circumstancial evidence - pil

8/12/2019 Circumstancial Evidence - PIL

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EVIDENCE

INTERNATIONAL LAW

INTRODUCTION

Generally, the rules of evidence in international law comprise rules which have usuallyeither been accepted as parties, which vary from case-to-case or, if such explicitagreements are absent, the rules which have been adopted and applied in practice byinternational tribunals. [1]

The International Court of Justice [2] has the competence to establish the existence of afact, which, if ascertained and proved, will constitute a breach of an internationalobligation. [3] The judges in the Nicaragua case, said, defining the scope of thedecisions of the Court, that in dealing with questions of evidence, the Court proceedsupon the basis that its decision will be based upon the facts occurring up to the close ofthe oral proceed ings on the merits of the case. [4] Additionally, it was declared that theCourt is bound to confine its decision to the points of law which are absolutely essentialto the settlement of the disputes before it. [5] To enable the court to give an informeddecision, Article 48 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice [6] provides thatthe Court shall make all arrangements connected with the taking of evidence. [7] Ahost of other general provisions, in both the Statute and the Rules of theCourt [8] enable the Court to admit and evaluate evidence with a freedom unknown tocourts in domestic jurisdictions, but it is pertinent to note that these documents deal withevidence in only superficial terms. Consequently, it has been left to the Court itself todetermine the procedure for evidence based on the unique facts of each case, andvarious decisions of the Court have established principles governing the burden andstandard of proof, admissibility of evidence, etc.

This paper shall begin with the decision of the Court in the Corfu ChannelCase, [9] which laid the groundwork for circumstantial and secret evidence-relatedprocedure. The scope of the paper shall be limited to a discussion of the rules ofevidence that govern the International Court of Justice, as Corfu Channel was adecision of this Court. The evolution of these rules shall be outlined through an analysisof precedents, which interpret the general provisions in the Statute and Rules in avariety of remarkable ways. To render an extensive analysis possible, and due to theconstraint on the number of words, the arguments regarding only admissibility, burdenof proof and standard of proof are addressed.
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ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE

There are no particular rules binding the Court and parties when it comes to evidence,and the Court has not assumed a hierarchy of evidence or preferred one form ofevidence over another. [15 ] The Court may call for evidence at any time [16 ] and hasabsolute freedom in estimating the value of evidence. Yet, it is apparent that thecontinental legal system has been adhered to, as written evidence is more commonthan oral evidence, but the use of oral testimonies of experts and witnesses is alsomandated in the Statute and Rules of the Court. [17 ] Affidavits and sworn statementshave also been admitted. [18 ] Additionally, certain provisions of the Rules governwritten evidence. Article 50(1) of the Rules requires that certified copies of any relevantdocuments adduced in support of the contentions claimed in the pleading be attachedto the pleading submitted to the Court. Moreover, as will be elaborated uponsubsequently, Article 56 necessitates the consent of the court or the other party in orderto adduce further documentary proof. Technical resources, like films, photographs andmodels may also be admitted and taken recourse to for determining facts by theCourt. [19 ] The Court has felt able to take judicial notice of facts which are publicknowledge, primarily through media dissemination, provided that caution was shownand that the reports did not emanate from a single source. [20 ]

Akin to all jurisdictions, evidence may be admitted not to prove a fact, but to corroboratethe existence of a fact, as was done in the Nicaragua case, in which press articles andrelevant excerpts from books were admitted. [21 ]

As has been mentioned earlier, Court procedure is liberal in nature, and the generaltendency of the Court is to admit evidence rather than declare it inadmissible, [22 ] butthere are certain circumstances in which the Court has declared, or is bound to declare,evidence inadmissible. Article 56 of the Rules declares that no further document may besubmitted as evidence without the consent of the other party, after the writtenproceedings have concluded, [23 ] unless the Court, deeming it necessary, directs itsproduction. [24 ] If such evidence is admitted, the other party is given the opportunity tocomment on it and provide counter-documents. [25 ] Otherwise, the document inquestion shall not be referred to in proceedings and is deemedinadmissible. [26 ] Therefore, the procedural framework of the Court and decisionsmade [27 ] render evidence filed late, inadmissible. On certain occasions, the Court itselfmay determine the time within which the parties have to provide evidence for the

determination of facts. Any evidence provided beyond the time prescribed may beconsidered inadmissible. [28 ] Additionally, evidence obtained through settlementnegotiation is deemed inadmissible if the negotiation has been unsuccessful. [29 ] Aprime example of the same is the Chorzw Factory Case, [30 ] in which the Courtignored the sum decided upon and calculations made during negotiations betweenGermany and Poland, when deciding the quantum of compensation to be awarded toGermany. [31 ] Some confusion still remains regarding whether evidence obtained byviolation of international law is admissible, as happened in the Corfu Channel Case. The
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presumption in favour of a fact, leaving the party alleging the contrary to prove that thefact is not true. [39 ] The burden of proof to establish that a State was unable to exercisedue diligence, or that an event took place despite the exercise of due diligence, lies withthe State in control of such territory. [40 ] It is interesting to note that the burden of proofto prove that the burden of proof has shifted lies on the party on which the burden of

proof existed naturally.

Therefore, when facts are agreed upon by parties, burden of proof is not an issue. Theprinciple of actori incumbit probation applies generally. Otherwise, the Court decides onwhom the burden lies. The Court may divide the burden of proof in relation to the factson particular issues, as evidenced by the local remedies example, and this division isindependent of the framing of the contentious issue by either party, but depends on howthe court perceives this burden should stand.

STANDARD OF PROOFThe concept of an identifiable or quantifiable standard of proof emanates from thecommon law system, with its higher standard of beyond reasonable doubt in criminalproceedings, and the lower, more lenient standard of by a preponderance of theevidence in civil proceedings. [41 ] Again, the Court seems to be more influenced by thecivil law scheme, [42 ] as the Court has to be persuaded of a claim and no particularstandard is applicable. [43 ] In and subsequent to the Corfu Channel Case, variousstandards of proof have been employed.

Although proof beyond a reasonable doubt is usually employed as a standard incriminal proceedings, the Court has in some situations employed this standard andproof of facts to demonstrate a violation of human rights law by a state. [44 ] An equallyhigh standard of proof appears to have been used in the Corfu Channel Case, asagainst the allegation by Britain that the minefield that had damaged British ships waslaid with the knowledge and assistance of Albania, the Court concluded that anallegation of such seriousness would warrant a very high degree of certainty whichcould not be proved by Britain. [45 ]

A comparatively lower standard is demanded of the parties when the Court determinesthat a fact has to be proved in a convincing manner. The Nicaragua Case appears to beone in which such a standard has been applied. The only reference any the standard of

proof in the Statute of the Court is in Article 53, which declares that if a party fails toappear in Court or defend its case, the Court, after satisfying itself that it has jurisdictionand the claim is well founded in fact and law, shall rule in favour of the other party. TheCourt, in the case, elaborated on the provisions of Article 53(2), [46 ] saying that satisfyitself means that the Court must attain a degree of certainty, as in any other case, thatthe facts are based on convincing evidence. [47 ] Therefore, a standard lower thanabsolute proof beyond a reasonable doubt is provided for.
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Some aspects of Court practice require even a prima facie proof of certain matters like jurisdiction in case of interim measures. [48 ] Such a standard was applied, or it is morefitting to say was excluded, in the Corfu Channel Case, when the Court held that themere fact of the control exercised by a state over its territory and watersby itself andapart from other circumstances, neither involves prima facie responsibility nor shifts the

burden of proof. [49 ] Therefore, it may be concluded that providing such standard ofevidence shifts the burden of proof to the other party, yet, it must be determinedwhether, if the other party does not have the ability or means to discharge the burden,the prima facie evidence can be deemed a sufficient discharge of the burden. [50 ]

The standard of preponderance of evidence and that of reasonable conclusion have notfound explicit mention in decisions by the Court, but for proving facts of relatively lesserimportance, the Court appears to be willing to accept these standards, which fallbetween proof beyond reasonable doubt and proving facts in a convincingmanner. [51 ] It is quite apparent that it is up to the Court to decide when it wants toapply what standard, and such decision is based on the facts and merits of the case at

hand.

CONCLUSION

The decision in the Corfu Channel Case has been followed in subsequent decisionswith respect to the use of circumstantial evidence and the standard of proof, but theCourt has made minor changes in accordance with the facts of each case. Yet, in theCorfu Channel Case, instead of not declaring inadmissible the evidence acquiredthrough unlawful means, the Court might have denied admissibility but imposed anonerous presumptio juris, effectively requiring Albania to demonstrate either that it couldnot have known of the mines or that it had used all due diligence in seeking to clear theCorfu Channel. Either technique would have affirmed the normative principle prohibitingthe unlawful gathering of evidence, while still confirming Albanian liability. As thingsstand, the view of the Court on unlawfully obtained evidence remains unclear.

As more cases are decided by the Court, standards will evolve with respect to theburden and standard of proof and the admissibility of various kinds of evidence. Yet, asis apparent from the cases discussed, the Court has not hesitated to apply differentstandards based on the facts at hand. This is an acceptable trend as the primary reasonwhy the procedure regarding evidence gives the Court such flexibility is that the natureof the cases presented before the Court require an especially broad tolerance, as therights of nations and political equations are at stake. Therefore, the general consensus

among practitioners and scholars is that stricter rules of admissibility of evidence areinappropriate for international adjudication. [52 ]

APPENDIX: BIBLIOGRAPHY

Articles
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1. Michael P. Scharf and Margaux Day, Reconcilable Difference: A Critical Assessmentof the International Court of Justices Treatment of Circumstantial Evidence 6, availableat http://works.bepress.com/michael_scharf/2: This article provides an analysis of thegeneral trend of the International Court of Justice in its approach towards the use ofcircumstantial evidence. The article covers cases from Corfu Channel to the Genocide

Convention to discuss the levels of reliance the Court has placed on circumstantialevidence, and whether any change has occurred in the same since Corfu Channel wasdecided. The article is used to expand on the analysis of the Corfu Channel Case.

2. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina, Evidence Before the International Court o f Justice, 1 IntlL.F. D. Intl 203 (1999): This article gives a broad overview of the procedure regardingevidence in the Court. The nature of the system, the issues discussed in this paper andrecent developments are discussed briefly. The article is utilised to elaborate on thekinds of evidence used by the Court, the civil nature of the Court and burden of proof incase of jurisdiction.

3. Jens Evensen, Evidence Before International Courts, 25 Nordisk Tidsskrift Intl Ret 44(1955): This piece highlights the problems the Court (the Permanent Court ofInternational Justice is extensively discussed) faces when it comes to evidence ininternational law. Documentary evidence, affidavits and other kinds of evidence areanalysed in detail. The article is referred to with respect to how no particular kind ofevidence is preferred over another and the standards of proof in civil proceedings.

4. W. Michael Reisman and Eric E. Freedman, The Plaintiffs Dilemma: IllegallyObtained Evidence and Admissibility in International Adjudication, 76 (4) AJIL 737-753(Oct., 1982): This article highlights how the Court system is influenced by civil law andwhy so. It goes on to discuss the grounds on which the Court may refuse to admit

evidence. The issue of unlawful evidence is discussed extensively. The article is used tostate that the general tendency of the Court is to accept all kinds of evidence and toreiterate the influence of civil law on the Court.

5. Neill H. Alford, Jr., Fact Finding by the World Court, 4 Vill. L. Rev. 37 (1959): Thisarticle again discusses how the Court functions with respect to deciding on facts. Itprovides an outline of the organization of the Court, allocation of the task of fact-finding,procedure regarding contentious cases and advisory cases, procuring and use oftestimony, expert inquiries, rules of evidence and state security restrictions. The articleis again used to refer to the influence of civil law on the Court.

Books1. Bin Cheng, general principles of law as applied by international courts and tribunals303(2006).

2. Chittharanjan f. Amerasinghe, Evidence in International Litigation (2005).

3. Malcolm Shaw, international law (5th edn., 2004).


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used to illustrate that evidence obtained through settlement negotiation is deemedinadmissible if the negotiation has been unsuccessful

5. Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), 87 I.C.J. 1998: Spain filed an applicationagainst Canada as a Canadian patrol boat had boarded a Spanish fishing vessel. The

boarding was carried out under the Canadian Coastal Fisheries Protection Act. Canadaclaimed that the Court had no jurisdiction as it had included a reservation in itsdeclaration of acceptance of the Statute of the Court excluding jurisdiction in somecases and the dispute referred to was included under the reservation. The Courtaccepted the arguments advanced by Canada and declared that it had no jurisdiction toadjudicate. The case is used to address the issue of burden of proof in case of

jurisdiction of the Court.

6. Certain Norwegian Loans (France v. Norway), 9 I.C.J. 1957: The French governmenturged the Court to declare that certain loans and bonds issued on the French marketand other markets by Norway could only be paid or redeemed if the borrower paid the

requisite amount in gold. Norway contended that since it had issued the loans andbonds, all dispute would be settled by Norwegian courts, while the French wanted theircourts to have jurisdiction. Therefore, on the matter of jurisdiction, the Court declaredthat it had no jurisdiction and the basis for jurisdiction is the common will of the parties,and since the French and Norwegian declarations did not concur in granting jurisdiction,the Court lacked jurisdiction. The case is used to illustrate the shift of burden of proof incase of proving the exhaustion of local remedies.

circumstancial evidence - pil

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