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Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
CHAPTER 4consciousness
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Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objectives
4.1 What does it mean to be conscious, and are there different levels of consciousness?
4.2 Why do people need to sleep, and how does sleep work?
4.3 What are the different stages of sleep, including the stage of dreaming and its importance?
4.4 How do sleep disorders interfere with normal sleep?
4.5 Why do people dream, and what do they dream about?
4.6 How does hypnosis affect consciousness?
4.7 What is the difference between a physical dependence and a psychological dependence on a drug?
4.8 How do stimulants and depressants affect consciousness and what are the dangers associated with taking them, particularly alcohol?
4.9 What are some of the effects and dangers of using hallucinogens, including marijuana?
4.10 How can the workings of our consciousness explain “supernatural” visitations?
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Consciousness
• Consciousness– a person’s awareness of everything that is
going on around him or her at any given moment
• Waking consciousness– state in which thoughts, feelings, and
sensations are clear and organized, and the person feels alert
LO 4.1 Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Consciousness
• Altered state of consciousness– state in which there is a shift in the quality or
pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness
LO 4.1 Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Necessity of Sleep
• Circadian rhythm: a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a twenty-four-hour period– “circa”: about– “diem”: day
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Necessity of Sleep
• Hypothalamus: tiny section of the brain that influences the glandular system– suprachiasmatic nucleus
deep within the hypothalamus the internal clock that tells people when to wake up
and when to fall asleep
• Hypothalamus tells the pineal gland to secrete melatonin– melatonin makes a person feel sleepy
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Necessity of Sleep
• Microsleeps: brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds
• Sleep deprivation: any significant loss of sleep– results in irritability and problems with
concentration
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.1 Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Necessity of Sleep
• Adaptive theory: theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Necessity of Sleep
• Restorative theory: theory of sleep proposing that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stages of Sleep
• Rapid eye movement (REM): stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream
• NREM (non-REM) sleep: any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Brain Wave Patterns
• Electroencephalograph (EEG)– allows scientists to see the brain wave activity as
a person passes through the various stages of sleep and to determine what type of sleep the person has entered alpha waves: brain waves that indicate a state of
relaxation or light sleep theta waves: brain waves indicating the early stages of
sleep delta waves: long, slow waves that indicate the
deepest stage of sleep
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.2 Brain Activity During Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stages of Sleep
• N1 (R&K Stage 1): light sleep– may experience:
hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual events
hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks
• N2 (R&K Stage 2): sleep spindles – sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity only
lasting a second or two
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stages of Sleep
• N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): delta waves pronounced– deepest stage of sleep: 50 percent or more of
waves are delta waves– body at lowest level of functioning– time at which growth occurs
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
REM Sleep and Dreaming
• REM sleep is paradoxical sleep (high level of brain activity)– If wakened during REM sleep, sleepers
almost always report a dream.
• REM rebound: increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.3 A Typical Night’s Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Sleep Disorders
• Nightmares– bad dreams occurring during REM sleep
• REM behavior disorder– mechanism that blocks the movement of the
voluntary muscles fails– allows the person to thrash around, or even
get up and act out nightmares
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stage Four Sleep Disorders
• Sleepwalking (somnambulism)– episode of moving around or walking around
in one’s sleep– occurs in deep sleep– more common among children than adults
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stage Four Sleep Disorders
• Night terrors– the person experiences extreme fear and
screams or runs around during deep sleep– doesn’t wake fully– relatively rare disorder
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Sleep Disorders
• Can sleepwalking be a defense against criminal charges?– Kenneth Parks case– Scott Falater case– Brian Thomas case
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Problems during Sleep
• Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep
• Sleep apnea: disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more– continuous positive airway pressure device
(CPAP)
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Problems during Sleep
• Narcolepsy: sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning– cataplexy: sudden loss of muscle tone
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Dreams
• Freud: dreams as wish fulfillment– manifest content: the dream itself– latent content: the true, hidden meaning of a
dream
LO 4.5 Why People Dream and What They Dream about
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Dreams
• Activation-synthesis hypothesis: dreams are created by the higher centers of the cortex to explain the brain stem’s activation of cortical cells during REM sleep periods
LO 4.5 Why People Dream and What They Dream about
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.4 The Brain and Activation-Synthesis TheoryAccording to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, the pons in the brainstem sends random signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep. These random signals pass through the thalamus, which sends the signals to the proper sensory areas of the cortex. Once in the cortex, the association areas of the cortex respond to the random activation of these cortical cells by synthesizing (making up) a story, or dream, using bits and pieces of life experiences and memories
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Dreams
• Activation-information-mode model (AIM)– revised version of the activation-synthesis
explanation of dreams – information that is accessed during waking
hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams
LO 4.5 Why People Dream and What They Dream about
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Hypnosis
• Hypnosis: state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion
LO 4.6 Hypnosis and How It Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Hypnosis
• Four elements of hypnosis:1. hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is
being said
2. person is told to relax and feel tired
3. hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept suggestions easily
4. person is told to use vivid imagination
• Hypnotic susceptibility: degree to which a person is a good hypnotic subject
LO 4.6 Hypnosis and How It Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Theories of Hypnosis
• Hypnosis as dissociation: hypnosis works only in a person’s immediate consciousness, while a hidden “observer” remained aware of all that was going on
• Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis: people who are hypnotized are not in an altered state, but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation
LO 4.6 Hypnosis and How It Works
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoactive Drugs
• Psychoactive drugs: drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memory
• Physical dependence– tolerance: more and more of the drug is needed
to achieve the same effect– withdrawal: physical symptoms resulting from a
lack of an addictive drug in the body systems can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and
high blood pressure
LO 4.7 Physical and Psychological Dependence on a Drug
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoactive Drugs
• Psychological dependence: the feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being
LO 4.7 Physical and Psychological Dependence on a Drug
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stimulants
• Stimulants: drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system– amphetamines: drugs that are synthesized
(made in labs) rather than found in nature– cocaine: natural drug; produces euphoria,
energy, power, and pleasure– nicotine: active ingredient in tobacco– caffeine: the stimulant found in coffee, tea, most
sodas, chocolate, and even many over-the-counter drugs
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Nicotine
• The harmful effects of nicotine are now well known, but many people continue to smoke or chew tobacco in spite of warnings
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Depressants
• Depressants: drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system– barbiturates: depressant drugs that have a
sedative effect– benzodiazepines: drugs that lower anxiety
and reduce stress– Rohypnol: the “date rape” drug
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Alcohol
• Alcohol: the chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter– often mistaken for a stimulant, alcohol is
actually a CNS depressant
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Narcotics
• Narcotics– opium-related drugs– suppress the sensation of pain by binding to
and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins. opium: substance made from the opium poppy and
from which all narcotic drugs are derived morphine: narcotic drug derived from opium; used to
treat severe pain heroin: narcotic drug derived from opium that is
extremely addictive
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Hallucinogens
• Psychogenic Drugs– drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana
that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of relaxation and intoxication hallucinogens: drugs that cause false sensory
messages, altering the perception of reality LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide): powerful synthetic
hallucinogen PCP: synthesized drug now used as an animal
tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Hallucinogens
• Psychogenic Drugs (cont’d) MDMA (Ecstasy or X): designer drug that can have
both stimulant and hallucinatory effects Stimulatory hallucinogenics: drugs that produce a
mixture of psychomotor stimulant and hallucinogenic effects
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Marijuana
– marijuana (pot or weed): mild hallucinogen derived from the leaves and flowers of a particular type of hemp plant
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
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Psychology, Fourth EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Hallucinations
• Hypnogogic hallucination: hallucination that can occur just as a person is entering N1 sleep
• Hypnopompic hallucination: hallucination that happens just as a person is in the between-state of being in REM sleep (in which the voluntary muscles are paralyzed) and not yet fully awake
LO 4.10 How can the workings of our consciousness explain “supernatural” visitations?