Chris Jarvis 1

Leadership

There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success,

than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.

Machiavelli 1513

Chris Jarvis 2

Leadership

‘romance’ of leadership debated in organisational theory

'Any evidence for a systematic relationship between leadership styles & organisational performance?’

Subtexts (p87)

A means of generating ‘stories’ about how kinds of power & influence can be exerted

role of leadership in organisations related to

control over meanings & interpretations of important groups

its effectiveness is as a political tool

Meindl et al 1985, cited in Jaffee, 2001

Chris Jarvis 3

A source of ‘political control and influence’

An more negative argument within organisational sociological tradition

how leadership can influence how a situation is defined

challenges managerial psychology views i.e leadership as an element of group and organisational functioning ( ‘managerialist legitimation’?)

Chris Jarvis 4

Leadership: Conceptual and practical dilemmas

best understood in ‘high profile’, public figure sense

we don’t like the bad ones (Hitler, Maxwell)

often associated with male attributes, which may limit its definitions and thus what happens in reality

may create problems for women put into leadership roles

we feel its absence (leaderless, directionless)

Chris Jarvis 5

Psychological view of ‘what is a leader’ - Kelly, 1991

We may nominate leaders’ differently, depending upon understanding of what the situation demands (originality; defence of group; devotion to duty, etc.) and the role we expect to be played

Leader

one who performs a variety of jobs popularly recognised as "leadership" jobs (socially constructed)

needs to understand his/her role in group social processes

Dynamic, socio-psychological interplay between followers & leadership

Chris Jarvis 6

Authority and Leadership

Max Webereffective exercise of authority requires the authority figure to possess legitimacy, thru. charisma, reputation, lineage or exceptional credentials.

Katz & Kahn (1966)occupying a formal position of authority is not enough – must possess qualities to motivate & energise others.

Henry Mintzberg (1973) All managers adopt a leader role as one of their roles - to integrate individual goals/needs & organisational goals/needs.

Chris Jarvis 7

Four approaches to leadership

Trait theories Brynman 1996 reviewed literature to elicit essential e.g. physique, height, intelligence, sociability, assertiveness - no commonality.

Leadership functions and stylesTannenbaum et al 1961, Likert 1961; Adair, 1965 e.g. task leaders vs. social leaders; participative or exploitative

Contingency or situational leadership concerned with relationships between traits/styles & the situation or context (Feidler 1967; Hersey, Blanchard & Johnson, 1998)

"New Leadership" ..... Transformationalcreate organisational culture that motivates & stimulates continuous learning, quality & self initiative - Burns 1975 and Bass 1985

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Bennis (1989)

Managers (transactional)

administer, copy, maintain

focus on systems & structure

rely on control

short-range view - bottom line

ask how & when

accept the status quo

classic good soldier

do things right

Leaders (transformational)

innovation & originality

develop

focus on people & inspire trust

long-range view - the horizon

ask what & why

challenge the status quo

are their own person

do the right things

'the liberation of talent rather than restraint by rule’ Leaders aim at 'winning hearts and minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use of 'resources'. (Peters & Austin, 1985).

Chris Jarvis 9

Maintaining or losing leadership

Followers have expectations task competence (Fincham & Rhodes 1999) socio-emotional competence especially re-group

Gap may exist between actual & perceived competence – influences willingness of followers to comply - Price & Garland, 1981

Idiosyncratic credit – permission to deviate from group norms - maintaining credit is crucial to surviving in leadership position Hollander, 1958

Common-sense + research link between mgr-leader behaviour & subordinate performance

belief that business success has much to do with 'leadership'.

Chris Jarvis 10

Classical management functions

Fayol

plan, organise, direct, control resources to achieve objectives.

Generate & follow policies, rules & procedures (admin. > mgt?) seek order & control.

handle & direct resources: money, materials, equip't, space, facilities, information & technology use of time people

Have 'subordinates' and communicate

enable others to understand information, instructions or ideas

Telling people what to do & how to do it > vision & giving a sense of direction?

Chris Jarvis 11

Management development & leadership

.Can leadership skills really be developed?

Drake's Drum?

"The Playing Fields of Eton"

team games e.g. rugby, hockey?

simulated field experience (outward bound)?

assessment centre (workshop selection & devel)?

coaching & mentoring

going on a leadership course?

meditation?

reading a book, watching TV?

Chris Jarvis 12

Academic & practitioner recipes

a mix of traditional & behavioural science approaches

few studies offer much to the practical manager (Adair)

academic doubts. Textbooks tend to

report 'theories' few query the validity of each approach

the prescriptions/recommendations an industry selling Elixirs, recipes, 'leadership development' packages:

interpersonal skills, motivating, listening, participative problem solving, assertiveness & transforming skills

Chris Jarvis 13

Unitary (vs. pluralistic) frame of reference

One set of values, beliefs, commitments

Shared understanding & commitment to objectives

One source of leadership

Team members - All pulling in the same direction

Potential for harmony is assumed if leader communicates well

Disagreements the result of misunderstanding

Dissidents & "rabble" hypothesis

Alan Fox – Research Paper to Donovan Commission 1968

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How do different 'styles' affect an organisation?

wide ranging & open to question

difficult to research - what are the variables?

difficult to

separate fact from fiction

attribute cause & effect in different contexts & organisational settings over time

ambiguity of measures of organisational performance

gap between perception of practitioners & behavioural scientists

Chris Jarvis 15

Leadership traits approach

Bird 1940, Brynman 1996 identified traits from 'the literature'. Few common to all studies

everyday wisdom on common traits

many descriptors & many heroes and villains - difficult to agree on one trait list

when leaders behave towards followers in different ways, how much is cause, how much is effect?

do some 'qualities' indicate potential differentiating the 'effective from the ineffective'?

but non-leaders often possess the same traits as leadersConclusion?

Consider followers & situation that L. occurs in.

Chris Jarvis 16

Style approaches

Mayo & Hawthorne experiments (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939)

'permissive', sensitive leadership behaviour more output

Relay Assembly room - increased output influenced by 'permissive' management of researchers

Bank Wiring room - links management style, employee attitudes and behaviour

Kurt Lewin (1939) - adult leaders in boys' hobby club

autocratic, laissez faire, democratic leader styles & the behaviour/performance of youth groups

language & model linking "styles" subordinate performance

Democratic style reflects dominant social values

Impetus for further study - Michigan & Ohio State

Chris Jarvis 17

Ohio State studies (two factor theories)

two (independent) L - dimensions initiating structure (task centred)consideration (interpersonal

relationships)

"measure" perception & style preferences in various settings inventories & development prescriptions.

Effectiveness reflectstask completionmember satisfaction

Flieshman 1953Stogdill (1948, 1956)

Supervisors• High task - productive but high

turnover, lower morale• High consideration - high

morale, low productivityOver-generalised conclusions

Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration.Participative styles preferred

Supervisors• High task - productive but high

turnover, lower morale• High consideration - high

morale, low productivityOver-generalised conclusions

Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration.Participative styles preferred

Chris Jarvis 18

Critique of Ohio Studies

output measures can often be favourably affected in the short term by authoritarian leadership.

The problems of social research

Hawthorne effect

Abstracted empiricism

likelihood that change in performance stems from more than one variable

Chris Jarvis 19

Michigan Studies

programmes for changing style & org. culture

'proprietary' approaches to assessment & training (treatment)

Blake - Moulton Managerial Grid (1968)

Extended with contingency focus

Tannenbaum (1958)

Reddin (1970)

Hersey & Blanchard (1977)

1.9 9.9.the ideal

one-best style

1.1 9.1.

Concern for production

HighLowC

once

rn f

or p

eopl

e Hig

hLo

w

5.5.

Managerial Grid

Chris Jarvis 20

Critique of style theories

Universality of the style?

weak evidence for usefulness of 'style' theories

Style changes often assoc. with changes in org. structure + other mgt competencies .

Fiedler (1967) - Are participative, considerate styles really better than trad. authoritarian/directive?

Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of behaviour change from directive to participative

Chris Jarvis 21

Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum

Tells Sells Consults Joins AbdicatesSuggests Delegates

Boss-centred Follower-centred

decision making &action freedom forfollowers

use of authority byleader

Position on continuum based on situational factors: value system, wants, confidence, willingness.

Chris Jarvis 22

Adair: Action-centred leadership

Task

functions

Group

maintenanceIndividual

needs

Simple model – useful for junior mgt training

functional & situational emphasis on task situation + socio-emotional needs

Aware of group processes, people in group, nuances of behaviour, interpersonal skills

Chris Jarvis 23

Critique of Group Dynamics approach

If leadership behaviour is situationally & group related what happens when the situation or group changes?

Does the organisation function sub-optimally?

ignores wider organisational demands on leader & group.

Yet

we see how leaders may relate to followers & situations

Chris Jarvis 24

Situational L. (Hersey & Blanchard 1977 & 82)

contingency approach

follower maturity a critical situational variable

two dimensions

task style

relationship style

Four styles

telling, selling, participating, delegating.

follower maturity

degree of achievement motivation

willingness to take on responsibility

education or experience

Theoretically weak

no proper rationale for the hypothesised relationships

Maturity - an over-simplified factor - lacks empirical support (Yukl, 1981; Graeff, 1983; Blank et al, 1990).

Chris Jarvis 25

Reddin 3-D (style-contingency approach)

Related Integrated

Separated Dedicated

DeveloperManagerexecutive

Bureaucrat Benevolentautocrat

Missionary Compromiser

Deserter Autocrat

Effectiveness

High

Low

Task

HighLow

Rel

atio

nshi

psLo

wH

igh

Too many labels

Chris Jarvis 26

Problems with contingency theories?

what causes what - in real life?

like style theories, difficult to understand why a favourable view of the leader in some groups.

'permissive' leadership: the consequence > the cause of group effectiveness

social learning - leader & subordinates/followers

have negotiable, interactive relationship

learn to modify or influence each other's behaviour by giving or holding back desired rewards

Chris Jarvis 27

The search for the Grail ?

exercising effective-L is more & more difficult

economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc.

political change South Africa, CIS, Italy, Japan + Europe

big transnational firms

less goodwill & traditional deference towards leaders

Many skills & techniques of today's senior execs are being superseded. Which ones?

Competition & changing markets, products, technologies & expectations dictate adaptability and innovation in strategic decision making, marketing, organisation - & leadership

Chris Jarvis 28

Transformational leadership theory

Context? late-20thC national & global pol-econ. change

Contributors: Downton (1973), Burns (1978), Bass (1985), Bennis & Nanus (1985), Tichy & Devanna (1986)

Bass surveyed 70 execs"In your careers, who transformed you in Burns' terms (raised awareness, move up Maslow hierarchy …. to transcend self-interest etc).

Answer: usually an organisational superior.

fresh thinking? Romanticism?

creates conditions for followers to want to achieve results & fulfil selves.

bridges small group studies & leadership by ’movers & shakers’ who transform organisations

Chris Jarvis 29

From Laissez faire to Transactional

Laissez-faire

not really leaders at all, avoid intervention, weak follow up, passivity, potential for confusion

Transactional leaders management by exception

passive: set standards/objectives, wait for, react to, reluctant intervention. Status quo

active: standards/objectives, monitor, correct, look for error, enforce rules/procedures. Low initiative & risk-taking

constructive transactions, contingent rewards agree standards/objectives, feedback, PR rewards outcome: performance that meets expectations. simplified in One-Min. Manager (Blanchard & Johnson 1982).

Airport business books

Chris Jarvis 30

Transactional leadership

Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even necessary. Contingent rewards underpin PRP - do they?

Laissez-faire & transactional in directive, consultative, participative & delegative styles

directive + Mgt by Exception'These are the rules and this is how you've broken them'.

participative + Mgt by ExceptionLet's work together to identify mistakes'

WeaknessesCarrot/stick rewards, emphasis on plans, targets, systems,

controlsmanagement > leadership fails to develop, motivate, bring to full potential (Bass)

Chris Jarvis 31

The transformational leader (Bass’s four 'I's)

promotes follower desire for achievement & self-development.

teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy, belief, value

Four 'I's.

lndividualised consideration (IC)

Intellectual stimulation (IS)

Inspirational motivation (IM)

ldealised influence (charisma) (II)

Chris Jarvis 32

Individualised consideration & Intellectual stimulation

IC

identifying individuals' needs & abilities, opps. to learn, delegating, coaching & giving developmental feedback. Spend time with individuals e.g. mentoring.

IS

question status quo, encourage imagination, creativity, logical thinking & intuition.

unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation.

compare 1960s UK motorcycles & Swiss watch market to Yamaha and Seiko

Chris Jarvis 33

Inspirational motivation & ldealised influence

IM

Clear vision, problems as opportunities, language & symbols I had a dream …...Ask not what America can do for

you. Ask what you can do..Go the extra mile. Iacocca at

Chrysler.II

Confident in communicating a virtuous vision

The buck stops here'. Purpose, persistence, trust, accomplish > failure. Respected for personal ability

Leadership .. the priceless gift you earn from those who work for you. I have to earn the right to that gift, and continuously re-earn (it).

John Harvey-Jones (ICI)

Gandhi, Luther King, Thatcher, Blair

Hitler, Jim Jones

Chris Jarvis 34

Bass's model

ISIC

IIIM

ContingentRewards

MbEx-A

MbEx-P

LFaire

effective

passive active

ineffective

Learn TL!!

Avolio-Bass training package

Sales pitch - encouraging TL will project confidence, commitment

& competence attract quality staff to mission &

challenge develop people fully to respond

better to competition & change

Chris Jarvis 35

Is transformational leadership cross-cultural?

‘exporting participative management or Theory Y from the USA to authoritarian cultures is like 'preaching Jeffersonian democracy to managers who believe in the divine right of kings'.

Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966

Leadership - a universal phenomenon?

context & culture influences

Bass presents evidence from studies in Italy, Sweden, Canada, New Zealand, India, Japan & Singapore

suggests that the model needs only fine-tuning across cultures ??

Chris Jarvis 36

Motivated in spite of leader? Do we really need 'em?

1970s dissatisfaction with leadership theory & research in explaining effect on motivation & performance

'Substitutes' theory of leadership (Kerr & Jermier 1978)

Are there substitutes making L-behaviour unnecessary e.g.

'Professional', competent people do not need 'leadership' to perform well & to be motivated. Depends on

the individuals, the work, the organisation & its structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction, group cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of the leader

Chris Jarvis 37

Exam Question

Review alternative leadership theories and analyse their value in terms of

(a) guiding decisions in selecting managers to run modern organisations

(b) giving pointers to individuals in developing skills and abilities that, in a range of situations, may further their career aspirations.