when consumers with higher self-connection with brand give to lower brand
evaluation, it might be influenced by the enthusiasm to shield their own self rather than the
brand.
Consumers are able to create self-brand connections when they learn the fit/connection between
brand images and their self-concepts. By developing a self-brand association to that brand, they
are more likely to be the representatives for the city because once it becomes their personal
identity then its matter of their personal reputation then of the brand which boosts the advocacy
relationship with brand ultimately and in case of city branding it will help in more revenue
creation avenues from the tourist and visitor’s point of view. For example, Residents were
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engaged by Washington for their support in the State promotion (Kemp, Childers & Williams
2012).
City branding stance is being advocated in two rooted premise. The first states that the city’s
meaning is shaped in the minds of the people. Residents “meet” and comprehend cities the way
they accept their insights and by further handling of those perceptions into their comprehensible
view of the city. In common, individuals construct places and make sense in their thoughts
through these routes (e.g. Crang 1998; Holloway & Hubbard 2001).
Holloway & Hubbard (2001) refer to:
“…environmental knowledge is acquired through our interactions with, and movements between
different places. We carry mental representations or place images around ‘in our heads’ …what
is referred to as ‘mental maps’. These mental maps summarize each individual’s knowledge of
their surroundings in a way that is useful to them and the type of relationship they have with their
environment.”
The exercise is similar to the method of image creation of other things like long successfully
managed (as brands) products, services and organizations, This concludes that, in spirit, brand
associations with cities are created and evaluated by people just like associations of other brands
are evaluated by them. In other words, cities and brands are understood by people in the same
way. Services markets are projected to exist beside an identification continuum established upon
levels of consumer commitment and emotional association. We explain the influence of social
identification by concentrating on one service industry, the city branding, an business
characterized by especially high altitudes of identification concerning consumer i.e. resident and
market proposing (Underwood, Bond& Baer, 2001).
Attitudes toward branding approaches and opinions of brand quality can consist of Brand
associations (Low & Lamb, 2000). This connection becomes challenging to imitate for
competitors where users’ self-concepts are connected to a brand, a brand may be capable of
attaining a persistent advantage because of such association. Brand associations help consumers
to organize, process and recover facts in remembrance (Low & Lamb, 2000), it also helps buyers
to foster, build, and express their personalities (Aaker, 1991).
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Brand Advocacy and Self-Brand Connection
Self-brand connection according to Wallendorf & Arnould (1988) is used as a tool for satisfying
psychological needs, reinforcement of uniqueness and allowing the person to bond to others
Therefore, the idea that clients form a connection to a brand as they consume the product for
self-construction is significant to leaders in marketing. Satisfied consumers have more
probability of continuing using favored brands eventually as a means to preserving and
highlighting the desired self-identity (Dolich, 1969). Consumers may use brand associations like
brand commitment and brand trust to create self-brand connections if you trust a brand, you are
more probable to form a self-brand connection which ultimately leads to talk good about that
brand. This is what we are proposing in this research. Based on the above argument the study
propose the following hypothesis.
H5. Self-Brand connection has a significant positive effect on brand advocacy
2.3. Attitude towards Brand
Attitude toward the brand is an association that may be a pre associative point of self-brand
connection within the framework of destination branding. Community awareness may manifest
when citizens turn into believers for the brand when a self-brand connection occurs in city
branding efforts’ context. Prior studies have provided affirmative backing on the bond of city
brand attitudes and the opinion of its eminence of life (fulfillment and contentment).
Keller (1993) defined “brand associations” as “informational nodes connected to brand nodes in
memory that provide meaning”. It shapes there attitude towards the city branding efforts. The
basis of buyer’s intentions, as well as concrete action can be the Brand attitude and a consumer’s
assessments of a product. Consumers ‘attitudes towards a brand can reveal a facet of the meaning
they confer to the brand (Low & Lamb, 2000). Zeithaml (1988) proposer that these outlooks may
be interrelated to views about product-associated features and practical services of the brand.
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In comparison, attitudes are linked to opinions regarding non-product- associated characteristics
and representational assistances of the brand (Rossiter & Percy, 1987). Such attitudes help in
value expression by letting parties’ reveal their notions about self (Keller, 1993).
According to Tajfel (1974) People are innately driven to be identified with confident entities and
ideas to achieve positive uniqueness. Subsequently, clients may be more likely to bring into line
themselves with the brand when they have satisfactory attitudes toward a brand, (Virgo & de
Chernatony, 2006). Optimistic attitudes toward the city’s brand escalate the probability of such
connection evolving with a brand. In addition, Friedman and Miles (2002) suggest accept have
accepted the significance of constructing encouraging insights regarding a brand linked to a
terrestrial area.
A city’s branding management power and presents rational maps in an advantageous manner to
the city’s environment and prerequisites for economic and social advancement because branding
of a centers on the perceptions of people and imageries (Fitchett, 2005) brand associations are
used by Marketers to form encouraging attitudes toward brands as well as discriminate and place
them accordingly (Low & Lamb, 2000). Eventually, strong, positive, optimistic brand
associations might lead buyers to progress relations with the brands that best empower them to
express their concepts of self.
Looking at it from sociology perspective, it is a method of familiarizing direction and confidence
into what is in norm an unruly truth. As Mommaas (2002) enlightens “Seen in this way, brands
are not purely a source of differentiation but also of identification, continuity and collectivity”
Rainisto (2003) suggests that just like brands, cities tend to satiate symbolic, functional, emotive
needs and the traits that satiate those needs must be composed into the city’s inimitable scheme
(Ashworth & Voogd, 1990).
Miniard, Obermiller and Page (1983) suggest that Attitude toward any brand is an imperative
determining factor of buying behavior. Eagly & Chaiken (1993) have verified that this attitude
toward a brand stimulates the attitude towards the brand acquisition which powers the
consumer's inclination to make a transaction.
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For a thoughtful know-how of the inhabitant’s value of life, the paper attempts to form a
theoretical model in which two methodologies (emotional marketing involvements of food
related happenings in the city and using historical and cultural heritages) are assimilated to
quantify their effect on city brand propositions to check whether this leads to enhancements on
inhabitants’ insight of the quality of their life and to see in what way it supports them in forming
brand associations and to what degrees they are faithful to their city so they can spur city brand
advocacy. Based on the above argument the study proposes the following hypothesis.
H2. Attitude towards Branding has a positive and significant effect on brand advocacy
2.4.Brand uniqueness
According to Agarwal and Rao (1996) Brand individuality “is considered a core/primary
Customer Based Brand Equity facet” Uniqueness is known as “the degree to which customers
feels the brand is different from competing brands” — in what way it is dissimilar, comparative
to opponents. As stated by Hoyer and MacInnis (2001), humans build zealous relationships with
exclusive brands for sake of overcoming emotional state of self-distinction and association to the
circle. Lee and Ottati (1996) back that the theory of “social identity” along with “theory of
optimal distinctiveness” back the suppositions regarding the human longing for the need of
unique identity formation amongst their peers (Brewer, 1991). Possessions and brands may be
used to fulfill such psychological needs as keenly creating one’s self-concept, supporting and
expressing self-identity also letting one to differentiate oneself and proclaim one's sense of
individuality (Richins 1994). Baker and Cameron, (2008) further explain that Destination brands
endorse their differential image to consumers and residents, this differential point is constructed
on its unique and distinctive identity which in this case is the authentic food if Lahore, historical
landmarks of Mughal era and patriotic association with Lahore.
Brand’s uniqueness can be measured through their differentiating publicity claims and from first-
hand experience with a brand. Features shared with substitute choice of brands may annul each
other when encountered with a choice among brands because they offer petite analytical
information toward fondness (Dhar & Sherman, 1996). In difference, distinctive traits do offer
analytical evidence by distinguishing one brand from another brand (Tversky, 1972). Assumed,
that customers incline to be intellectual savers, the distinctive characteristics offer a streamlined
14
heuristic for picking out amongst substitutes. Carpenter et al. (1994) Latest evidence backs this
finding as exclusive facet of a brand affecting individuals’ preferences for a brand (Kalra &
Goodstein, 1998).
Customer's affection is better for brands that show a substantial part in influencing his identity as
per Consumer-brand relationships research (Fournier, 1998). Caroll and Ahuvia (2006) inspect
self- communicating brands which they tend to describe as products that individuals see as a
manner to complement their social identity or to reveal their innermost self. Perception of
uniqueness from a brand is caused by end user’s valuations of product offerings that differentiate
brands from others.). Distinctive features of brands may possibly sway consumer likings (Kalra
and Goodstein, 1998).
Brand uniqueness is frequently proved through publicizing statements also from earlier
understandings in brand usage (Netemeyer et al., 2004). Thomson, MacInnis and Park (2005)
also establish that a link between the strength of consumers’ urge for the brand and their
readiness to pay top monetary value for that brand occurs. Likewise, consumers seem further
prospective to participate in progressive word of mouth behavior when they see noteworthy
emotional connections (Dick & Basu, 1994). Moreover, consumers time and again take
uniqueness as outstanding worth and sophisticated quality (Netemeyer et al., 2004).
Literature of brand equity widely recognizes that the more a person associates worth to a brand
name more will be his willingness to even give good money for the product and to endorse it to
other people (Yoo, Donthu & Lee 2000, Keller, 2003). For cities, citizens every so often count
on the exceptional facets of their cities to focus points of supremacy above other towns. Themes
of uniqueness may comprise things like authentic foods (e.g., Chicago pizza, Indian chilli food
and Italian pasta) and even ingenious names (e.g., New York, as the “City that Never Sleeps”).
Consequently, views of distinctiveness may raise spirits of ownership and pride in the eyes of the
natives. In due course, these emotional states may perhaps influence citizens to become more
connected to their city’s brand (Vázquez, Belén del Rio & Iglesias, 2002). So it can be
hypothesized as:
H1. Brand uniqueness has a positive significant effect on Brand advocacy
15
2.5. Brand Trust
According to Aaker (1991) brand associations are more like thoughts linked in remembrance to a
brand. Buyers use these associations to construct connections to the brand. Conferring to
Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) “Trust is the disposition of the usual consumer to count on the
brand’s capacity to accomplish its identified purpose”. Dawar and Pillutla (2000) also label
brand trust in expressions of dependability and reliability. Other definitions of trust accentuate
the impression of dependence and reliance as decisive to trust.
Most of the consumer researchers agree on this that these affiliations add to the buyer’s logic of
self, and it may facilitate a person’s identity affiliations (Belk, Wallendorf & Sherry, 1989).
Using brand association city brand advocates can be produced which is the most effective way of
spurring the good word of mouth. In Internal branding strategies, the brand commitment among
all of a company’s internal stakeholders is encouraged and worked on (Burmann & Zeplin, 2005)
so as to make them real brand ambassadors. For example if you are not pleased with the place
you live in, you will not endorse it for living and, if likely, you might move to a different place.
Brand associations are those beliefs held by the consumer that the brand is honest, trustworthy,
and cares about its customers. Brand image stability is observed as the mark to which consumers
feel the brand has a rich legacy/history and a positive image.
The association of buyers with brands is comparatively complicated concept to actually capture
the fertility of the associations which can affirm brand relationships (Fournier, 1998). The
structure of consumer-brand bonds includes aspects of commitment and self-connection. Trust
fashions exchange relationships that are exceedingly valued so, Brand trust leads to brand
commitment. Highly valued relationships create a connection between brand and self which
reflects intensity of the trust residents have in their city representing themselves. Blackston
(1992) contemplates faith as an element of customers’ Relationships with brands.
Affective commitment is shown through a lasting inclination for one brand over others,
continuing the usage of the brand, endorsing the brand to peers, your circle, and reluctance to the
competing brands’ switching incentives (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996).
16
Branding attempts to form links with the city, those are emotional, rational and rational character
of promotion intrusions. This definitely does not imply that the practical and logical
characteristics are not imperative now. It indicates a variation of course in that the chosen brand
is what leads the publicizing actions on the city’s corporeal atmosphere.
In this paper we will study brand trust with regard to city branding and how trust helps as a brand
association for a stakeholder of the city. Scott (2011) and Smith (2001) consider trust as the vital
trait for a brand because brand trust signifies a strong relationship which can benefit the city’s
relationship with that of its residents. Shaw and MacLeod (2000) reflect that most of the
expressions of contemporary brand development use arguments related to individual relationship
such as trust. Consumers who construct their self-identities on the basis of brand associations
may be more forgiving of marketer blunders. They may also be more loyal and less likely to
switch to competitors’ brands in response to price cuts. As a result, the concept that consumer
creates a link to a brand as they use the brand’s associations for self-construction is essential to
branding leaders (Escalas & Bettman, 2003). Based on the above argument the study proposes
the following hypothesis.
H3. Brand Trust has a positive significant effect on brand advocacy
2.6. Perceived quality
Consumer’s assessment of quality can be influenced by numerous factors, which includes special
requirements, individual product experience, and consumption (Yoo et al., 2000). Customer’s
particular valuation about a produce’s general brilliance in position to competitive offerings is
known as Perceived quality (Aaker, 1991). High perceived quality persuades a buyer to pick a
brand over rival products (Netemeyer et al., 2004).
The notion of Perceived quality is even important than the quality itself though brand cannot
compromise on quality if they want to keep long term relationships with the customers but the
perception of quality attracts a customer at first. Numerous consumer theories offer foundation
for depicting associations between price premium and other Customer based brand equity facets.
17
Rendering to memory theory, once information is stored, an associative network forms that links
the associations in certain way (Alba et al., 1990). Quality judgments may be inferred via direct
experience with a brand, and judgments from direct experience are considered more strong and
are more effortlessly ‘‘accessed and retrieved’’ from memory (Fazio and Zanna, 1981).
Consistent with expectancy value theory, Keller (1993) also theorizes that brand associations are
at different levels of abstraction where brand attributes, benefits, and an overall affective brand
attitude represent the levels hierarchically
Status and prestige constitute as an important icon of a person's social upright (Eisenstaedt,
1968). Girard (2010) says that in social judgment the figurative thing is not so much as an image
of a consumer's aspiration for this extraordinary good as it is the yearning for group
acknowledgment. Customers incline to narrate the repute of a brand to the individual personality
in order to escalate their self-assurance (Bizman & Yinon, 2002). The “theory of social identity
“and self-esteem theory back these contemplations (Eastman, Goldsmith & Flynn, 1999)
With respect to city branding, the supposed quality of a brand name can integrate inhabitants’
opinions that branding struggles instill what is accurately an optimistic aspect of a place. For
instance, if New Yorkers come across the “I Love New York” catchphrase on products, they
connect this with happiness and pride for the city. If the citizens remain persuaded that the
branding determinations make known fundamental capability of their town, this may perhaps
encourage people to initiate to align themselves with a brand name that is respected and
represents quality.
As stated earlier, brand associations can perform in aiding some consumers’ concept, foster and
communicate their identities. Once they fit together with the brand, and sense that this brand
personifies who they are and now they are expected to spread encouraging valuations about the
brand to public and social groups. Consequently, it is anticipated in city branding, a self-brand
connection will mediate the relations between brand advocacy and city brand associations.
H4. Perceived quality has a positive effect on self-brand connection.
18
Self-Brand Connection as a mediator:
Self-brand connection is anticipated to mediate the influences of Brand Trust, Perceived
uniqueness, Attitude towards branding and perceived quality on Brand Advocacy. The
associative network memory theory (Keller, 1993) lends support to the proposed mediation.
People are driven to craft a good impression to gain social approval and to project a positive self-
image, even to oneself (Schlenker, 1980). Social psychological inquiries have acknowledged
some practices for impression management: complying with social norms, self-promotion and
projecting consistency between beliefs and their behaviour (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). The sense
and value of a brand is not just its capacity to express one’s self, but its role in assisting
consumers build their self-identities by forming connections to brands (McCracken, 1989). To
project consistency between their beliefs and behaviours consumers like to flaunt and talk about
their lifestyle including the brands they associate themselves with, cities they live in their
association with their native city. Based on the above argument the study proposes the following
hypothesis.
H6. Self-brand connection mediates the relationship between brand uniqueness and brand
advocacy
H7. Self-brand connection mediates the relationship between attitude towards branding and
brand advocacy.
H8. Self-brand connection mediates the relationship between brand trust and brand advocacy.
H9. Self-brand connection mediates the relationship between perceived uniqueness and brand
advocacy.
19
Conclusion
In the light of the above literature, branding techniques can be applied on city branding and
social behaviors can determine whether residents will participate to advocate for their city and
realize the connection between them and the city they live, this connection can strengthen and
weaken the advocacy of the citizens depending on the social benefits they will get as their city
ambassadors. Social benefits are the consumer’s perception of personal and special recognition
by their brand (Grégoire et al., 2009).
Therefore, place marketing is about evolving a place that fits the needs and wants of inhabitants,
tourists, and investors. Marketing is about responsiveness more than persuading, even though
persuasion is a vital part of place marketing. The hint behind the wider marketing approach is
that promotion is much more effective if it is directed at what stakeholders want. At this point,
marketing is about not only sending messages but also receiving messages.
20
Summary of Hypothesis
H1:
Brand uniqueness has a positive relationship Brand advocacy
H2: Attitude towards Branding and Brand advocacy are Positively associated
H3 Brand Trust and Brand advocacy are positively associated
H4: Perceived quality and self-brand connection have a Positive relationship.
H5: Self-Brand connection is positively associated With Brand advocacy.
H6: Self-brand connection will mediate the association between brand uniqueness and
brand advocacy
H7: Self-brand connection will mediate the relationship between attitude towards
branding and brand advocacy.
H8: Self-brand connection will mediate the link between brand trust and brand
advocacy.
H9: Self-brand connection will mediate the association between perceived uniqueness
and brand advocacy.
21
2.7. Research Model
City Branding of Lahore: Participatory Place Branding
Attitude
towards Branding
Brand Trust
Self-brand
connection
Brand Advocacy
Brand
uniqueness
Perceived
quality
22
CHAPTER 3
Methodology and Research Design
3.1. Type of Study and Type of Investigation:
Quantitative research generally involves gathering and adapting data into arithmetical procedure
so that empirical calculations can be made and deductions are drawn which makes it a reliable
and authentic research approach. In this paper Quantitative research approach will be adopted.
This will be an objective study starting from hypothesis formation making it hypothetico -
deductive method. The method usually includes that theories are speculations projected to
describe a set of observable data. These premises, nonetheless, cannot be conclusively
recognized until the consequences that rationally follow from them are tested through other sets
of data.
3.2. Time Horizon:
The data collection was done in one time which makes it cross sectional study.
3.3. Study settings and level of interference:
The study would be a field study conducted in a non-contrived environment without disturbing
the flow of work so there is minimal level of interference.
3.4.Unit of Analysis:
The unit of analysis was individuals of Lahore Who have been living or lived in Lahore for some
years
3.5. Research Instrument:
The study would use a questionnaire for the measurement of different constructs. Scale for
measuring Brand Advocacy modified and the author is Kim, Han & Park (2001). It contains 03
items i.e. “I recommend to other people they would support Lahore’s food and related events”
etc. Scale on “Self-brand connection”, adjusted from the scale introduced by (Escalas &
Bettman, 2003). It has 07 items i.e. “Lahore reflects who I am”. For the measurement of Brand
Trust scales developed by, a 4 item scale by Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) was used. Brand
Uniqueness was measure using scale modified from Netemeyer et al. (2004) i.e. “Lahore’s
23
branding efforts are different from other cities” and Scale of Perceived quality is modified from
Dodds, Monroe & Grewal (1991) with 03 items i.e. “Lahore festivals / events are of high
quality”. All modified items were measured on a likert scale of 5 points.
Construct Author No of items
“Brand Advocacy” Kim et al. (2001) 3 items
“Self-Brand Connection” Escalas and Bettman (2003) 7 items
“Brand Trust” Chaudhuri and Holbrook
(2001)
4 items
“Attitude towards Branding” Kemp, childers & Williams
(2012)
4 items
“Perceived quality” Dodds et al. (1991) 3 items
“Brand uniqueness” Netemeyer et al. (2004) 4 items
24
3.6. The Sampling Technique:
The judgment sampling technique is being used because it has been observed and seen that
among all cities of Pakistan Lahore is mainly known for its food and heritage sites.
3.7. The Population and Sample:
The population of the study is residents of Lahore and the sample was Lahore residents. The
population of Lahore is more than 7 million according to statistical bureau of Pakistan
3.8. Statistical Analysis:
For statistical analysis of hypothesized statements, SPSS would be executed on the data being
collected.
A letter describing the scope and aim of the research assuring the respondents of firm secrecy
and that their input in the research is on volunteer basis. 550 surveys were distributed and 290 is
the number of surveys we received for the research processing.
The reason why we have chosen the city of Lahore for this study is because of its Lahori cuisine
for which Lahore is famous and historical landscapes. With 200 archaeological sites and historic
places Lahore is not only an ancient city with but the hub of art and culture in the country.
Every corner and junction of old Lahore is full of history and everlasting charm that attracts
thousands of tourists locally and internationally.
The second aspect of Lahore that we are incorporating is its Food. Lahori cuisine is food of the
great city of Lahore, Pakistan. This city has not only exceptionally rich food culture but Folks
from this city are well-known all over the nation for their affection for food. Mouthwatering food
of Lahore has attained good reputation lately, in the world, because of its appetizingly diverse
taste, mainly through the Pakistani diaspora. Though there are many other aspects which we
could use to brand Lahore but these two are the main ones which were used to brand the city in
this paper because of their relevance with our model.
25
3.9. Table Demographical Frequencies
Demographics Frequency Percentage Valid
Percentage
Cumulative
Percentage
Gender
Male
Female
97
193
290
33.4
66.6
100.0
33.4
66.6
100.0
33.4
100
Age
18 - 25
26 - 33
34 - 41
42 and above
250
37
2
1
290.0
86.2
12.8
.7
.3
100.0
86.2
12.8
.7
.3
100.0
86.2
99.0
.7
100.0
Education
Metric
Intermediate
Bachelors
Masters
MS/M.Phil
Ph.d
7
66
115
30
69
3
290
2.4
22.8
39.7
10.3
23.8
1.0
100.0
2.4
22.8
39.7
10.3
23.8
1.0
100.0
2.4
25.2
64.8
75.2
99.0
23.0
26
Measures
The constructs in this research were empirically tested using both prevailing and modified scales.
Specifics concerning the measures used are attached with in the Appendix. “Attitude toward the
brand” was a global scale which tested citizens’ overall valuation of Lahore’s cultural and food
branding efforts. “Uniqueness of the brand” (Netemeyer et al., 2004), “Perceived quality”
(Dodds et al., 1991), “Brand Trust” (Chaudhuri and Holbrook, 2001), “brand advocacy” (Kim et
al., 2001) and “Self-brand connection” (Escalas &Bettman, 2003) were adapted from formerly
already established scales.
27
Table Instruments and Reliability
Construct No of items Cronbach’s Alpha
BU 5 items .73
ATB 4 items .70
BT 5 items .74
PQ 3 items .69
SBC 7 items .89
BA
3 items .72
28
3.11. Data Analysis Tools and Techniques:
Once data has been collected, data analysis software SPSS was used where data tests were run to
examine various statistical tests and to investigate the correlation and regression. A statical test
“Reliability test” was executed to calculate the cronbach’s alpha for the understudied variables to
make sure that each demonstrated internal consistency. All measures showed satisfactory
reliability by surpassing the commended 0.7 threshold (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994) except for
one scale which has 3 items. Reliability if less than .7 can be acceptable keeping in mind the
lesser number of items in a scale (Loewenthal ,1997).
Descriptive test revealed the central tendency and variance of the data by reporting various
demographical and variable frequencies. Correlation analysis explored the degree of
interconnectedness between independent and dependent variable whereas to examine the way
independent variables influence or cause changes in dependent variable regression analysis was
performed and mediation was test by using Preacher and Hayes method. Macro Model 4 was
used keeping simple mediation method i.e. single mediator.
29
Chapter 4
Results and Discussions
4.1. Results
The current study examined the relationship of Brand associations with Brand advocacy and
mediating role of Self-Brand Connection. Following are the detailed result generated through
data analysis for this study.
4.2. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive studies are calculated to present sample characteristics in a brief yet comprehensive
way. These studies include sample, size, its minimum and maximum values along with mean and
standard deviation. The following table 4.2 presents the sample characteristics of the current
study.
30
Table 4.1.
Descriptive Statistics
Variables Number Min Max M(Mean) (S.D) Standard Deviation
BU 290 1.50 4.75 3.70 .600
ATB 290 1.67 5.00 3.72 .590
BT 290 1.00 4.80 3.32 .526
PQ 290 2.00 5.00 3.62 .681
SBC 290 1.00 4.71 3.48 .708
BA 290 1.67 5.00 3.71 .723
Valid N 290
Table 4.2 reveals the minimum and maximum values of variables along with their mean values
and standard deviation. The first two columns contain variable names and sample size
respectively whereas the rest of the four columns show the values of Mean, minimum value,
maximum value and standard deviation respectively. Smaller the value of standard deviation,
means lesser is the variance from the mean value for the group.
31
4.3. Correlation Analysis
Table 4.2
Correlation
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. BU
1
2. ATB .278**
1
3. BT .470**
.377**
1
4. PQ .496**
.280**
.541**
1
5. SBC .423**
.407**
.530**
.413**
1
6. BA .472**
.253**
.502**
.566**
.347**
1
(n=290, (2 tailed)) *P<.05. **P<.001.
32
The objective of conducting correlation analysis is to denote the association amongst variables.
There are three types of correlation that exists between variables: weak to moderate, moderate
and moderate to strong. Strong i.e. any value above .8 is a case of multi collineraity. Any
variable if correlated with its own self shows the value of 1.
In this study, brand uniqueness is positively and significantly correlated with Attitude towards
Branding ( r = 0.278**, p = 0.00) , Brand Trust ( r = 470**, p = 0.01), Perceived uniqueness ( r
= 496** and significance i.e. p = 0.00), self-Brand Connection has ( r = .423** and significance
p = 0.00) and Brand advocacy (r = .472** and the value of significance is p = 0.00). Correlation
of Attitude towards branding is positive and significant with Brand Trust (r=.377**and
significance is 0.00), the value of Perceived quality is (r = .280** and p = 0.01), self-brand
connection has (r = 207**, p < 0.05) and brand advocacy (r = 253**, p < 0.05). Brand Trust is
also significantly and positively correlated with perceived quality (r= .541**, p < 0.05), self-
brand connection (r= 530**, p < 0.05), Brand advocacy (r= 502**, p < 0.05). The correlation
between perceived quality and self-brand connection (r = .413**, p < 0.05) and Brand advocacy
(r = .566**) and p is less than 0.05i.e. the relation is positive and significant in nature. Self-brand
connection is significantly correlated with Brand advocacy (r = .347, p < 0.05).
Collinearity is tested when there are two or more than 2 independent variables in a study and it
reveals whether two or more independent variables are interrelated and may produce redundant
and false results. Multi collinearity of the variables was also tested and no collinearity between
the various independent variables was found.
33
Table 4.3.
Collinearity Statistics
*Coefficientsa
Model Collinearity Statistics
Tolerance VIF
Brand Uniqueness .690 1.450
Attitude Towards Branding
.842 1.188
Brand Trust
.614 1.629
Perceived Quality
.630
1.587
a. Dependent Variable: BA_Mean
In multi-collinearity test, VIF or Variance Inflated Factor shows that how much variance is
inflated. VIF score at 4 requires further examination and value up to 10 means that there is a
serious collinearity among various dependent variables. As per the table given above, variance is
not inflated and there is no correlation among numerous predictors in this study.
34
4.5. Regression Analysis Table 4.5 shows beta and R square values calculated through
regression analysis
Regression Analysis
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
* p = < 0.5, ** p = < 0.01
Predictors BA
Β
Step1
Control Variables .027
Step 2
Brand Uniqueness .182**
Attitude Towards Branding .020
Brand Trust .219**
Perceived Quality .344**
35
4.6. Mediation Analysis
This study examines the mediation role of self-brand connection on the relationship between
Brand Trust, Perceived uniqueness, Attitude towards branding and perceived quality with Brand
advocacy. For this purpose the study used hayes method of mediation and macros model 4 was
used.
36
Table 4.5.1.
Self-Brand connection as mediates Brand uniqueness and Brand advocacy
Variable B SE T P
BU SBC .4995** .0630 7.9241 .0000
SBC BA .1828* .0576 3.1726 .0017
BU SBC BA .5694 ** .0626 9.0938 .0000
BU BA .4781** .0680 7.0262 .0000
Lower Level 95% Upper Level 95%
Confidence Interval Confidence Interval
Bootstrap Outcomes for Indirect effect .0343 .1784
Bootstrap sample size 1000.
Direct and Indirect Effect of SBC on relationship between BU and BA
Structural Path Direct Indirect Total Significance
Effect Effect Effect
BU BA .4781 .0000
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- .5694 -----------------------
BU SBC BA .0913
The mediation variable for the current study is Self-Brand Connection and mediation was tested
using preacher’s bootstrapping. According to preacher and Hayes (2008), there exists mediation
where an antecedent or independent variable influences the outcome or dependent variable
through at least one mediating variable. For the present study, simple mediation model was
tested because there is only one mediator and macro process model 4 was used to get mediation
results.
37
As per the table given above, path A shows that Brand Uniqueness has a significantly positive
connection with Self Brand connection B = .4995** and t = 7.9421.The mediating variable,
“Self Brand connection” also has a positive and significant association with dependent variable
Brand advocacy. So Beta value of Path B is B=.1828* and t = 3.1726. The third path which is C
path and also known as Total effect between Independent, mediating and dependent variable
shows the Beta value of B = .5694** and t = 9.0938. The forth path which is C’ path shows the
direct effect between Brand Uniqueness and Brand advocacy, it’s B = .4781** and t=7.0262
which clearly shows the decrease in Beta value from Total effect which mean “Self Brand
Connection” mediates the link between Brand uniqueness and Brand advocacy accepting the
Hypothesis. Whereas the Bootstrap results for indirect effect has the lower limit of .0343 and
upper limit of .1784.
38
Table 4.5.2.
Self-Brand connection as mediator in the relationship between Attitude
towards Branding and Brand advocacy
Variable B SE T P
ATB SBC .4882** .0647 7.5514 .0000
SBC BA .2985** .0613 4.8662 .0000
ATB SBC BA .3101** .0699 4.4357 .0000
ATB BA .1644 .0737 2.2309 .0265
Lower Limit 95% CI Upper Limit 95% CI
Bootstrap Outcomes for Indirect effect .0928 .2285
Bootstrap sample size 1000. CI= confidence interval
Direct and Indirect Effect of SBC on relationship between ATB and BA
Structural Path Direct Indirect Total Significance
Effect Effect Effect
ATB BA .1644 .0265
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .3101 --------------------------------
ATB SBC BA .1457
______________________________________________________________________________
39
As per the table given above, path A shows that Attitude towards Branding has a significantly
positive relationship with Self Brand connection B = .4882** and t = 7.551.The mediating
variable, Self- Brand connection also has a positive and significant connection with dependent
variable Brand advocacy. So Beta value of Path B is B=.1828** and t = 3.1726. The third path
which is C path and also known as Total effect between Independent, mediating and dependent
variable shows the Beta value of B = .3101** and t = 4.4357 .
The forth path which is C’ path shows the direct effect between Attitude towards branding and
Brand advocacy, it’s B = .1644* and t= 2.2309 which clearly shows the decrease in Beta value
from Total effect which mean Self Brand Connection mediates the relationship between Attitude
towards Branding and Brand advocacy accepting the Hypothesis. Whereas Bootstrap results for
indirect effect has the lower limit of .0928 and upper limit of .2285.
40
Table 4.5.3.
Self-Brand connection mediates between Brand Trust and Brand advocacy
Variable B SE T P
BT SBC .7131** .0672 10.6079 .0000
SBC BA .1146 .0611 1.8764 .0616
BT SBC BA .6897** .0700 9.8514 .0000
BT BA .6079** .0822 7.3956 .0000
Lower Limit 95% CI Upper Limit 95% CI
Bootstrap Outcomes for Indirect effect .0005 .1702
Bootstrap sample size 1000, CI= confidence interval
Direct and Indirect Effect of SBC on relationship between BT and BA
Structural Path Direct Indirect Total Significance
Effect Effect Effect
BT BA .6079 .0000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .6897 ---------------------------------
BT SBC BA .0818
41
As per the table given above, path A shows that Brand Trust has a significant association with
Self-Brand connection B = .7131** and t =10.6079 .The mediating variable, Self-Brand
connection also has a positive and significant association with dependent variable Brand
advocacy. So Beta value of Path B is B=.1146 and t = 1.8764. The third path which is C path and
also known as Total effect between Independent, mediating and dependent variable shows the
Beta value of B = .6897 ** and t =9.8514 .
The forth path which is C’ path shows the direct effect between Brand Trust and Brand
advocacy, it’s B = .6079* and t= 7.3956 which clearly shows the decrease in Beta value from
Total effect which mean Self-Brand Connection mediates the link between Brand Trust and
Brand advocacy accepting the Hypothesis. Whereas, Bootstrap results for indirect effect has the
lower limit of .0005 and upper limit of .1702.
42
Table 4.5.4.
Self-Brand connection mediates connection between Perceived quality and
Brand advocacy
Variable B SE T P
PQ SBC .4294** .0559 7.6855 .0000
SBC BA .1396 .0539 2.5880 .0101
PQ SBC BA .6013 ** .0516 11.6451 .0000
PQ BA .5413** .0561 9.6448 .0000
Lower Limit ( 95%CI) Upper Limit(95%CI)
Bootstrap Outcome for Indirect effect .0162 .1187
Bootstrap sample size 1000 , CI= confidence interval
Direct and Indirect Effect of SBC on relationship between PQ and BA
Structural Path Direct Indirect Total Significance
Effect Effect Effect
PQ BA .5413 .0000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .6013 --------------------------------
PQ SBC BA .0599
43
As per the table given above, path A shows that perceived quality has significant relationship
with Self Brand connection B = .4294** and t =7.6855. The mediating variable, Self-Brand
connection also has a positive and significant association with dependent variable Brand
advocacy. So Beta value of Path B is B=.1396* and t = 2.5880. The third path which is C path
and also known as Total effect between Independent, mediating and dependent variable shows
the Beta value of B = .6013** and t =11.6451 .
The forth path which is C’ path shows the direct effect between perceived quality and Brand
advocacy, it’s B = .5413** and t= 9.6448 which clearly shows the decrease in Beta value from
Total effect which mean Self-Brand Connection fully mediates the relationship between
perceived quality and Brand advocacy accepting the Hypothesis. Whereas Bootstrap results for
indirect effect has the lower limit of .0162 and upper limit of .1187.
44
Table 4.6
Summary of Hypothesis (Accepted/ Rejected)
H1:
Brand uniqueness have a positive relationship Accepted
Brand advocacy .
H2: Attitude towards Branding and Brand advocacy are Rejected
Positively associated
H3 Brand Trust and Brand advocacy are positively associated Accepted
H4: Perceived quality and self-brand connection have a Accepted
Positive relationship.
H5: Self-Brand connection is positively associated Rejected
With Brand advocacy.
H6: Self-brand connection will mediate the association Accepted
between brand uniqueness and brand advocacy
H7: Self-brand connection will mediate the relationship Accepted
between attitude towards branding and brand advocacy.
H8: Self-brand connection will mediate the link between Accepted
brand trust and brand advocacy.
H9: Self-brand connection will mediate the association between Accepted
Perceived uniqueness and brand advocacy.
45
Chapter 5
Discussion
5.1. Discussion:
Current study was conducted to compute Brand associations of place branding. The construct of
Brand advocacy had been widely studies in Branding of products and services in Branding
literature however this study takes one step further and attempts to study in Place branding or
destination branding. The literature of city branding highlights the prominence of brand building,
with a stress on accomplishing distinction and good positioning. Still, a vital fragment of
building an effective strategy for a city brand is investigating the requirements of core
participants (Kemp, Williams and Bordelon, 2011).
This study explores the impression of the marketing of a city’s brand has on key stakeholders,
specially its people. It pursues to report how branding association like Brand Trust, Brand
uniqueness and perceived quality of the city’s branding efforts eventually turn citizens into
committed citizens to their destination’s branding efforts. Not only being devoted to the city but
it’s also becomes aligned to their self-connect and how they feel a connection with the city, its
cultures and the things it is famous for, moreover becoming the unbiased third party word of
mouth generating brand advocates.
As supported in the H1 the brand uniqueness has a significant relationship with Brand advocacy
which means that people are most likely to associate themselves with branding characteristics
which are unique and by advocating for this brand they are most likely to appear good and
unique by talking about that brand. H2 predicted that Attitude towards branding would be
certainly related to brand advocacy; nonetheless, results did not produce a positive and
substantial association of attitude toward the brand and Brand advocacy. The nonexistence of
impact in this relationship might be because of the social reasons that people believe their city
branding efforts are not as they would like it to be keeping in mind their culture and traditions,
also not to forget the doubts in city governance regarding investment on their city’s branding
efforts only to promote their personal or political agendas. Eshuis, Braun & Klijn (2012) state
46
that due to the different number of actors in place branding, there may be difference in views
about the policies and schemes of place branding campaigns. This might bring differences
between municipal and private performers, then again several public departments also frequently
have contradicting interests and hence, they might approve of different solutions. Administration
institutions are themselves disjointed, as abundance of the studies on governance highlights
(Atkinson & Coleman 1992).
As per H3 being accepted it means that specifically, when residents learn to trust a brand, a
reliable self-brand connection may be revealed once the brand transforms with the person’s self-
concept. Furthermore, citizens who trust their destination brand are eager to speak about their
constructive experiences via Brand advocacy. Listening to positive experiences of people
regarding use of a brand, traveling to a certain city may have more impact than any other way. It
is more direct and unbiased way of communication the positive attributes of your brands via your
own customers.
As per H4, if quality perception of brand is good, people will have more promising attitudes
toward that particularly brand. When people consider that the branding strategies of his/her city
truthfully seize the positive elements of the city, they have satisfactory feelings for the city’s
branding effort. Campaigns to inspire local residents to become “tourists” in their own cities
have grown in latest years (Walker, 2003). Additionally, individuals that have made strong
connections with their towns and are closely tied to where they live, their probability to leave is
rather less, and more motivated to live in the city and add to its growth and well-being.
As per H6, H7, H8 and H9 fully support that Self-Brand connection has an intervening relation
amid Brand uniqueness and brand advocacy, Attitude towards branding and brand advocacy,
Brand trust and brand advocacy, perceived quality and brand advocacy respectively. Self -Brand
connection showed difference in beta values of direct path and indirect path which means the
“self-brand connection” effects the variation in brand trust, brand uniqueness, attitude towards
branding and perceived quality towards brand advocacy.
Impact of place branding on social groups’ judgments may include complicated networks of
links, as well as intricate relationships between impactful perceptions and the act of those
clusters which definitely makes this task more difficult. Nonetheless, professionals of branding
47
should ideally be able to make assessments on the foundation of their professional familiarity of
branding and marketing, measurements of observations, and outward behaviors of the groups.
48
Chapter 6
Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1. Conclusion
This study is one of the early investigations of the Branding efforts of city in Pakistan. Such
studies have been done on big cities like New York, Amsterdam, Austin and Las Vegas but
developing countries need to work on Branding efforts to increase the number of tourists and
visitors, also to get a good image of the city or region. Good branding efforts play a vibrant role
in re-vamping the image of that region.
This study particularly studied the role and participations of residents in branding a city keeping
in view the brand associations which make an individual to speak for his/her city. This area yet
needs more work and development especially in developing countries where tourist and visitors
are not aware of the city’s unique traits. Destinations needs competition with each other for a
place in the deliberated set of their targeted visitors and their perceptions of a destination might
have a huge impression on their decision processes (Tasci and Kozak, 2006).
Keeping in mind the hypothesis city brand managers should increase brand associations by
highlighting the important and historical building that truly represent the essence and history of
the city. Historical buildings and heritage sights are very influential in branding process of a city.
Food and culture festivals should be celebrated religiously to make sure citizens do not lose
touch of their connection with the city. Proper branding of these festivals along with creation of
logos, catchy phrases and slogans should be made to penetrate in the target market to create
positive and strong images of the city brand. For example, national and patriotic events at Minar
e Pakistan would hold a very sacred place in the eyes of the resident because of its significance
for the nation.
Stakeholder involvement is considered important in the brand building process. This study
demonstrates that marketing and branding campaigns can craft positive attitudes in residents
toward a destination’s brand and successively lead to residents that are loyal to the branding
efforts of a target city. When residents think through the costs and benefits of tourism progress,
49
the probability is that they will support the tourism industry when they feel involved in the
interchange or advantages from the development. Moreover, tourism can create the demand for
cultural, ethnic and folk activities, creating venues, and other conveniences that might develop
residents’ quality of life.
50
Managerial Implications
Destination management organization should design marketing programs with residents in mind
to ensure their support and engagement. It should be guaranteed that a projected brand has
unique qualities and is a true representation of residents’ view of their city
After establishing the brand, it should be ensure that residents are aware of the branding initiative
and targeted promotions will help in strengthening the relationship with the city brand and its
residents. Furthermore special discounts and premiums for residents to take part in activities that
are demonstrative of the branding efforts of the city improve residents’ opinions of the brand
(Kemp, Williams& Bordelon, 2012).
Research Implications and Recommendations for Future Research
Diving deeper into the study of essentials that lead citizens to sense support for the development
of tourism is significant for hospitality and tourism stakeholders, as well as for the extended
hosting community, plus native administration and commerce. Support on local level can assist
in the development and growth of tourism (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004). Keeping in mind the
factors that will turn the citizens into brand advocates for the city can prove to be an effective
way to promote city branding efforts and it will ensure less obstacles and more smooth
campaigns ,resulting in improved branding and improved relationship between all key
stakeholders.
For further research Brand personality can be studied to pursue the self -brand connection studies
by studying human personality and its impact on Brand advocacy for the city. According to
Aaker ( 1997) cities have personalities and they are personified as their personalities are used in
branding efforts. It can be studied that whether or not Brand personalities of humans and cities
have a relationship and support participatory branding.
51
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Dear Respondent,
My name is Ayesha Ahmad. As a MS research scholar at Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad,
I am collecting data for my research paper. Title: City Branding of Lahore: Participatory Branding. It will take
your 10-15 minutes to answer the questions and to provide the valuable information. Data will be kept confidential
and will only be used for academic purpose. To ensure anonymity, you are not supposed to write your name or name
of organization anywhere in the questionnaire.
Thank you for your help and support!
Sincerely,
Ayesha Ahmad
MS (MKT) Research Scholar
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences
Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad
Section 1:
Gender
Age
Qualification
1 2
Male Female
1 2 3 4 5
18 - 25 26 - 33 34 - 41 42 - 49 50 and above
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Metric Inter Bachelor Master MS/M.Phil. PhD Post PhD
61
Section: 2
For each item of the statements below, please indicate the extent of your agreement & disagreement by ticking the
appropriate number.
1. Lahore reflects who I am.
2. I can identify myself with Lahore’s branding.
3. I feel a personal connection to Lahore.
4. I can use Lahore’s branding to communicate who I am to other people.
5. I think Lahore’s branding helps me become the type of person I want to be . . .
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
62
6. I consider Lahore’s branding to be “me” (it reflects who I consider myself to be or the way that I want to
present myself to others (not “me”/”me”).
7. Lahore’s branding efforts suit me well
Section: 3
For each item of the statements below, please indicate the extent of your agreement & disagreement by ticking the
appropriate number. 1-Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree 3- neutral 4- Agree 5- Strongly agree
1. Lahore’s branding efforts are different from other cities.
2. Lahore’s brand is unique in comparison to other cities.
3. Lahore’s brand stands out from other cities.
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
63
4 Lahore’s branding efforts are distinct from that of other cities.
Section: 4
For each item of the statements below, please answer part (a) first then indicate the extent of your agreement &
disagreement by ticking the appropriate number. 1-Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree 3- neutral 4- Agree 5-
Strongly agree
(a) My overall attitude toward Lahore’s city branding efforts is:
(b) My overall attitude toward Lahore’s city branding efforts is
(c) My overall attitude toward Lahore’s city branding efforts is
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Very Bad Bad Neutral Good Very Good
1. 2 3 4 5
Highly Un Favorable Un favorable Neutral Favorable Highly Favorable
1. 2 3 4 5
Highly Unpleasant Unpleasant Neutral Pleasant Highly Pleasant
64
Section: 5
For each item of the statements below, please indicate the extent of your agreement & disagreement by ticking the
appropriate number. 1-Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree 3- neutral 4- Agree 5- Strongly agree
1. I trust Lahore as a city brand.
2. I rely on Lahore as a city brand.
3. Lahore is an honest city brand.
4. I do not rely on Lahore as a city brand.
5. Lahore as a city brand is safe.
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
65
Section: 6
For each item of the statements below, please indicate the extent of your agreement & disagreement by ticking the
appropriate number. 1-Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree 3- neutral 4- Agree 5- Strongly agree
1. Lahore festivals / events are of high quality.
2. The quality of Lahore as a brand is extremely high.
3. Lahore branding efforts are of really good nature.
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
66
Section: 7
For each item of the statements below, please indicate the extent of your agreement & disagreement by ticking the
appropriate number. 1-Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree 3- neutral 4- Agree 5- Strongly agree
1. I recommend to other people they would support Lahore as a brand.
2. I talk directly to other people about my experience with Lahore and its branding.
3. I suggest to others that they should go to Lahore/visit Lahore.
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1. 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree