CHRONOLOGY OF THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE MESOPOTAMIAN PEOPLESMESOPOTAMIAN PEOPLES

Early Sumerian Settlements Early Sumerian Settlements 3500 - 3200 3500 - 3200 Writing before Writing before 3500 3500 Royal Cemetery, First Dynasty Ur Royal Cemetery, First Dynasty Ur 27002700Sargon the Great of Akkad Sargon the Great of Akkad 23402340Amorite Invasion (Old Babylonians) Amorite Invasion (Old Babylonians) 20002000Gilgamesh Gilgamesh composed composed 20002000Hammurabi’s reign Hammurabi’s reign 1792-17501792-1750Hittites conquer Amorites and retreat to Asia Minor Hittites conquer Amorites and retreat to Asia Minor 1595 1595 Kassites control Mesopotamia Kassites control Mesopotamia 1500-10001500-1000Hittite Empire is destroyed Hittite Empire is destroyed Ca. 1200Ca. 1200Assyrian Empire Assyrian Empire 1100 - 6121100 - 612Assyrian conquest of Mesopotamia Assyrian conquest of Mesopotamia 665665Chaldean Empire Chaldean Empire 612 - 538612 - 538Nebuchadnezzar destroys Jerusalem and Nebuchadnezzar destroys Jerusalem and brings Jews to Babylon brings Jews to Babylon 586 586 Persians defeat Chaldeans Persians defeat Chaldeans 539539

The Ancient The Ancient SumeriansSumerians

Climate and Climate and GeographyGeography

Mesopotamia.Mesopotamia. The word The word 'Mesopotamia' is Greek in 'Mesopotamia' is Greek in origin and means the 'land origin and means the 'land between the rivers'. between the rivers'.

The name is used for the area The name is used for the area watered by the Euphrates and watered by the Euphrates and Tigris and its tributaries, Tigris and its tributaries, roughly comprising modern roughly comprising modern Iraq and part of Syria. Iraq and part of Syria.

South of modern Bagdad, the South of modern Bagdad, the alluvial plains of the rivers alluvial plains of the rivers were called the land of were called the land of SumerSumer and and AkkadAkkad. .

Sumer is the most southern Sumer is the most southern part, while the land of Akkad part, while the land of Akkad is the area around modern is the area around modern Bagdad, where the Euphrates Bagdad, where the Euphrates and Tigris are close to each and Tigris are close to each other. other.

The RiversThe Rivers Man have been attracted to Man have been attracted to

both rivers since prehistoric both rivers since prehistoric times. times.

As water ways they make As water ways they make inland navigation possible. inland navigation possible.

The rivers yearly flood its The rivers yearly flood its banks, producing fertile land. banks, producing fertile land.

The character of Euphrates The character of Euphrates and Tigris are different. and Tigris are different.

The The TigrisTigris is rough and fast is rough and fast flowing. flowing.

The The EuphratesEuphrates is a lifeline. is a lifeline. – It can more easily be used by It can more easily be used by

ships. ships. – The banks are lower, suitable The banks are lower, suitable

for irrigation, with less violent for irrigation, with less violent floods. floods.

Environmental Environmental ChallengesChallenges

Flooding:Flooding: The Tigris and Euphrates The Tigris and Euphrates

Rivers originate in different Rivers originate in different mountain ranges. mountain ranges.

Usually, flooding occurs in Usually, flooding occurs in the spring as snow melts in the spring as snow melts in the mountains. the mountains.

This compelled early This compelled early Mesopotamian cultures to Mesopotamian cultures to undertake collective undertake collective actions such as the actions such as the building of dikes, digging building of dikes, digging of reservoirs, and of reservoirs, and construction of irrigation construction of irrigation ditches. ditches.

Salinization:Salinization: The success of The success of

Mesopotamian city-states Mesopotamian city-states in building canals and in building canals and irrigation systems added to irrigation systems added to the existing problem of the existing problem of salinization. salinization.

As the land was irrigated, As the land was irrigated, salt leached upward, salt leached upward, making the soil useless. making the soil useless.

Salinization forced the Salinization forced the different Mesopotamian different Mesopotamian city-states into a city-states into a competition for arable land. competition for arable land.

The PeopleThe People Two cultural groups form the Two cultural groups form the

principle elements in the population principle elements in the population of Mesopotamia of Mesopotamia

These are the These are the SumeriansSumerians and the and the AkkadiansAkkadians..

They lived peacefully together and They lived peacefully together and created mutual fertilization. created mutual fertilization.

Sumerian HistorySumerian History SumeriansSumerians

The people responsible The people responsible for the first for the first monumental temples monumental temples and palaces, for the and palaces, for the founding of the first founding of the first city states and most city states and most likely for the invention likely for the invention of writing (all in the of writing (all in the period of 3100-3000 period of 3100-3000 BCE) are the BCE) are the SumeriansSumerians. .

Sumer (4000 to 2300 Sumer (4000 to 2300 B.C.E.)B.C.E.)

The earliest The earliest MesopotamianMesopotamian civilization emerged civilization emerged in the southern part in the in the southern part in the Valley of SumerValley of Sumer around 3500 B.C.E. around 3500 B.C.E.

The origin of the Sumerians is uncertain. The origin of the Sumerians is uncertain. Their language is unlike any other in the region.Their language is unlike any other in the region. The Sumerians described their origin as lying in The Sumerians described their origin as lying in

the East “where the sun rises.” the East “where the sun rises.” The principal Sumerian city-states were The principal Sumerian city-states were Ur, Ur,

Lagesh, EriduLagesh, Eridu, and , and ErechErech. . The The Epic of GilgameshEpic of Gilgamesh, , a long epic poem written a long epic poem written

around 2000 B.C.E., expressed the Sumerian around 2000 B.C.E., expressed the Sumerian conception of the relation of man and the gods. conception of the relation of man and the gods.

SUMERIAN CITYSUMERIAN CITY The people of the rich Tigris-The people of the rich Tigris-

Euphrates valley were able Euphrates valley were able to grow sufficient food to to grow sufficient food to meet their needs. meet their needs.

As a result, population As a result, population increased; and from the increased; and from the nucleus of a few small nucleus of a few small farming villages, several farming villages, several important city-states arose. important city-states arose.

The inhabitants of those The inhabitants of those cities irrigated the cities irrigated the surrounding farm land by surrounding farm land by building canals; they building canals; they defended themselves defended themselves behind strong walled cities; behind strong walled cities; they honored their gods by they honored their gods by building large and building large and impressive temples.impressive temples.

SUMERIAN CITYSUMERIAN CITY Religion was a strong Religion was a strong

motivating force in the life motivating force in the life of the Sumerians; the rulers of the Sumerians; the rulers of man’s first urban effort of man’s first urban effort came from the priest class. came from the priest class.

Later, the cities were Later, the cities were governed by a bicameral governed by a bicameral legislature of free male legislature of free male citizens: a lower house of citizens: a lower house of men able to bear arms, and men able to bear arms, and an upper house of elders. an upper house of elders.

The king was an elected The king was an elected official during a time of official during a time of crisis, but after 3000 B.C.E., crisis, but after 3000 B.C.E., the kingship became the kingship became hereditary.hereditary.

SUMERIAN CITYSUMERIAN CITY By 2000 B.C.E., the cities of By 2000 B.C.E., the cities of

Sumer had grown so large Sumer had grown so large that some, like Ur (then the that some, like Ur (then the capital of Sumer), had capital of Sumer), had populations greater than populations greater than 200,000 persons.200,000 persons.

Although a few cities were Although a few cities were beautiful with large beautiful with large landscaped parks, large public landscaped parks, large public buildings, vast temple areas buildings, vast temple areas and private residences, most and private residences, most Sumerian cities were Sumerian cities were unattractive. unattractive.

There appears to have been There appears to have been neither city-planning nor neither city-planning nor municipal services; garbage municipal services; garbage and sewage were thrown in and sewage were thrown in the streets until they rose the streets until they rose above the household.above the household.

SUMERIAN CITYSUMERIAN CITY A defensive wall and moat encircled A defensive wall and moat encircled

each city proper. each city proper. The city of Uruk had a wall over 6 The city of Uruk had a wall over 6

miles long with some 900 towers. miles long with some 900 towers. The streets of the cities were narrow, The streets of the cities were narrow,

unpaved, and winding; and houses unpaved, and winding; and houses large and small stood side by side. large and small stood side by side.

Most houses were flat-roofed, one-Most houses were flat-roofed, one-story buildings of mud-brick story buildings of mud-brick construction. construction.

They consisted of several rooms built They consisted of several rooms built around an open-air courtyard. around an open-air courtyard.

Upper-class Sumerians resided in two-Upper-class Sumerians resided in two-story houses usually containing a story houses usually containing a dozen rooms which were constructed dozen rooms which were constructed of mud-brick and white-washed inside of mud-brick and white-washed inside and out. and out.

Upper-class houses usually contained Upper-class houses usually contained a kitchen, reception room, bed rooms, a kitchen, reception room, bed rooms, bathroom, servant’s quarters, and bathroom, servant’s quarters, and often a private chapel. often a private chapel.

A family burial crypt was often located A family burial crypt was often located below the housebelow the house..

SUMERIAN CITYSUMERIAN CITY The business area of The business area of

the town was a vast the town was a vast bazaar — very much bazaar — very much like one in a like one in a present-day mid-present-day mid-eastern city. In a eastern city. In a maze of awning-maze of awning-covered booths, covered booths, Sumerian merchants Sumerian merchants supplied the supplied the townspeople with townspeople with material needs.material needs.

Sumerian EconomySumerian Economy Few people in ancient Sumer or Babylon Few people in ancient Sumer or Babylon

belonged to the nobility, priest hood or belonged to the nobility, priest hood or military classes; the majority of the people military classes; the majority of the people were farmers, herdsmen, fishermen, were farmers, herdsmen, fishermen, merchants, scribes, potters, masons, or merchants, scribes, potters, masons, or jewelers. jewelers.

The oldest and the largest of these The oldest and the largest of these occupations was farming; in fact, the oldest occupations was farming; in fact, the oldest surviving piece of literature is a farmer’s surviving piece of literature is a farmer’s almanac over 5000 years old. almanac over 5000 years old.

Not until man found a steady supply of food Not until man found a steady supply of food was he able to support large families, build was he able to support large families, build solid houses, and make the necessary social solid houses, and make the necessary social adjustment of shifting loyalty from his family adjustment of shifting loyalty from his family to the group. to the group.

The farmer worked long and hard to combat The farmer worked long and hard to combat the forces of nature. the forces of nature.

He knew how to plow and sow his field, He knew how to plow and sow his field, irrigate, thrash the grain and winnow irrigate, thrash the grain and winnow (separate the wheat from the chaff). (separate the wheat from the chaff).

The farmer raised various cereals such as The farmer raised various cereals such as emmer, wheat, and millet. emmer, wheat, and millet.

Barley was the most popular grain since it Barley was the most popular grain since it grew well in the saline soil and was versatile, grew well in the saline soil and was versatile, serving as a porridge, ground flour, and the serving as a porridge, ground flour, and the basis of an ancient beer.basis of an ancient beer.

Sumerian Economy Sumerian Economy and Tradeand Trade

Jobs included pottery makers, stonecutters, bricklayers, metal Jobs included pottery makers, stonecutters, bricklayers, metal smiths, farmers, fishers, shepherds, weavers, leather-workers, smiths, farmers, fishers, shepherds, weavers, leather-workers, and sailors. and sailors.

The wheel was invented for carts, chariots, and pottery making. The wheel was invented for carts, chariots, and pottery making. Iron was smelted about 2500 BC. Iron was smelted about 2500 BC. Seals had been used to stamp a carved insignia on clay before Seals had been used to stamp a carved insignia on clay before

cylindrical seals became widespread for labeling commodities cylindrical seals became widespread for labeling commodities and legal documents. and legal documents.

Pictographic writing was first used by the Sumerians about Pictographic writing was first used by the Sumerians about 3400, and by 3000 BC this had evolved into cuneiform words 3400, and by 3000 BC this had evolved into cuneiform words and syllables. and syllables.

The Sumerian economy was based on agriculture, which was The Sumerian economy was based on agriculture, which was influenced by major technological advances in Mesopotamian influenced by major technological advances in Mesopotamian history. history.

Early Sumerian homes were huts built from bundles of reeds, Early Sumerian homes were huts built from bundles of reeds, which went on to be built from sun-baked mud bricks because of which went on to be built from sun-baked mud bricks because of the shortage of stone. the shortage of stone.

Sumerian EconomySumerian Economy The Sumerian economy appears to have been The Sumerian economy appears to have been

free from arbitrary control; even kings were free from arbitrary control; even kings were expected to respect property rights. expected to respect property rights.

The land was under the control of three groups The land was under the control of three groups of people: the nobility, the temple estates, and of people: the nobility, the temple estates, and the commoners. Land ownership was held as a the commoners. Land ownership was held as a patriarchal family or clan possession. patriarchal family or clan possession.

Gradually lower class holdings were absorbed Gradually lower class holdings were absorbed by the nobility, and the domination of temple by the nobility, and the domination of temple land came under their control as well. land came under their control as well.

In the end, the power of the kings dominated In the end, the power of the kings dominated over that of the nobility.over that of the nobility.

Sumerian EconomySumerian Economy With the lack of natural With the lack of natural

resources, traders set out to resources, traders set out to gain the necessary stone, gain the necessary stone, wood and metal. wood and metal.

As early as 3000 B.C.E., As early as 3000 B.C.E., commerce was flourishing. commerce was flourishing. Rivers furnished traders Rivers furnished traders access to the Persian Gulf and access to the Persian Gulf and a water route to the Indus a water route to the Indus River civilization of India. River civilization of India.

Other traders went to the Other traders went to the North and swept into the North and swept into the Mediterranean.Mediterranean.

These far-reaching These far-reaching commercial ties and favorable commercial ties and favorable geographical position were geographical position were responsible for Sumer’s rapid responsible for Sumer’s rapid expansion and cultural growth expansion and cultural growth

Sumerian EconomySumerian Economy The traders established some of The traders established some of

the first known business the first known business methods. methods.

They financed many of their They financed many of their expeditions through expeditions through moneylenders at interest rates moneylenders at interest rates between 20 and 30 per cent.between 20 and 30 per cent.

They used letters of credit They used letters of credit between cities and established between cities and established a medium of exchange with a medium of exchange with gold and silver discs. gold and silver discs.

Barter, however, remained the Barter, however, remained the most common method of most common method of exchange. exchange.

There is little doubt that the There is little doubt that the place of the farmer and place of the farmer and tradesmen was a strong factor tradesmen was a strong factor in Mesopotamian prosperity.in Mesopotamian prosperity.

War and PeaceWar and Peace One of the most important One of the most important

functions of the Sumerian king functions of the Sumerian king was waging war.was waging war.

As city-states expanded, conflicts As city-states expanded, conflicts arose over land owner ship and arose over land owner ship and irrigation rights. irrigation rights.

After 3000 B.C.E., Sumer was After 3000 B.C.E., Sumer was engaged in continuous warfare as engaged in continuous warfare as kings raised large armies of kings raised large armies of professional soldiers for defense professional soldiers for defense and conquest.and conquest.

Generally the soldiers were well Generally the soldiers were well disciplined, armed and trained. disciplined, armed and trained.

The Sumerian soldier was the The Sumerian soldier was the rival of any Roman legion. rival of any Roman legion.

He was taught to operate in a He was taught to operate in a unit, the phalanx, a formation of unit, the phalanx, a formation of men in square ranks as deep as men in square ranks as deep as they were wide. they were wide.

War and PeaceWar and Peace With warfare a way of life, With warfare a way of life,

it was only a matter of it was only a matter of time before it exhausted time before it exhausted the land and its people. By the land and its people. By the 18th century B.C.E., the 18th century B.C.E., Sumer was conquered by Sumer was conquered by the Semitic Amorites (who the Semitic Amorites (who became the Babylonians).became the Babylonians).

The Sumerian city-states The Sumerian city-states were never permanently were never permanently united; the city-states were united; the city-states were bound only by culture, bound only by culture, language and trade.language and trade.

City State EmpireCity State Empire The Sumerians developed their elaborate The Sumerians developed their elaborate

city-state empires, engaged in far-flung trade city-state empires, engaged in far-flung trade enterprises, and attained a level of prosperity enterprises, and attained a level of prosperity seldom equaled in antiquity. seldom equaled in antiquity.

Another side of their civilization, however, Another side of their civilization, however, was gained by the discovery of the royal was gained by the discovery of the royal graveyards of the city of Ur.graveyards of the city of Ur.

Sometime around 2000 B.C.E., the city Sometime around 2000 B.C.E., the city suffered total destruction at the hands of the suffered total destruction at the hands of the neighboring Elamites. neighboring Elamites.

The death pits thus serve historians as one The death pits thus serve historians as one record of Sumerian daily life. record of Sumerian daily life.

Between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago, when a Between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago, when a king died he was buried with his most king died he was buried with his most valuable possessions and what appears to valuable possessions and what appears to have been a voluntary human sacrifice have been a voluntary human sacrifice composed of his guards, musicians, servants, composed of his guards, musicians, servants, harem, and various court officials. (Even his harem, and various court officials. (Even his chariot and donkey accompanied their chariot and donkey accompanied their master to the other world.) master to the other world.)

Since the early kings were deified in their Since the early kings were deified in their lifetimes, the sacrifice of a human life for a lifetimes, the sacrifice of a human life for a god was easier, perhaps, with assurance of god was easier, perhaps, with assurance of another life.another life.

This custom appears to have ended before This custom appears to have ended before 2000 B.C.E. little mention seems to have 2000 B.C.E. little mention seems to have been made of it in the literary documents, a been made of it in the literary documents, a majority of which were composed in this era.majority of which were composed in this era.

Sumerian AfterlifeSumerian Afterlife From various poems and laments, we have gained considerable From various poems and laments, we have gained considerable

information (although sometimes contradictory) on the information (although sometimes contradictory) on the Sumerian interpretation of the afterlife. Sumerian interpretation of the afterlife.

In general, the afterlife, or nether world was conceived as In general, the afterlife, or nether world was conceived as existing below the world, while the residence of the gods was existing below the world, while the residence of the gods was believed to be above the earth. believed to be above the earth.

The souls of the dead descended to the nether world from the The souls of the dead descended to the nether world from the grave or from special openings for heroes located in important grave or from special openings for heroes located in important religious cities. religious cities.

Also mentioned in some literature is a river ferry, said to have Also mentioned in some literature is a river ferry, said to have carried the soul across some mysterious underworld river. carried the soul across some mysterious underworld river.

Once in the nether world, the soul came under the rule of two Once in the nether world, the soul came under the rule of two gods, Nergal and Ereshkigal, aided by numerous lesser deities. gods, Nergal and Ereshkigal, aided by numerous lesser deities.

One group of helpers called gallas seem to have been like under One group of helpers called gallas seem to have been like under world constables.world constables.

Gilgamesh, an early king and hero of Sumer, likewise saw to it Gilgamesh, an early king and hero of Sumer, likewise saw to it that the residents of the net4ier world kept the established that the residents of the net4ier world kept the established rules.rules.

Sumerian AfterlifeSumerian Afterlife The dead soul was expected The dead soul was expected

to observe the rules very to observe the rules very carefully. For the descent into carefully. For the descent into the nether world, he could not the nether world, he could not anoint himself with oil, wear anoint himself with oil, wear sandals, carry a weapon, sandals, carry a weapon, make noise, or wear clean make noise, or wear clean clothes.clothes.

The violation of any one of The violation of any one of these rules resulted in the these rules resulted in the soul’s capture by the soul’s capture by the “sewards” of the underworld “sewards” of the underworld of whom little is known. of whom little is known.

Once a soul had been seized, Once a soul had been seized, it was impossible for a mortal it was impossible for a mortal or even a god to return to or even a god to return to earth without aid from a god earth without aid from a god of the nether world, and of the nether world, and another soul to take his place.another soul to take his place.

ZIGGURAT ZIGGURAT By the end of the fourth By the end of the fourth

millennium B.C.E., the Sumerians millennium B.C.E., the Sumerians had begun the construction of had begun the construction of temples and shrines as a temples and shrines as a community or clan project. community or clan project.

With the passage of years, new With the passage of years, new temples came to be constructed temples came to be constructed on the sites of older temples, so on the sites of older temples, so that gradually the temples rose that gradually the temples rose higher and higher from the plains. higher and higher from the plains.

By the second millennium B.C.E., By the second millennium B.C.E., most of the important Sumerian most of the important Sumerian cities such as Eridu, Larsa, Nippur, cities such as Eridu, Larsa, Nippur, Ur, and Uruk, possessed an Ur, and Uruk, possessed an elevated temple known as a elevated temple known as a ziggurat. ziggurat.

At present, some 30 ziggurats At present, some 30 ziggurats have been discovered each have been discovered each possessing from 3 to 7 terraces, possessing from 3 to 7 terraces, and having a height of as much as and having a height of as much as 290 feet.290 feet.

ZIGGURATZIGGURAT The construction of these The construction of these

temples must be paralleled with temples must be paralleled with the effort to build the pyramids. the effort to build the pyramids.

An example is the ziggurat at Ur An example is the ziggurat at Ur which contained some which contained some 3,000,000 bricks, none of which 3,000,000 bricks, none of which was over 15 inches long. was over 15 inches long.

The structure was similar in The structure was similar in appearance to the pyramids of appearance to the pyramids of Egypt, especially the earliest Egypt, especially the earliest step pyramid. step pyramid.

There has been recent There has been recent speculation over which of the speculation over which of the two civilizations, if either, two civilizations, if either, influenced the other.influenced the other.

Ziggurats, however, vary in Ziggurats, however, vary in architecture, being rectangular, architecture, being rectangular, oval, circular and square.oval, circular and square.

ZIGGURATZIGGURAT The purposes of the ziggurat The purposes of the ziggurat

and pyramid are entirely and pyramid are entirely different: the pyramid served as different: the pyramid served as a burial tomb for the god-king of a burial tomb for the god-king of the country, while the ziggurat the country, while the ziggurat is believed to have served as a is believed to have served as a pedestal for the gods to pedestal for the gods to descend to earth. descend to earth.

On the top terrace, a temple On the top terrace, a temple stood as a reception place for stood as a reception place for the divine visitor. the divine visitor.

On a lower level, a second On a lower level, a second temple stood for the god to rest temple stood for the god to rest before his ascent. before his ascent.

Many stories were told by later Many stories were told by later civilizations to account for these civilizations to account for these buildings; the Hebrews may buildings; the Hebrews may have felt this as the cause of have felt this as the cause of the great dispersal known as the great dispersal known as the “Tower of Babel” in Genesis.the “Tower of Babel” in Genesis.

As religion grew in As religion grew in complexity, the temples complexity, the temples became staffed with a select became staffed with a select priesthood. priesthood.

The public was not invited to The public was not invited to participate in the temple rites; participate in the temple rites; nevertheless, the people nevertheless, the people believed without constant believed without constant prayers and the necessary prayers and the necessary ritual, the gods would not ritual, the gods would not bless their land. bless their land.

Soon a temple community Soon a temple community grew around these religious grew around these religious centers, with storehouses, centers, with storehouses, land holdings, courtrooms, land holdings, courtrooms, and housing for the priests. and housing for the priests.

The temple thus became a The temple thus became a political and economic part of political and economic part of community life.community life.

Sumerian LiteratureSumerian Literature Sumerian literature consisted Sumerian literature consisted

mainly of an elaborate mainly of an elaborate mythology which reflected the mythology which reflected the spiritual and intellectual life of spiritual and intellectual life of the people. the people.

The significance of these The significance of these literary compositions cannot be literary compositions cannot be overestimated, as the overestimated, as the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians absorbed these Babylonians absorbed these works almost in total. works almost in total.

Hundreds of years later, other Hundreds of years later, other Near East civilizations such as Near East civilizations such as the Hittites, Hurrians, and the Hittites, Hurrians, and Canaanites likewise assimilated Canaanites likewise assimilated Sumerian literature. Sumerian literature.

Many scholars believe that the Many scholars believe that the Hebrews and Greeks have this Hebrews and Greeks have this tradition in their literary works.tradition in their literary works.

Sumerian LiteratureSumerian Literature Sumerian literature Sumerian literature

consists mainly of epics, consists mainly of epics, myths, hymns, myths, hymns, lamentations, proverbs, lamentations, proverbs, and historic documents. and historic documents.

At present, our earliest At present, our earliest literary documents date literary documents date about 2400 B.C. about 2400 B.C.

Most of the literary works Most of the literary works are written in poetic form are written in poetic form without the use of rhyme without the use of rhyme or meter.or meter.

They suffer from the They suffer from the excessive repetitious excessive repetitious chorus and refrains.chorus and refrains.

By the third millennium By the third millennium B.C., the Sumerian school B.C., the Sumerian school came to represent the seat came to represent the seat of all learning. of all learning.

In the course of the next In the course of the next thousand years, the thousand years, the schools studied and copied schools studied and copied earlier literary works; most earlier literary works; most of our texts today have of our texts today have been these copies. been these copies.

Scribes and graduates of Scribes and graduates of these schools may also these schools may also have been responsible for have been responsible for the religious hymns in the the religious hymns in the temples, and the songs temples, and the songs and epics of the court and epics of the court entertainers.entertainers.

Sumerian LiteratureSumerian Literature At present we have little At present we have little

information on how information on how these works were these works were presented.presented.

Since only scribes could Since only scribes could read, and private read, and private libraries were rare, the libraries were rare, the literary collections of the literary collections of the schools must have been schools must have been read in public places read in public places such as the temple such as the temple courtyard or courtyard or marketplace.marketplace.

Sumerian LiteratureSumerian Literature One of the most popular epics deals with the half- mortal king of Erech, Gilgamesh. One of the most popular epics deals with the half- mortal king of Erech, Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is portrayed in the transparency doing battle with a lion, a symbol of his Gilgamesh is portrayed in the transparency doing battle with a lion, a symbol of his

power. power. According to the epic, he is a handsome and strong king who becomes the According to the epic, he is a handsome and strong king who becomes the

oppressor of his city. oppressor of his city. When the people petition the gods for aid, the gods create Enkidu; a powerful man When the people petition the gods for aid, the gods create Enkidu; a powerful man

who lives like the animals. who lives like the animals. The gods teach Enkidu the worldly ways and send him into battle with Gilgamesh. The gods teach Enkidu the worldly ways and send him into battle with Gilgamesh. After a lengthy fight Gilgamesh prevails, but his enemy soon becomes his best After a lengthy fight Gilgamesh prevails, but his enemy soon becomes his best

friend.friend. Thereafter they set out on a series of adventures. Thereafter they set out on a series of adventures. When Gilgamesh repulses the romantic attentions of the goddess Ishtar, her father When Gilgamesh repulses the romantic attentions of the goddess Ishtar, her father

dispatches the “Bull of Heaven” to kill Gilgamesh. dispatches the “Bull of Heaven” to kill Gilgamesh. During the battle Enkidu killed the bull and is fated by the gods to die. Gilgamesh During the battle Enkidu killed the bull and is fated by the gods to die. Gilgamesh

loudly laments for his friend’s death and expresses fear for his own situation. loudly laments for his friend’s death and expresses fear for his own situation. He journeys to distant lands seeking a precious plant promised to give him He journeys to distant lands seeking a precious plant promised to give him

immortality. immortality. After an arduous journey Gilgamesh finds the plant, only to lose it to a snake in an After an arduous journey Gilgamesh finds the plant, only to lose it to a snake in an

unguarded moment. unguarded moment. The epic ends on this dismal note.The epic ends on this dismal note.

Sumerian LiteratureSumerian Literature Another interesting epic may Another interesting epic may

be the prototype of Noah in be the prototype of Noah in the Old Testament. the Old Testament.

In this epic, Enlil, a powerful In this epic, Enlil, a powerful god, becomes displeased with god, becomes displeased with civilization and vows to civilization and vows to destroy all living creatures in destroy all living creatures in a flood.a flood.

Ea, a fellow god, forwards a Ea, a fellow god, forwards a favorite mortal Utnapishtim, favorite mortal Utnapishtim, in a dream to build a boat and in a dream to build a boat and fill it with his family and all fill it with his family and all living creatures. living creatures.

The boat survives the storm’s The boat survives the storm’s fury of six days and six nights.fury of six days and six nights.

The survivors offer thanks to The survivors offer thanks to the gods who in turn reproach the gods who in turn reproach Enlil for his decision.Enlil for his decision.

Sumerian EducationSumerian Education From the viewpoint of history one of the greatest achievements of the From the viewpoint of history one of the greatest achievements of the

Sumerians was their system of writing and formal education.Sumerians was their system of writing and formal education. Writing enabled man to maintain a more complex economic and political Writing enabled man to maintain a more complex economic and political

society. society. Sumerian script, dating from a period as early as 3100 B.C.E., has come Sumerian script, dating from a period as early as 3100 B.C.E., has come

down to us. down to us. These first written documents were pictographic with each impression These first written documents were pictographic with each impression

representing an idea. representing an idea. They, like all later Sumerian scripts, were composed on small mud tablets They, like all later Sumerian scripts, were composed on small mud tablets

with a sharpened reed called a stylus. with a sharpened reed called a stylus. The stylus possessed a sharp point on one end for pictographic work, and The stylus possessed a sharp point on one end for pictographic work, and

later added a wedge-shaped impression on the other end for writing with later added a wedge-shaped impression on the other end for writing with speed and legibility. speed and legibility.

To avoid smearing his work, the scribe wrote from left to right, and from To avoid smearing his work, the scribe wrote from left to right, and from top to bottom. top to bottom.

The Sumerian system of writing (cuneiform) and even the language was The Sumerian system of writing (cuneiform) and even the language was adopted by their conquerors and used in the Near East for some 2000 adopted by their conquerors and used in the Near East for some 2000 years. years.

The Babylonians held such awe for the written word that they believed The Babylonians held such awe for the written word that they believed their fate was determined by a divine scribe and a book of judgment.their fate was determined by a divine scribe and a book of judgment.

Sumerian EducationSumerian Education By 2500 B.C.E., the Sumerians introduced By 2500 B.C.E., the Sumerians introduced

formal schooling. Much of our knowledge of formal schooling. Much of our knowledge of their society is based on the tens of their society is based on the tens of thousands of tablets we have discovered in thousands of tablets we have discovered in what is thought to have been scribal schools. what is thought to have been scribal schools.

The Sumerian school, referred to as the The Sumerian school, referred to as the “tablet house,” had as its goal the education “tablet house,” had as its goal the education of scribes for various religious, governmental, of scribes for various religious, governmental, and commercial services. and commercial services.

At first the schools appear to have been At first the schools appear to have been religious in orientation, but soon thereafter, religious in orientation, but soon thereafter, they shifted to training for secular they shifted to training for secular occupations. occupations.

The teachers were supported by tuition fees The teachers were supported by tuition fees collected from students. School was neither collected from students. School was neither compulsory nor universal, and classes were compulsory nor universal, and classes were for males only. for males only.

The head of the school was called the The head of the school was called the “school-father” or “expert”; he determined “school-father” or “expert”; he determined the curriculum of the school. the curriculum of the school.

An assistant teacher was called the “big An assistant teacher was called the “big brother”; his task was to examine homework, brother”; his task was to examine homework, listen to student recitation, and prepare new listen to student recitation, and prepare new tablets for writing. tablets for writing.

Other faculty members were in charge of Other faculty members were in charge of either penmanship, grammar, attendance, or either penmanship, grammar, attendance, or discipline (“Man with the whip”).discipline (“Man with the whip”).

Sumerian EducationSumerian Education Being a student was not Being a student was not

easy, since classes lasted easy, since classes lasted from morning until sunset. from morning until sunset.

To be a scribe required To be a scribe required many years of many years of concentrated study. concentrated study.

A student had to master A student had to master such varied curricula as such varied curricula as grammar, penmanship, grammar, penmanship, some natural science, some natural science, various math problems, various math problems, myths, poems, hymns, myths, poems, hymns, theology, proverbs, and theology, proverbs, and legal documents.legal documents.

Sumerian EducationSumerian Education Discipline appears to have been a major problem in Discipline appears to have been a major problem in

the Sumerian school, but one that could be solved the Sumerian school, but one that could be solved with the use of the whip or cane. with the use of the whip or cane.

In one text a schoolboy revealed his problems: he In one text a schoolboy revealed his problems: he was late to school, made a mistake in grammar, was late to school, made a mistake in grammar, wore dirty clothes, spoke without permission, rose wore dirty clothes, spoke without permission, rose from his chair without permission, took without from his chair without permission, took without permission, made poor script and used poor spoken permission, made poor script and used poor spoken grammar. grammar.

In each case he was caned. In desperation the In each case he was caned. In desperation the student persuaded his father to invite the teacher to student persuaded his father to invite the teacher to dinner. dinner.

The teacher was given a new garment, a ring, and a The teacher was given a new garment, a ring, and a raise in salary, after which, he praised the student as raise in salary, after which, he praised the student as a boy of great learning.a boy of great learning.

Sumerian Past-Sumerian Past-TimesTimes

The Sumerians found some relief from the The Sumerians found some relief from the harshness of everyday life in fun and games. harshness of everyday life in fun and games.

Some of these pastimes: a harpist, an Some of these pastimes: a harpist, an itinerant show-man with his monkeys, and itinerant show-man with his monkeys, and men engaged in a bare fisted boxing match.men engaged in a bare fisted boxing match.

Any of these scenes might have been Any of these scenes might have been common to Sumerian city life amusements.common to Sumerian city life amusements.

The most interesting pastime that has come The most interesting pastime that has come down to us is a Sumerian game of which we down to us is a Sumerian game of which we have neither the name nor the rules. have neither the name nor the rules.

The game boards have been discovered in The game boards have been discovered in small numbers in the royal graveyards of Ur.small numbers in the royal graveyards of Ur.

The games appear to have been the The games appear to have been the diversion of the rich upper classes, since the diversion of the rich upper classes, since the boards have always been found in royal boards have always been found in royal graves. graves.

These games might have also been intended These games might have also been intended as a pastime activity for the nether world.as a pastime activity for the nether world.

The Sumerian games found in Ur are very The Sumerian games found in Ur are very similar. similar.

Each game has seven men of shells and six Each game has seven men of shells and six pyramid-shaped dice with two plain corners pyramid-shaped dice with two plain corners and two marked corners. and two marked corners.

While no direct evidence exists of how the While no direct evidence exists of how the game was played, or of the use of the dice, game was played, or of the use of the dice, one suggestion has been furnished by the one suggestion has been furnished by the Department of Western Asiatic Antiquities at Department of Western Asiatic Antiquities at the British Museum. the British Museum.

It is believed that each player rolled the dice It is believed that each player rolled the dice and moved his pieces the designated number and moved his pieces the designated number of spaces, first along an inside track (1-2) and of spaces, first along an inside track (1-2) and then down a common center track (3-10), then down a common center track (3-10), where pieces could be removed if an where pieces could be removed if an opponent landed on an occupied square. opponent landed on an occupied square.

The removed pieces were returned to the The removed pieces were returned to the starting position. Finally, the pieces starting position. Finally, the pieces proceeded “home” by the last private square proceeded “home” by the last private square (11-14). (11-14).

The intricate patterns on each square, The intricate patterns on each square, however, still leave much unexplained. however, still leave much unexplained. Because the Sumerians were such Because the Sumerians were such sophisticated people in regard to the use of sophisticated people in regard to the use of numbers, other explanations might be numbers, other explanations might be necessary to interpret the artistic designs.necessary to interpret the artistic designs.

Sumerian Sumerian RenaissanceRenaissance

About 2500 B.C.E., Sumer About 2500 B.C.E., Sumer was in a stage of temporary was in a stage of temporary unification under unification under Lugalzaggisi, a king of Uruk. Lugalzaggisi, a king of Uruk.

By fire and sword, he held By fire and sword, he held sway over the Mesopotamian sway over the Mesopotamian basin from the Mediterranean basin from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Sea to the Persian Gulf.

His despotic rule brought His despotic rule brought about wholesale opposition about wholesale opposition among his subjects. among his subjects.

An Akkadian soldier, Sargon, An Akkadian soldier, Sargon, led a revolution which led a revolution which resulted in his replacing King resulted in his replacing King Lugalzaggisi with himself. Lugalzaggisi with himself.

Sumerian Sumerian RenaissanceRenaissance

Little is known about the early life Little is known about the early life of Sargon; however, according to of Sargon; however, according to legend, he was raised by a farmer legend, he was raised by a farmer after having been found in a after having been found in a basket in the bull rushes of the basket in the bull rushes of the Euphrates River. Euphrates River.

He later became a cupbearer to He later became a cupbearer to his king and rose to a military his king and rose to a military command. command.

With his conquest he assumed to With his conquest he assumed to title of ruler of the “Four Quarters title of ruler of the “Four Quarters of the World.” of the World.”

He founded a dynasty which ruled He founded a dynasty which ruled a united Mesopotamia for some a united Mesopotamia for some two centuries. two centuries.

This Akkadian domination seems This Akkadian domination seems most responsible for the artistic most responsible for the artistic flowering in sculpture that left its flowering in sculpture that left its mark on the Mesopotamian mark on the Mesopotamian civilization for centuries to come.civilization for centuries to come.

Like all the people of other Like all the people of other civilizations which settled in the civilizations which settled in the basin, the Akkadians became lax basin, the Akkadians became lax with their newly found pleasures. with their newly found pleasures.

From the East, an invasion of From the East, an invasion of nomads (Guti) put an end to the nomads (Guti) put an end to the Akkadian Empire and allowed the Akkadian Empire and allowed the Sumerians to re-establish their Sumerians to re-establish their independence. independence.

The Sumerians initiated a golden The Sumerians initiated a golden age of art in civilization, literally a age of art in civilization, literally a rebirth or renaissance of their rebirth or renaissance of their previous greatness. previous greatness.

Known as the “Third Dynasty of Known as the “Third Dynasty of Ur,” it be came an age noted for its Ur,” it be came an age noted for its powerful architecture, as seen in powerful architecture, as seen in palaces, temples, and ziggurats. palaces, temples, and ziggurats.

Likewise, it was an era of statuary, Likewise, it was an era of statuary, bas-reliefs, cylinder seals, and clay bas-reliefs, cylinder seals, and clay statues of excellent workmanship.statues of excellent workmanship.

Sumerian Sumerian RenaissanceRenaissance

The statue of the man known as Gudea is an example of the The statue of the man known as Gudea is an example of the neo-Sumerian period. Gudea was also most responsible for neo-Sumerian period. Gudea was also most responsible for the city of Lagash’s becoming a great cultural center during the city of Lagash’s becoming a great cultural center during the period of the Guti invasion.the period of the Guti invasion.

The libation goblet, bearing Gudea’s name, has its greatest The libation goblet, bearing Gudea’s name, has its greatest interest in the symbolic decorations. Two snakes are twined interest in the symbolic decorations. Two snakes are twined around a pole, while two winged creatures hold a staff as a around a pole, while two winged creatures hold a staff as a protector. (It is believed that the snake, a symbol of fertility, protector. (It is believed that the snake, a symbol of fertility, would bring prosperity to Gudea’s fields.) The dragon-like would bring prosperity to Gudea’s fields.) The dragon-like creature, with the bodies of several deadly animals, is most creature, with the bodies of several deadly animals, is most likely a god by reason of his crown.likely a god by reason of his crown.

The foundation figurine, an interesting art form of bronze The foundation figurine, an interesting art form of bronze metalwork, was the forerunner of the modem foundation metalwork, was the forerunner of the modem foundation stone. The purpose of the figurine was to hold the evil spirits stone. The purpose of the figurine was to hold the evil spirits below the house and thus prevent injury to its inhabitants. below the house and thus prevent injury to its inhabitants. This practice was certainly more humane than the demanded This practice was certainly more humane than the demanded human blood sacrifice related in the Old Testament.human blood sacrifice related in the Old Testament.

Akkad Akkad (2300 to 2200 B.C.E.)(2300 to 2200 B.C.E.)

The The AkkadiansAkkadians were a were a SemiticSemitic people who people who occupied the Sumerian city-states after 2400 occupied the Sumerian city-states after 2400 B.C.E. In 2340 B.C.E. the Akkadian king B.C.E. In 2340 B.C.E. the Akkadian king SargonSargon proclaimed himself a “world proclaimed himself a “world conqueror.” conqueror.”

The Akkadian language replaced Sumerian. The Akkadian language replaced Sumerian. The Akkadians adopted the Sumerian culture.The Akkadians adopted the Sumerian culture.

Between 2200 and 2000 B.C.E. there was a Between 2200 and 2000 B.C.E. there was a Sumerian revival in which the Akkadians and Sumerian revival in which the Akkadians and Sumerians became indistinguishable. Sumerians became indistinguishable.

Amor Amor (Old Babylonians 2000 to 1550 B.C.E.)(Old Babylonians 2000 to 1550 B.C.E.)

The Amorites overwhelmed The Amorites overwhelmed their rivals by 1900 B.C.E. their rivals by 1900 B.C.E.

They established a new They established a new capital city at Babylon. The capital city at Babylon. The capital’s Hanging Gardens capital’s Hanging Gardens were recognized in antiquity were recognized in antiquity as one of the Seven Wonders as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. of the World.

The Amorites are known as The Amorites are known as the Old Babylonians. the Old Babylonians.

They preserved much of the They preserved much of the Sumerian tradition. The sixth Sumerian tradition. The sixth Amorite King Hammurabi Amorite King Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.), (1792-1750 B.C.E.), promulgated a legal code promulgated a legal code which unified the entire lower which unified the entire lower Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Tigris-Euphrates Valley.

HAMMURABI AND HIS HAMMURABI AND HIS CODECODE

About 1850 B.C.E., an About 1850 B.C.E., an Amorite dynasty Amorite dynasty replaced the declining replaced the declining Sumerian influence of Sumerian influence of Mesopotamia. These Mesopotamia. These conquerors established conquerors established their capital in a small their capital in a small Sumerian town called Sumerian town called Babylon. In the course Babylon. In the course of a hundred years, the of a hundred years, the land of Sumer was land of Sumer was renamed Babylon.renamed Babylon.

HAMMURABI AND HIS HAMMURABI AND HIS CODECODE

In 1750 B.C.E., King Hammurabi came In 1750 B.C.E., King Hammurabi came to the throne of Babylon amidst the to the throne of Babylon amidst the fragmented rivalry of various city fragmented rivalry of various city states. states.

Hammurabi confronted his enemies Hammurabi confronted his enemies with policies of guise, courage, and with policies of guise, courage, and patience. patience.

After twenty-five years of military and After twenty-five years of military and political preparation, Hammurabi political preparation, Hammurabi embarked on a military campaign embarked on a military campaign which gave him the rule of a united which gave him the rule of a united kingdom from northern Iraq to the kingdom from northern Iraq to the Persian Gulf. Persian Gulf.

By the end of his prosperous reign of By the end of his prosperous reign of 43 years, the Babylonian culture was 43 years, the Babylonian culture was firmly entrenched on the Sumerian firmly entrenched on the Sumerian foundation.foundation.

The fame of Hammurabi certainly did The fame of Hammurabi certainly did not depend on his military exploits, for not depend on his military exploits, for his successors quickly lost his his successors quickly lost his territorial gains to other civilizations.territorial gains to other civilizations.

Like all the other Mesopotamian rulers Like all the other Mesopotamian rulers of whom we have records, however, of whom we have records, however, Hammurabi prided himself on his Hammurabi prided himself on his ability to maintain law and justice.ability to maintain law and justice.

Hammurabi’s Code is not that of the Hammurabi’s Code is not that of the first lawmaker, for at least three first lawmaker, for at least three earlier Sumerian law codes have come earlier Sumerian law codes have come down to us, with the earliest dating down to us, with the earliest dating some four centuries before some four centuries before Hammurabi. Hammurabi.

In fact, many of the laws included in In fact, many of the laws included in Hammurabi’s Code were exact copies Hammurabi’s Code were exact copies of earlier works. of earlier works.

The importance of Hammurabi’s Code, The importance of Hammurabi’s Code, however, is that it was the best-however, is that it was the best-preserved legal document of the time preserved legal document of the time which reflected the social structure of which reflected the social structure of the time.the time.

HAMMURABI AND HIS HAMMURABI AND HIS CODECODE

On the “Diorite On the “Diorite Shaft” Hammurabi is Shaft” Hammurabi is seen receiving the seen receiving the law code from law code from Shamash, the sun-Shamash, the sun-god. The gods gave god. The gods gave the ruler the right to the ruler the right to despense justice, despense justice, and placed a curse and placed a curse on persons who on persons who violated the laws.violated the laws.

HAMMURABI AND HIS HAMMURABI AND HIS CODECODE

The 285 laws were arranged under the headings of trade and The 285 laws were arranged under the headings of trade and business, family, labor, injuries, real estate, and personal business, family, labor, injuries, real estate, and personal property. property.

The Code’s contents are a blending of enlightened laws and The Code’s contents are a blending of enlightened laws and barbaric punishments. barbaric punishments.

Justice was very demanding, with “an eye for an eye, and a tooth Justice was very demanding, with “an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth” being a well-known extract. for a tooth” being a well-known extract.

Examples of Hammurabi’s “justice” can be seen in the Examples of Hammurabi’s “justice” can be seen in the punishment of amputating the hand of a son who struck his punishment of amputating the hand of a son who struck his father. father.

While an eye was put out for a person who had borne false While an eye was put out for a person who had borne false witness, death was the penalty for shirking state service, witness, death was the penalty for shirking state service, creating insurrection, or stealing. creating insurrection, or stealing.

Most crimes demanded monetary compensation for the injured Most crimes demanded monetary compensation for the injured party. party.

Accidents were not normally judged as offenses; the owner of an Accidents were not normally judged as offenses; the owner of an ox could not be blamed if the beast gored a passer-by, unless it ox could not be blamed if the beast gored a passer-by, unless it was known as a vicious animal.was known as a vicious animal.

The Sumerian ParadigmThe Sumerian Paradigm The Sumerians established the pattern for civilization in The Sumerians established the pattern for civilization in

Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia. They were the first to respond to the twin problems of They were the first to respond to the twin problems of

flooding and flooding and salinizationsalinization. . They constructed dikes and built reservoirs and formed a They constructed dikes and built reservoirs and formed a

loose confederation between their city-states. loose confederation between their city-states. Typically, city-states covered an area of approximately 100 Typically, city-states covered an area of approximately 100

square miles. square miles. The city-states were independent and joined together under The city-states were independent and joined together under

a common leader (a common leader (patesipatesi) when confronted with an ) when confronted with an external threat.external threat.

The Sumerian confederation of city- states was unable to The Sumerian confederation of city- states was unable to withstand the influx of withstand the influx of Semitic peoplesSemitic peoples. . SargonSargon (ca. (ca. 2350) made himself king of a “universal dominion.” 2350) made himself king of a “universal dominion.”

Sumerian ReligionSumerian Religion The The GilgameshGilgamesh (epic poem composed (epic poem composed

Ca. 2000 B.C.E.) presets the religious Ca. 2000 B.C.E.) presets the religious outlook of the Sumerian and outlook of the Sumerian and subsequent Mesopotamian peoples. subsequent Mesopotamian peoples.

The gods were divided into warring The gods were divided into warring factions that struggled for control of factions that struggled for control of the Earth. the Earth.

The poem centers on the protagonist’s The poem centers on the protagonist’s (a quasi-legendary King who lived Ca.(a quasi-legendary King who lived Ca. 2800 B.C.E.) unsuccessful effort to 2800 B.C.E.) unsuccessful effort to escape death. escape death.

Archaeologists have discovered Archaeologists have discovered numerous clay tablets that describe numerous clay tablets that describe the rituals, prayers, magical the rituals, prayers, magical incantations, and procedures used to incantations, and procedures used to learn the will of the gods (divination) learn the will of the gods (divination) that the Babylonians employed. that the Babylonians employed.

The focal point of religious practices The focal point of religious practices was in the temple that stood on top of was in the temple that stood on top of the city’s the city’s zigguratziggurat (stepped mound). (stepped mound).

SCIENCE AND SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN TECHNOLOGY IN

SUMERIASUMERIA

The Invention of WritingThe Invention of Writing There is some evidence that writing may have been There is some evidence that writing may have been

invented as early as 9000 B.C.E. invented as early as 9000 B.C.E. Most historians credit the Sumerians with beginning Most historians credit the Sumerians with beginning

the tradition of writing that runs to the present. the tradition of writing that runs to the present. The earliest Sumerian writing (3500 B.C.E.) The earliest Sumerian writing (3500 B.C.E.)

consisted of inscriptions on clay tablets and consisted of inscriptions on clay tablets and cylinders. cylinders.

This writing is called This writing is called cuneiformcuneiform because of its because of its wedge-like character (the Latin word “cuneus” wedge-like character (the Latin word “cuneus” means “wedge”).means “wedge”).

A reed A reed stylusstylus was used to make impressions on was used to make impressions on clay tablets about the size of an adult’s hand. clay tablets about the size of an adult’s hand.

Stages in the Development Stages in the Development of Writingof Writing

1) 1) PictographsPictographs: : The earliest form of The earliest form of writing, the thing being depicted is writing, the thing being depicted is represented by a picture. (ill. 53)represented by a picture. (ill. 53)

2) 2) Ideograms:Ideograms: A sign or symbol is A sign or symbol is used to represent a class of things. used to represent a class of things.

3) 3) Phonogram:Phonogram: A sign or symbol A sign or symbol represents a specific sound. The represents a specific sound. The Phoenicians (people who lived in what Phoenicians (people who lived in what is now Lebanon) are credited with is now Lebanon) are credited with spreading the use of the modem spreading the use of the modem alphabet (after 1900 B.C.E.), the origin alphabet (after 1900 B.C.E.), the origin of which is unknown. The Greeks of which is unknown. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from Phoenician adopted the alphabet from Phoenician traders in the eighth century. The traders in the eighth century. The Greeks in turn passed this alphabet to Greeks in turn passed this alphabet to the Romans, who made minor changes the Romans, who made minor changes in it. in it.

MathematicsMathematics The Sumerians contributed The Sumerians contributed

much to the development of much to the development of mathematics. mathematics.

By 2500 B.C.E. their By 2500 B.C.E. their mathematicians devised mathematicians devised multiplication tables for their multiplication tables for their sexagesimalsexagesimal (60) numerical (60) numerical system. system.

Surviving mathematical records Surviving mathematical records demonstrate that the demonstrate that the Sumerians utilized a system of Sumerians utilized a system of place notation and had place notation and had discovered a general solution discovered a general solution for quadratic equations.for quadratic equations.

Later the Assyrians applied the Later the Assyrians applied the Sumerian sexagesimal system Sumerian sexagesimal system to geometry and divided the to geometry and divided the circle into 360 degrees. circle into 360 degrees.

AstronomyAstronomy Records of astronomical observations Records of astronomical observations

in Mesopotamia can be traced to in Mesopotamia can be traced to before 2000 B.C.E. After 700 B.C.E., before 2000 B.C.E. After 700 B.C.E., observations were accurate and observations were accurate and systematically tabulated. systematically tabulated.

These records allowed the These records allowed the Mesopotamians to identify the Mesopotamians to identify the Saronic cycleSaronic cycle (lunar eclipses (lunar eclipses occurring every eighteen years). occurring every eighteen years).

Sometime after 2000 B.C.E. the Sometime after 2000 B.C.E. the Mesopotamians divided the year into Mesopotamians divided the year into twelve months with 30 days each. twelve months with 30 days each.

They divided the week into seven days They divided the week into seven days (one day for each of the celestial (one day for each of the celestial bodies) and the day into twenty- four bodies) and the day into twenty- four hours based on sexagesimal minutes hours based on sexagesimal minutes and seconds. and seconds.

Finally, the Babylonians created a Finally, the Babylonians created a stellar map that described the twelve stellar map that described the twelve constellations (one for each month) in constellations (one for each month) in the equatorial belt through which the the equatorial belt through which the sun passes (the zodiac). sun passes (the zodiac).

The Contributions of The Contributions of Mesopotamia to CivilizationMesopotamia to Civilization

The civilization of the Mesopotamian The civilization of the Mesopotamian peoples exercised an influence far peoples exercised an influence far beyond the boundaries of the Tigris and beyond the boundaries of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Euphrates Rivers.

Traders carried the Sumerian lunar Traders carried the Sumerian lunar calendar, use of the wheel, and a system calendar, use of the wheel, and a system of weights and measures to the of weights and measures to the Mediterranean. Mediterranean.

The Etruscans in Italy (ca. 1000 B.C.E.) The Etruscans in Italy (ca. 1000 B.C.E.) were influenced by the Sumerian system were influenced by the Sumerian system of divination. of divination.

Babylonian architects pioneered the use Babylonian architects pioneered the use of the arch and column later adopted by of the arch and column later adopted by the Romans. the Romans.

Sumerians:Sumerians: These Sumerians (of whom These Sumerians (of whom we knew nothing until a hundred years we knew nothing until a hundred years ago) had a profound effect on western ago) had a profound effect on western civilization. civilization.

The Sumerians were responsible for the The Sumerians were responsible for the first brick layers, wagon wheels, first brick layers, wagon wheels, sailboats, plows, potter’s wheels, domes, sailboats, plows, potter’s wheels, domes, arches, casting of bronze and copper, arches, casting of bronze and copper, soldering, brazing, engraving, sculpture, soldering, brazing, engraving, sculpture, writing, law making, government, writing, law making, government, weights and measures, literature, and weights and measures, literature, and astronomy.astronomy.