Chronologies

Section 1: The Curse of Wealth: Economics

1 5 4 5

1 6 9 0 s

1 8 0 8 - 2 6

1 9 3 0 s

1 9 3 8

1 9 5 8

1 9 7 3 - 7 4

Early 80s1 9 8 2

1 9 8 2 - 9 1

la te 1980s

Columbus introduces sugar-cane in HispaniolaSilver discovered in Cerro Rico, PotosiBrazilian gold rush begins in Minas GeraisLatin American independence: Britain takes over from Spainas the major trading partner and foreign powerVe n e z u e l a s t r i k e s o i l

Wall Street Crash and ensuing depression in the US andEurope pushes Latin America into industrialisationGreat Depression - collapse of commodity pricesNationalisation of Mexican oil industryBrazil becomes Latin America's leading industrial powerFirst oil price rise leads to wave of loans to Latin America.Foreign debt soars.Beginning of cocaine boomMexico defaults on interest payments on its foreign debt,swiftly followed by most other Latin American governments.Start of Debt Crisis and two decades of neoliberal reforms,including renewed emphasis on commodity exportsLatin America pays a net US$219 billion in debt repaymentsto the North - US$500 for every Latin AmericanNeoliberal reforms gather pace throughout Latin AmericaAnnouncement of austerity package in Venezuela provokesriots in which at least 276 people dieStart of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),between Mexico, the US and Canada enables Mexicaneconomy to become effectively cheap labour addition to US,reducing its dependence on commodity exports. Mexicancurrency crisis and subsequent economic recession raisesf r e s h d o u b t s o v e r n e o l i b e r a l m o d e l

2 2 0 f a c e s o f l a t i n A m e r i c a

1995 Start of Mercosur, or Southern Cone Common Market,comprising Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay

2001-2 Crisis engulfs Argentine economy2001-3 One third of Mexico's maquiladora assembly plants relocate

t o C h i n a

2002 44% of Latin Americans (221m people) living in poverty2003 Annual wholesale value of US cocaine market reaches $35bn,

Latin America is sole supplier. Only oil is worth more2005 Global commodity price boom due to Chinese demand

boosts Latin American growth

Section 2: Ballots and Bullets: The State, the Military and Politics

1 8 0 8 - 2 6

1 9 1 0 - 1 7

1 9 1 9 - 4 5

Wars of independence free Spanish America from colonialr u l eBrazil abolishes the monarchy and becomes a RepublicM e x i c a n r e v o l u t i o n

Augusto Cesar Sandino returns to Nicaragua to begin aguerrilla war against occupying US forcesC a u d i l l o G e n e r a l P l u t a r c o C a l l e s e s t a b l i s h e s t h e N a t i o n a l

Revolutionary Party (later the PRI) in power in Mexico; thePRI goes on to establish an effective one-party stateUrbanisation and industrialisation produce new politicalparties, led by populistsSecond World War establishes US as dominant militarypower in Latin AmericaJuan Domingo Peron elected president of ArgentinaCosta Rica abolishes armyBrazilian Higher War School founded, becoming central tospread of Cold-War national security doctrineThe two main parties in both Venezuela and Colombia agreeto share power in order to end decades of instability andmilitary ruleCuban revolution marks first successful guerrilla campaignand leads to wave of foquista guerrilla insurgenciesthroughout Latin America. This is seen by military as proofof international communist conspiracyMilitary seize power in Brazil and rule for 25 years. Thecoup marks beginning of wave of military takeoversD e a t h o f C h e G u e v a r a i n B o l i v i a

Medellin conference of Latin American bishops galvanisesthe left by creating Base Christian Communities across ther e e i o n

CHRONOLOGIES 221

Peru's Shining Path movement founded in remote Andeanprovince. In Chile, Salvador Allende becomes the world'sfirst elected marxist presidentAllende murdered during the military coup which bringsGeneral Pinochet to powerArgentina's military seize powerAt least two-thirds of people on mainland Latin America liveu n d e r d i c t a t o r i a l r u l e

Sandinista-led insurrection in Nicaragua becomes secondguerrilla victory in the Americas. Founding of BrazilianWorkers' Party (PT), based on the support of the 'new socialm o v e m e n t s '

Founding of Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front(FMLN) in El SalvadorCivil wars in El Salvador and Guatemala marked byunprecedented human rights abuses by military. US backsContras in proxy war against Sandinista governmentArgentina loses Falklands/Malvinas war, militarygovernment fallsand democracy returns; senior officerssubsequently imprisoned on human rights chargesChile's Cliristian Democrats lead coalit ion that winselections to end Pinochet presidency. General Stroessnerousted in Paraguay. US invasion of Panama. Fall of BerlinWall marks end of Cold War; difficult times ahead formilitary in Latin America, and identity crisis on leftSandinistas voted from power in presidential electionsChile's General Pinochet becomes the last of the militarydictators to leave officePeace agreement in El Salvador following military stalematebetween army and guerrillas. Military removed from politicsZapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico. US troops interveneto oust military government in FlaitiFlugo Chavez elected president in VenezuelaPRI loses in Mexican elections after 71 years in powerLula and the Workers Party (PT) win Brazilian presidentialelections, beginning centre-left realignment across the regionEvery Latin American country except Cuba and Haiti ruledby elected leaderColombia only country in South America with an avowedlypro-US, right-wing president

2 2 2 f a c e s o f l a t i n A m e r i c a

Section 3: Land, the City and Environment

1519-35 Spanish Conquest: colonisers introduce new animals andcrops and take back to Europe novelties such as tomatoes,maize, tobacco and potatoes; Spanish hand out land andforced labour to their officers through the encomienda system

1538 First slaves brought from Africa to work Latin America'ssugar plantations

1881 Communal land-ownership by indigenous peasants bannedin El Salvador, enabling coffee plantations to expand ontoindigenous lands

1899 United Fruit establishes a monopoly over Central Americanbanana production

1917 Beginning of Mexican land reform - the greatest in LatinAmerican history

1920 First shantytowns recorded in Rio de Janeiro19305 Industrialisation leads to explosion of shantytowns and

e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n c i t i e s . S t a r t o f i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o nleads to mass migration to the cities

1 9 5 0 4 1 . 2 % o f L a t i n A m e r i c a n s l i v e i n t o w n s1950s on Expansion of commercial agriculture throughout Latin

A m i e r i c a

1952 Bo l i v ian revo lu t ion red is t r i bu tes land and ends the near -feudal status of indigenous 'serfs'

1959 Cuban revolution: state farms take over sugar production1960 500 people invade land in Lima to found the Cuevas

s e t t l e m e n t1961 Washington launches Alliance for Progress, which supports

land reform programmes throughout Latin America1964 Military coup in Brazil: new government promotes agro-

exports and the colonisation of the Amazon basin1966 Brazil's military government unveils 'Operation Amazonia' to

colonise and industrially develop the rainforest1970 Population of Cuevas settlement in Lima reaches 12,0001978 Argentine military government bulldozes shantytowns in

clean-up campaign before World Cup1979 Nicaraguan revolution: half of the country's farming land is

i n c l u d e d i n a l a n d r e f o r m1980 64.7% of Latin Americans live in towns. Brazilian government

decrees tax incentives for enterprises taking part in theGrande Carajas development programme

1980s 500,000 gold prospectors pour into the Amazon, bringingdisease and destruction to the Yanomami people

CHRONOLOGIES 223

Under pressure from debt crisis, governments try to increaseagro-exports, in many cases by giving more power to largelandowners. Debt crisis and ensuing neoliberal reforms leadt o m a s s i v e r i s e i n i n f o r m a l s e c t o r

Brazil's Landless Workers Movement (MST) founded. Openingof giant Itaipu dam between Brazil, Argentina and ParaguayUS Congress forces World Bank to temporarily suspend road-building loans due to their environmental impact and includeenvironmental criteria in its project assessments. Mexico Cityearthquake, thousands made homelessChico Mendes, leader of Amazon rubber-tappers, assassinatedby landownersChilean government declares first ever 'environmental state ofemergency' in SantiagoWorld Summit on the Environment and Development held inRio de JaneiroZapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico prompted bygovernment's attempts to privatise communal land-holdings90% of all soybeans grown in Argentina are geneticallymodified (GM)7 7 % o f L a t i n A m e r i c a n s l i v e i n t o w n s

Total remittances from 25m Latin Americans living abroadcome to $46bn, more than foreign investment and aidc o m b i n e dLess than a quarter of Latin Americans live in the countryside,more than half of them below the poverty line. 16% of theAmazon rainforest now destroyed, and a further 3.5% (25,000sq km) being lost every year

Section 4: Identity and Rights

c. 30,000 BC First people reach the Americas across the Bering Straits fromA s i a

1492 Columbus arrives in the Americas, to be met by the friendlyArawak people

1 5 1 9 C o r t e s i n v a d e s M e x i c o w i t h 6 0 0 m e n

1535 Pizarro completes conquest of Inca empiremid 16th C Arawak population of the Caribbean extinct within 50 years

o f C o l u m b u s ' a r r i v a l1781 Tupac Amaru lays seige to Cusco, the former Inca capital, in

indigenous rebellion. Amaru captured and executed1930s on Mechanisation of agriculture and growth of cities encourages

young women to migrate from the countryside to the towns1 9 3 0 s o n

2 2 4 f a c e s o f l a t i n A m e r i c a

1 9 7 5 - 8 5

L a t e 1 9 7 0 s

Officials of Brazil's government agency for indigenouspeople use poison, machine guns and disease to 'clear' landfor large landownersParaguay becomes last Latin American country to givew o m e n t h e v o t e

US Peace Corps expelled from Bolivia, accused of sterilisingindigenous women without their knowledgeUN Decade for Women encourages some improvedlegislation on gender issuesCuban government passes law making childcare andhousework equal responsibility^ of mien and womenWomen in Brazil's Cost of Living Movement lead oppositionto military ruleArgentina's Mothers of the Disappeared lead opposition tomilitary rule, inspiring similar movements in CentralA m e r i c a a n d t h e A n d e s

Nicaraguan revolution: women head health ministry andpolice and government bans use of women's bodies inadvertisingDebt Crisis and neoliberal reforms make life harder for

In Guatemala, 400 indigenous villages destroyed, 40,000killed in counter-insurgency operationsVioleta Chamorro wins Nicaraguan presidential electionsIndigenous groups throughout the Americas condemn theofficial celebrations of the quincentenary of Columbus'arrival in the Americas. Rigoberta Menchu wins Nobel PeaceP r i z e

Proportion of female-headed households now stands at onei n fi v e a c r o s s L a t i n A m e r i c a

Indigenous rebels from Mayan groups lead Zapatistauprising in Chiapas, Mexico. In Ecuador, indigenousorganisations cut off cities in protest at economic structuraladjustment measuresNew quota rules in Argentina ensure that one in fourCongresspeople is a woman - one of the highest proportionsi n t h e w o r l d

Alejandro Toledo elected president of Peru, after stressing hisindigenous origins during the campaign to oust AlbertoFuj imoriAverage Latin American woman has 2.5 children, down from6 in the 1950s

Evo Morales inaugurated as Bolivian president - the firstindigenous head of state in South America

CHRONOLOGIES 225

Section 5: Culture and Religion

1 9 2 6 - 2 9

1 9 6 0 s o n

1 9 6 2 - 6 5

m i d 1 9 6 0 s

In the Treaty of Tordesillas the Vatican divides up the NewWorld between Spain and PortugalIndependence leaders sign concordats with the Vatican,maintaining Catholicism as the state religionFirst moving picture shown in Buenos AiresMexican revolution begins attempt to construct a newmestizo consciousness, especially through the work ofmuralists such as Diego RiveraBrazilian government sets up country's first radio station,wliich soon bows to popular demand for broadcasts of sambam u s i c

Mexican Church suspends public worship to protest at stateharassment. Ninety priests executed during the 'Cristeror e b e l l i o n '

Cuban revolution promotes attempt to build a radical anddist inct ive Lat in Amer ican cu l tura l movement

Born-again Protestant churches begin to expand rapidlythroughout Latin AmericaSecond Vatican Council commits the Church to work forhuman rights, justice and freedomFirst telenovelas broadcast in Brazil and MexicoGabriel Garcia Marquez publishes One Hundred Years ofSolitude, which sells more than twenty million copiesw o r l d w i d eLatin American bishops, meeting in Medellin, Colombia,adopt a 'preferential option for the poor'Cuban government arrests the dissident poet, HebertoP a d i l l a

Singer Victor Jara killed by the army following military coupi n C h i l e

John Paul II becomes Pope and leads conservative offensivewithin Church against 'liberation theology'Nicaragua!! revolution provides state support for poets anda r t i s t s

Assassination of radical Archbishop Oscar Romero of SanS a l v a d o r

General Efrain Rios Montt seizes power in Guatemala,becoming the region's first evangelical dictator. GarciaMarquez wins Nobel Prize for literatureIn El Salvador, Army assassinates six Jesuit priests, theirhousekeeper and her daughter, leading to the withdrawal of

226 FACES OF LATIN AMERICA

US support for the military and the end of the civil warPeruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa loses presidentialelections to Alberto FujimoriGuatemala's Jorge Serrano becomes the region's first electedevangelical presidentColumbus quincentenary prompts continent-wide soulsearching. Televisa's soap 'The Rich Also Weep' takes Russiaby stormZapatista rebels in Chiapas use the Internet to bypassgovernment censorship90% of Latin Americans have access to a TV setPope John Paul II dies, to be replaced by even moreconservative Pope Benedict XVI. No let-up in sight for LatinAmerican progressive Church. Estimated number ofProtestants rises to 60 million, from 5 million in 1970. 56million Latin Americans (10% of the population) have accesst o i n t e r n e t

Further Reading

Section 2: Ballots and Bullets: The State, the Military and PoliticsJohn Lee Anderson, Oie Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, New York: Grove

Press, 1997.Edward L Cleary, Vie Struggle for Human Rights in Latin America, New

York: Praeger, 1997.John Crabtree, Patterns of Protest: Politics and Social Movements in Bolivia,

London: Lat in America Bureau, 2005.

Section 1: The Curse of Wealth: Economics

Eduardo Galeano, Open Veins of Latin America, London: Latin AmericaBureau, 2000.

Duncan Green, Silent Revolution: the Rise and Crisis of Market Economics inLatin America, (second edition) London: Latin America Bureau, 2003.

Jon Hellin and Sophie Higman, Feeding the Market: South AmericanFarmers, Trade and Globalization. London: ITDG publishing, 2003.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude, London: JonathanCape, 1970.

Miguel Leon-Portillo, Vie Broken Spears : Vie Aztec Account of the Conquestof Mexico, Boston: Beacon Press; 1992.

Nick Rowling, Commodities: How the World Was Taken to Market, London:Free Association Books, 1987.

Rosemary Thorp, Economic History of Latin America in the TwentiethCentury: Progress, Exclusion and Poverty, Philadelphia: John HopkinsUniversity Press, 1998.

Timothy A Wise, Hilda Salazar and Laura Carlsen, ConfrontingGlobalization: Economic Integration and Popular Resistance in Mexico,Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, 2003.

2 2 7