china chapter 14. 14 | 2 copyright © cengage learning. all rights reserved. section 1 the making of...

ChinaChina

Chapter 14

14 | 2Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

SECTION 1SECTION 1

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATETHE MAKING OF THE MODERN CHINA STATE



Politics in ActionPolitics in Action• 2010: Liu Xiaobo—first Chinese citizen to win Nobel Peace Prize

– “For his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China”

– Liu, however, could not attend Oslo, Norway ceremony since he was in a Chinese prison.

• China remains world’s harshest dictatorships• Authoritarian political system is ominous.



Geographic SettingGeographic Setting• Comprised of 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 centrally

administered cities, and 2 special administrative regions– Autonomous regionAutonomous region—In PRC, territorial unit equivalent to

province having large concentration of ethnic minorities with some autonomy in cultural sphere, but in most policy matters strictly subordinate to the central government.

• China is rich in natural resources, particularly coal and petroleum.– Also, world’s greatest potential for hydroelectric power

• Less than fifteen percent of land is usable for agriculture.• Countryside plays important role in political development.• Population centered around eastern seaboard, three rivers

– More than fifty ethnic minorities, most living in border regionso Contributes to tension with central government



Critical JuncturesCritical Junctures• People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949.• Must look at history, which can be divided into three periods:

– Imperial period (221 B.C.–1911 A. D.)—China ruled by series of dynasties and emperors.

– Republican period (1912–1949)—China plagued by civil war and foreign invasion.

– Communist period (1949–present)

• Chinese empire first took political shape in 221 B.C.E.– Small kingdoms were unified under first emperor.– China ruled by numerous family-based dynasties.



Critical Junctures (ContCritical Junctures (Cont’’d)d)• Foundation of imperial system that lasted until 1911

– Traditional order supported by influence of Confucianismo Stresses importance of group over individual, deference to

superiors, importance of education, need to maintain social harmony, responsibility of rulers to govern benevolently

– Effective national government with merit-based bureaucracyo Examinations were on mastery of teachings of Confucianism.

• Imperial China experienced internal rebellions.– Some led to overthrow of ruling dynasty.

o New dynasty built on traditional foundations



Critical Junctures (ContCritical Junctures (Cont’’dd)

• Late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century empire faced combination of internal crises and external challenges.

– Population explosion led to economic stagnation.– Corruption and exploitation caused social unrest.– European powers surpassed China in industrial and military

development.o Pressed China to open its markets to foreign trade

Opium War (1839–1842) defeat forced China to sign unequal treaties to open borders.

• 1911–1912: Revolution overthrew dynasty; end to 2000-year-old empire.



Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–1949)Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–1949)• Republic of China established in 1912.

– Revolutionary Sun Yat-sen became president, but could not hold on to power.

– China fell into conflict and disintegration. o Parts of country were run by rival warlords.o Sun started revolution to unify country under Nationalist Party.

• Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organized in 1921 by intellectuals inspired by Russian revolution and supported by Soviet Union

– Joined with the Nationalist Party to fight warlords

• Chiang Kai-shek became leader of Nationalist Party, turned against communist partners, and unified Republic.

– Struck deals with warlords



Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–1949) (Cont1949) (Cont’’d)d)

• Communist Party relocated headquarters into countryside.– Created conditions for Mao Zedong’s rise to power

o Advocated peasants as support for revolutiono Consolidated power, sometimes ruthlessly

– 1934: Chiang Kai-shek’s army began 6,000 mile journey called the Long March.

– Implemented land reform and policies to benefit peasants

• 1937: Japan invaded China.– Pushed Nationalist government to southwestern part of

country, eliminating it as active combatanto Successfully mobilized peasants in guerrilla warfareguerrilla warfare—S—Strategy

based on small bands of soldiers (guerrillas) who use hit-and-run tactics to attack a superior and better-armed enemy.



Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–Warlords, Nationalists, and Communists (1912–1949) (Cont1949) (Cont’’d)d)

• Communist Party expanded membership and developed military force by end of World War II.

– Controlled countryside in north – Nationalists unpopular due to corruption, repression, and

economic mismanagement.

• Chiang Kai-shek retreated to island of Taiwan.• October, 1949: Mao Zedong declared the founding of the

People’s Republic of China.



Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976)Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976)• Communist Party seen as social reformers, patriotic fighters.• Chairman Mao and Party addressed country’s problems:

– Redistribution of land increased agricultural production.– Drives to eliminate opium addiction and prostitution – National law to enhance status of women



Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (ContMao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’’d)d)• Between 1953 and 1957: PRC and Soviet Union implemented

centrally planned economy centrally planned economy and took steps towards socialism.

– Centrally planned economy—Centrally planned economy—An economic system in which the state directs the economy through a series of bureaucratic plans for the production and distribution of goods and services. The government, rather than the market, is the major influence on the economy. Also called a command economy.

– Socialism Socialism —the state plays a leading role in organizing the economy, and most business firms are publicly owned. In Marxism-Leninism, socialism refers to early stage in the development of communism.


Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (ContMao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’’d)d)• Private property overtaken by government and collectivization

of agriculture– CollectivizationCollectivization—Agricultural

land removed from private

ownership and organized into

state and collective farms.– Achieved economic success– Increased bureaucracy

and inequalities persisted.




Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (ContMao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’’d)d)• Great Leap Forward (1958–1960)

– Mao’s discontent with direction of People’s Republic of China– Utopian effort to accelerate economic development and move

toward true communismo CommunismCommunism—A system of social organization based on the

common ownership and coordination of production. In China, the Communist Party, which has controlled the state and society in an authoritarian manner, and have applied Marxism-Leninism to justify their rule.

o Relied on labor power and revolutionary enthusiasm of masses

– Irrational policies, wasted resources, lack of incentives for hard work, and bad weather led to famine.o Industrial depression followed.



Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (ContMao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’’d)d)• Early 1960s: Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took charge.

– Revived economy by abandoning strategy of Great Leap for combination of government planning and market-oriented policies to stimulate production

• Mao became unhappy with social and political development.– Perceived resurgence of elitism and inequality– Also, believed China was moving toward capitalism.

• Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)– Ideological crusade to restore Mao’s vision of socialism and

communism– Objectives: political purification through class struggle– Created Red Guards to support him and attack anyone

betraying Mao Zedong Thought



Mao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (ContMao Zedong in Power (1949–1976) (Cont’’d)d)• Cultural Revolution first phase (1966–1969)

– Red Guard rampage– Destroyed cultural artifacts as symbols of China’s imperial past.– Harassed, tortured, killed those accused of being class enemies

• Cultural Revolution second phase (1969–1971)– People’s Liberation Army to restore political order– Red Guards sent to countryside.

• Cultural Revolution final phase (1972–1976)– Factional conflict over Mao’s successor

• 1976: Mao dies.– Moderate leaders staged coup d'état, and arrested Gang of

Four, marking end of Cultural Revolution.



Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of Chinese Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of Chinese Communism (1977–1997)Communism (1977–1997)

• Deng became most powerful leader but appointed younger, loyal men to positions.

– Reduced state economic controls; increased market forces– Encouraged private enterprise; foreign investment– Strong economic growth through 1980s; international acclaim

• Inflation, corruption, desire for political freedom challenged Communist Party in 1989.

– Large scale demonstrations; media coverage– Communist Party decided to use force at Tiananmen Square.

• Years of political repression and economic slowdown– Deng took steps to accelerate economic reform, avoid

collapse of communist system in 1992.



From Revolutionaries to Technocrats (1997 to the From Revolutionaries to Technocrats (1997 to the Present)Present)

• Deng replaced head of Communist Party.– Gradually turned power over to Jiang Zemin, who succeeded

Deng on his death

• Jiang continued economic reforms and growth.– China became integral part of global economy.– Enhanced its regional and international stature– Politically stable although problems of unemployment,

corruption, inequality



From Revolutionaries to Technocrats (1997 to the From Revolutionaries to Technocrats (1997 to the Present)Present)

• Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang in 2002.– Both were technocrats as opposed to revolutionaries.– TechnocratsTechnocrats —Administer public policy according to a

technical rather than a political rationale. – First orderly transfer of power– Hu places emphasis on socioeconomic problems but takes

hard line of political dissent.

• 2008: Xi Jinping being groomed as Hu’s successor.– Also a technocrat– Little reason to expect change



Themes and ImplicationsThemes and Implications Historical Junctures and Political ThemesHistorical Junctures and Political Themes The World of StatesThe World of States• Weak international position in1949

– Destiny had been shaped by incursions and influences it could not control.

– Mao built strong state able to affirm and defend its sovereignty.

– International stature has increased with economic and military growth.

– Poor, but size of economy makes it a powerhouseo Import and export policies influentialo Nuclear power with largest conventional military forceo Active in most international organizations



Governing the EconomyGoverning the Economy• Experimented with different economic systems: Soviet-

style planning 1950s, Mao’s radical egalitarianism, and Deng’s market-oriented policies

• Ideological disputes over development strategies resulted in political struggles.

• Ability of leaders to successfully govern economy has maintained the Communist Party.

The Democratic IdeaThe Democratic Idea• Deng rule brought greater economic, social, cultural

freedom.– Communist Party suppressed democratic idea.

• Jiang and Hu have championed economic reform but ensured the Communist Party’s control of power.



The Politics of Collective IdentityThe Politics of Collective Identity• China has a strong sense of collective national identity.

– Memories of past foreign encounters continue to influence China’s international relations.

– As communist ideology weakens and capitalism strengthens, leaders use nationalism to rally government support.

• Cultural and ethnic homogeneity have prevented widespread communal violence.

– Exception is in border regions with large concentration of minorities.



Implications for Comparative PoliticsImplications for Comparative Politics• In comparison with communist party-states and developing

nations:– Communist party-states Communist party-states —A type of nation-state in which

the Communist Party attempts to exercise a complete monopoly on political power and controls all important state institutions.

– China is part of Third World according to standard of living measurements, but record of economic growth exceeds other developing countries.

– Educational and health levels are comparatively good.– China has not embraced democracy like other developing

countries.


SECTION 2SECTION 2

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENTPOLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT

State and EconomyState and Economy• By 1949, China’s economy was suffering from one hundred years

of rebellion, invasion, civil war, and bad government.– Communist Party stabilized and revitalized economy

o Private ownership and capitalism allowed to continue

– When production restored, moved to Soviet modelo Command economy—government controlled production and

distribution of goods and services.o Five Year Plan yielded results but grew bureaucracy and inequalities.

– Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution embodied Maoist approach to economic development.o Mao economy plagued by political interference, poor management,

and ill-conceived projects.



China Goes to MarketChina Goes to Market• Under Deng, politics and ideology second to economic goals

– Introduced capitalist-style free market policies– Redefined role of Communist Party in governing economy

o Individuals encouraged to work harder and more efficiently to make money

• In most sectors government no longer dictates.– Prices set according to supply and demand.

o Competition between state-owned and non-state-owned firms

– Communist Party encourages private business.o State-owned enterprises State-owned enterprises still exist; e.g., steel, petroleum.o Private businesses—sometimes called “red capitalists” encouraged

to join Communist Partyo Private sector is largest and fastest growing in economy.



China Goes to Market (ContChina Goes to Market (Cont’’d)d)• Fastest growing major economy for three decades• Consumer revolution, new middle and upper classes• Officially, socialist market economy, not fully free market– Socialist market economySocialist market economy—Refers to country’s current economic

system. It is meant to convey the mix of state control (socialism) and market forces (capitalism) that China is now following in its quest for economic development. The implication is that socialism will promote equality, while the market (especially the profit motive) will encourage people to work hard and foreign companies to invest.

– In theory, market subordinate to state and party



Remaking the Chinese CountrysideRemaking the Chinese Countryside• 1949: Communist Party launched land reform program.• 1950 : Peasants were reorganized into collectives and

communes.– Crops sold to state at low fixed price– Agricultural production and living standards stagnant 1957–

1977

• Deng abolished collective farming and established household household responsibility systemresponsibility system, which is still in effect.

– Household responsibility systemHousehold responsibility system—System in which major decisions about agricultural production are made by individual farm families based on the profit motive rather than by a people’s commune or the government.o Long-term contracts, move to privatize

– Sharp increase in productivity and income



Society and EconomySociety and Economy• Chinese society made more diverse and open by market reform

and globalization– Free to choose jobs, travel, practice religious beliefs, and so on

• Economic change also caused social problems.– Crime, prostitution, drug use

• Economic reform changed social welfare system.– Maoist economy characterized by iron rice bowliron rice bowl——provided

guarantees of lifetime employment, income, and basic cradle-to-grave benefits to most urban and rural workers.

• Breaking of iron rice bowlo Reformers believed that such guarantees were costly and poor

motivators and so income and employment are no longer guaranteed. Rural social services safety net disappearing Public health system, once a model, now in shambles



Society and Economy (ContSociety and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Market reforms opened cities to rural immigrants.

– Floating population Floating population of migrant workers is filling important role but burdening housing and social services.

– Population no longer constrained by limits to internal movement o Opportunities for corruption

• Market reforms and economic boom created inequalities between urban and rural areas.

– Sustainable development is part of party-state’s current emphasis on ““harmonious socialist societyharmonious socialist society””—emphasizes not only achieving a higher average standard of living for the whole country, but also a more equitable distribution of income and social services.



Society and Economy (ContSociety and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Gender inequalities have also increased.

– Although china has one of the world’s highest rates of female participation in the urban workforce, women are in lower-paid and subordinate positions in the work force.

• China has unique and stringent population policy. – One-child policy

o Positive incentive: More farmland or preferred housing for one-child households

o Negative: Fines and loss of jobs; forced abortion, sterilization, female infanticide and abandonment of female babies (to make sure their one child is a son and heir)

o Exception: Two children, if first is a girl; Tibet can have four children



Society and Economy (ContSociety and Economy (Cont’’d)d)• Population policy results in unusual gender imbalance.

– 120:100 males to females– Extreme gender imbalance likely to cause rise in social instability,

violent crime, and gang formation.

• Economic boom also created enormous opportunities for corruption.

– Consumer product safety and quality control in Chinese exportso Involving toys, pet food, tires, tooth paste, and powdered milk

• Economic growth has damaged environment.– Loss of arable land, water shortages, and deforestation

• China has become leader in development of alternative clean energy, including wind and solar power.



China in the Global EconomyChina in the Global Economy• China was not a major trading nation in 1978.

– Became one of Deng’s major goals

• China is now second largest trading nation.– Enormous growth but lack of effective regulation in many sectors– China mostly imports industrial machinery, high-level technology

and scientific equipment, iron and steel, and raw materials.– Net importer of oil due to energy demands

• Foreign investment has also skyrocketed.– Huge domestic market: For example—Coca-Cola, General

Motors, Starbucks, Wal-Mart, and Philip Morris.

• Economic growth, expanding trade and investment, and vast resource base has made China a rising economic superpower.


SECTION 3SECTION 3

GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKINGGOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING

Organization of the StateOrganization of the State• China is one of five remaining communist party-states.

– Characterized by Communist Party domination of all government and social institutions, official Marxist-Leninist ideology, state control of economy

• Chinese Communist Party claims only it can govern in best interests of entire nation.

– Still asserts it is building socialism with goal of egalitarian and classless society

• Constitution states underlying principles of party-state.– States under “leadership of Communist Party of China”– Defines China as “a socialist state under the people’s democratic

dictatorship.”– Implies democratic rights and privileges, but gives Communist

Party authority to repress opposition to socialism or party



Organization of the State (ContOrganization of the State (Cont’’d)d)• Officially Marxism-Leninism still important to party-state

– Mao adapted Marxism-Leninism to China by emphasizing role of peasants in revolution.

– Communist Party admits Mao made mistakes but praises “Mao Zedong Thought.”

– Communist ideology still provides framework for governance and policymaking.

• Constitution is more political statement than governing document.– Changes reflect political changes and reflect ideology of

prevailing party leadership.o Mao era: Stressed class struggle and continuing revolutiono Current: Emphasizes national unity and economic development



CCP Organization (ContCCP Organization (Cont’’d)d)• National Party Congress National Party Congress and Central Committee Central Committee are highest

bodies of the Chinese Communist Party according to its constitution.

– National Party Congress meets one week every five years. o More symbolic than substantiveo Approves decisions made by top leaderso Little debate or contested votingo Not a legislative check

– Central Committee meets annually for one week.o Members elected for five year term by National Party Congress

Secret ballot but limited choice Composition controlled by top leaders

o Significant gathering of party elite Arena for political maneuvering and decision making



CCP Organization (ContCCP Organization (Cont’’d)d)• The most powerful political organizations in China’s communist

party-state are the two small executive bodies at the very top of the CCP’s structure: the PolitburoPolitburo (Political bureau; 25 members) and Standing Committee Standing Committee (9 members).

– Elected by Central Committee under carefully controlled and secretive conditions

• Chairman of the Standing Committee was top position in party prior to 1982.

– Title was abolished in 1982 to symbolize break with Mao’s style of leadership.



CCP Organization (ContCCP Organization (Cont’’d)d)• General secretaryGeneral secretary is party’s leader.

– Presides over Politburo and Standing Committee– Governs as part of collective leadership– Position held by Jiang Xemins (1989-2002) and Hu Jintao

(2002 to present)

• Top leaders are well-educated.– Evidence of shift from revolutionary leaders to technocrats

• Politboro and Standing Committee not accountable to Central Committee or any other institution

– Operations are secretive.– Leaders work and live in heavily guarded and walled

compound called Zhongnanhai (“Middle and Southern Seas”).



CCP Organization (ContCCP Organization (Cont’’d)d)• Secretariat

– Manages daily work of Politburo and Standing Committee

– Coordinates party’s structure

– Authority in organizational and personnel matters

• Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI)– Monitors members’ compliance with Communist Party’s

constitution and rules

– Recently used to fight corruption

– Minor offenses get reprimand or probation while serious offenses are turned over to the courts.



CCP Organization (ContCCP Organization (Cont’’d)d)• Subnationally the Communist Party has hierarchy of local

organizations.– Each is headed by party secretary and party committee.– Primary organizations are called branches.



PRC OrganizationPRC Organization• National PeopleNational People’’s Congress (NPC) s Congress (NPC) is top government

authority.– National legislature– Formally elects president and vice president

o Only one candidate is chosen by Communist Party for each position.

• President’s term is five years, concurrent with the congress, with two-term limit.

– As China’s head of state, meets and negotiates with other world leaders.

– President has always been high-ranking communist leader.– Position of Vice president is used to groom next leader.



PRC Organization (ContPRC Organization (Cont’’d)d)• Premier (prime minister) has authority over bureaucracy and

policy implementation. – Appointed by president, although with the approval of the

National People’s Congress. o In reality, chosen by communist party leadership

– Five year term with two-term limit

• Premier directs State Council State Council —much like cabinet in parliament; size is determined by changing policy needs.

– Most State Council members run functionally-specific departments, such as Ministry of Education.

– Super-ministries coordinate policies on complex issues, such as National Energy Commission.



PRC Organization (ContPRC Organization (Cont’’d)d)• Bureaucracy is immense.

– Not all cadres are party members.o CadreCadre—A person who occupies a position of authority in a

communist party-state; cadres may or may not be Communist Party members.

o Two-term limit for all cadres, include party and state

– Moves toward professionalizing bureaucracyo Increasing education level, civil service exams, mandatory retirement

between 60 and 70

– Policy process influenced by cadre list, or nomenklatura o Nomenklatura Nomenklatura —A system of personnel selection under which the

Communist Party maintained control over appointment of officials in all spheres of social, economic, and political life.



Other State InstitutionsOther State Institutions The JudiciaryThe Judiciary• Four tiered system with Supreme People’s Court at top

– High (provincial), intermediate (city), and (grassroots) county/township levels

• Supreme People’s Court supervises lower courts and application of country’s laws.

– Hears few cases and does not exercise judicial review

• Judicial system accused of elitism and revisionism during Cultural Revolution.

– Many functions handled by political or police organizations, which acted arbitrarily



The Judiciary (ContThe Judiciary (Cont’’d)d)• Legal system has been revitalized.

– Legal advisory offices have been established.

• Increased number of lawsuits have been filed and won against businesses, local officials, government agencies.

– Courts provide avenue for non-political grievances.– Citizen mediation committees settle civil cases out of court.

• Criminal justice works swiftly and harshly.– Outcome of cases that come to trial usually predetermined – Prison terms are long with only cursory appeal.– Variety of cases subject to capital punishment

o Death sentences must be approved by Supreme People’s Court. Review has become more rigorous.

o Statistics are officially a state secret.



The Judiciary (ContThe Judiciary (Cont’’d)d)• Judicial independence guaranteed in constitution but actually

under party control– Appointments subject to party approval– Party bends laws to serve its own interests.

• Legal reform undertaken to ensure economic development• Rule by law: party-state uses law to carry out its policies and

enforce its rule.– Different from rule of law—everyone and every organization

including the Communist Party, is accountable and subject to the law.



Subnational GovernmentSubnational Government• Unitary state in which national government exercises a high

degree of control over other levels of government• Four main layers below central government

– Provinces, cities, counties, and rural towns

• Four centrally-administered cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Chongqing) and five autonomous regions with large minority populations

– Each level has people’s congress that meets infrequently.

• Central government retains considerable power to intervene in local affairs when and where it wants.

– Control over military and the police, the tax system, critical energy resources, and construction of major infrastructure projects



The Military and the PoliceThe Military and the Police• PeoplePeople’’s Liberation Army (PLA)s Liberation Army (PLA), which encompasses

ground, air, and naval armed services is led by Communist Party of China.

– World’s largest military force– Military Service Law allows conscription of men and women

eighteen to twenty-two. – Service is considered prestigious.

• Central Military Commission (CMC) Central Military Commission (CMC) is in charge of armed forces.

– Twelve Members; ten of whom are highest-ranking officers of the PLA; the other two are the PRC president (Hu Jintao) and the CCP general secretary (Xi Jinping).o Chair of CMC is commander in chief of China’s armed forces.



The Military and the Police (ContThe Military and the Police (Cont’’d)d)• Internal security consists of several organizations.

– People’s Armed Police (PAP): guards public officials and buildings, some border patrol, public disturbances

– Ministry of State Security: Combats espionage, gathers intelligence

– Ministry of Public Security: prevention and investigation of crimes, surveillance of citizens and foreigners o In addition to regular prisons, maintains labor reform camps

(laogai) for those convicted of serious crimes.o Moreover, administers “reeducation through labor (laojiao)

centers for petty criminals, juvenile delinquents, prostitutes, small scale drug users, as well as political and religious dissidents. Accused can be held for up to three years without formal

charge or trial.



The Policy-Making ProcessThe Policy-Making Process• Policy-making under Mao seen as simple, top-down “Mao-in-

command.”• During Cultural Revolution, policy resulted from factional and

ideological struggles between political elite.• Currently “fragmented authoritarianism”

– Fundamentally an authoritarian state, but power is more fragmented than it was under Maoo Decentralization of power that accompanied economic reform has

given more clout to provincial and local governments.o Focus on economic development has also led to growing influence of

nonparty experts and organizations in the policy-making loop.

– Policymaking still controlled by Communist Partyo Those that sit on Politboro wield much nearly unchecked power.



The Policy-Making Process (ContThe Policy-Making Process (Cont’’d)d)• Party leadership is balance between two coalitions:

– Elitists—give priority to rapid economic growth and investment in major cities

– Populists—believe more attention needs to be paid to consequences of growtho The two coalitions operate in a kind of “check-and-balance” mode

when it comes to allocating leadership positions and making policy decisions.

• GuanxiGuanxi (connections) play an important role in the policy process.

– Depending on how they are used, they can either help cut red tape or feed corruption.


SECTION 4SECTION 4

REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATIONREPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION

IntroductionIntroduction• Chinese Communist Party describes China as socialist socialist

democracydemocracy—providing democracy for the overwhelming majority of people and suppressing (or exercising dictatorship over) only the enemies of the people.

– Chinese Communist Party believes this is better than democracy dominated by wealth.

– Based on role of Chinese Communist Party as only ruling party– Not to be confused with social democracy

• Representation and participation play important, but limited role.– Allow citizens to influence policymaking and selection of some

government leaders



The LegislatureThe Legislature• Constitution gives National People’s Congress powers.

– Enact and amend laws, approve and monitor budget, declare and end war, elect and approve officials

– Powers only exercised as allowed by the Communist Party– Unicameral legislature that meets two weeks every March– When not in session, state power is exercised by its 150-member

Standing Committee (not to be confused with the CCP Standing Committee) (called deputies), which convenes every other month.

– Members are elected for five-year terms on geographic basis.– Size set prior to elections– Chosen because of ability to contribute to modernization or

represent important constituencies – Never addresses sensitive political issues, but increasingly active



Political Parties and the Party SystemPolitical Parties and the Party System The Chinese Communist PartyThe Chinese Communist Party• Grown steadily since it came to power in 1949

– Membership dropped only during Cultural Revolution due to purges

– “Vanguard” party that only admits those truly dedicated to communist cause

• Claims to represent interests of majority of Chinese– Membership provides access to influence and resources.– Actively recruiting from “new social stratum”

o Party wants to broaden social base to include group on cutting edge of economic development.

o Membership to CCP remains a prerequisite for advance in many careers.



ChinaChina’’s Noncommunist s Noncommunist ““Democratic PartiesDemocratic Parties””• Eight officially recognized noncommunist parties

– Called “democratic parties” to signify role of representing different interests in political process

– Each draws membership from a particular group.– All founded before Communist Party came to power– None contest for power or challenge Communist Party policy,

but members may take government positionso Provide advice to Communist Partyo Generate support for Communist Party policies

• New political parties are not allowed to form.



ElectionsElections• Elections are used to give legitimacy to party-state.

– People allowed to participate in political process under controlled circumstances

– Increasingly more democratic

• Most elections are indirect– Members of one body elect those who will serve in next higher

body.

• Direct elections most common at village level, although some experiments at township level

• Communist Party wants to prevent elections from becoming forum for dissent.

• Citizens do not have control over real power.



Political Culture, Citizenship, and IdentityPolitical Culture, Citizenship, and Identity From Communism to ConsumerismFrom Communism to Consumerism• Communist Party continues to influence public opinion and

socialization to keep communist ideology visible.– Controlling media and education

o Media more open but no true freedomo Political study still required but less emphasis. o Academic freedom increased but not seriously critical or

independent thinking Teachers and students monitored for political reliability

– Less direct influence in arts although party and state censorship powerful

– Censors challenged by Internet

• Web access controlled by licensing, policing organization



From Communism to Consumerism (ContFrom Communism to Consumerism (Cont’’d)d)• Alternative sources of socialization growing

– Often not in political forms due to threat of repression– Statues of folk gods, extended kinship groups, popular

culture, consumerism

• Organized religion increasing– Freedom of religion guaranteed in China’s constitution

o Party constitution modified 2007 to mention religion

– Still closely controlled and limited– Clergy who defy authority are still imprisoned.– Chinese Catholic Church is prohibited from recognizing the

authority of the pope.



Citizenship and National IdentityCitizenship and National Identity• Chinese cultural identity strong, but national identity

transforming– Appeals to socialist goals and revolution no longer inspire

loyalty.o Patriotic themes, greatness of Chinese culture being usedo Party-state highlights its role in economic achievements and

return of territories

– Sensitive to perceived slights to national identity



ChinaChina’’s Non-Chinese Citizenss Non-Chinese Citizens• China is multinational state.

– Fifty-six recognized ethnic groupso Chinese majority called the Majority Han

– Minority population small, geographically isolated, limited unrest

• Minorities concentrated in five autonomous regions– All strategically located, some resource-rich, poor– Chinese constitution grants limited self-government to these

areas o Effort to recruit and promote minority cadreso Head of Communist Party in all regions is Han

• Most extensive ethnic conflict in Tibet – Under Chinese military occupation since 1950s



Interest Groups, Social Control, and Citizen ProtestInterest Groups, Social Control, and Citizen Protest• Independent interest groups and social movements not permitted

to influence political process– Communist Party supports mass organizations, allowing interest

groups to express views on policy. o Mass organizationsMass organizations—Organizations in a communist party-state that

represent the interests of a particular social group, such as workers or women but which are controlled by the communist party.

Two of the most important are: All-China Women’s Federation—women’s advocate from

domestic violence to economic rights All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU)—individual

workers with grievances against management; although first loyalty is to Communist Party

• New technologies make it difficult for China’s party-state to monitor citizens as closely as in the past.



Protest and the Party-StateProtest and the Party-State• Tiananmen Square response of 1989 meant as signal that

neither political protest or autonomous interest groups would be tolerated.

– Few large scale demonstrations since

• Repression has not stopped all protests.– Countryside has seen upsurge of protests over corruption, exorbitant

taxes, and extralegal fees, and the government’s failure to pay on time for agricultural products it has purchased.

• Although people are much freer, repression can still be intense.– Public political dissent is almost nonexistent.


SECTION 5SECTION 5

CHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITIONCHINESE POLITICS IN TRANSITION

Political Challenges and Changing AgendasPolitical Challenges and Changing Agendas Scenes from the Chinese CountrysideScenes from the Chinese Countryside• Each rural area presents different picture of China. Huaxi, Jiangsu provinceHuaxi, Jiangsu province• Richest suburb; well off; looks like American suburb– Grown from small, poor agricultural town by developing industrial and

commercial enterprises that are run by residents and employ labor hired from outside

Changwu, Shaanxi provinceChangwu, Shaanxi province• Persistent poverty; average income less than $100/yr– Residents are mostly older women as men and young women have gone

to look for work in towns and cities.– Education, health care, and other social services are minimal or

nonexistent.



Nanhu, Sandong provinceNanhu, Sandong province• Typical village; Per capita income about $1000/yr

– Paved roads and public buses link the village to nearest town where children go to school.

– Most men work in factories; women tend the fields.– Village has leased out some of its land to expanding

businesses from town in hopes to create jobs.

Zhaiqiao, Zhejiang provinceZhaiqiao, Zhejiang province• Village brought to media attention due to violence and

possible cover-up when outspoken leader was crushed to death not far from his home.

– Government responds to public opinion.



Beiwang, Hebei ProvinceBeiwang, Hebei Province• One of first villages with representative assembly,

democratically-elected local officials– Reassigned contracts for tending village trees

o Changed from equal distribution to small number who would be more efficient and productive

o At first, Communist Party refused to approve but eventually agreed under pressure.

o New system proved successful.

• Politics is not always national or international; people can prevail.



Economic Management, Social Tension, and Economic Management, Social Tension, and Political LegitimacyPolitical Legitimacy

• China’s leaders being challenged to sustain and manage economic growth

– Communist Party believes continued strong economic performance will buy it legitimacy and keep citizens out of national politics.

– Failure to control inequality and inability to provide opportunities for advancement could cause social instability.o Government must provide jobs for those laid off by state-owned

enterprises plus new entrants.

– Must nurture private sector while bureaucracy creating obstacles

– Corruption is pervasive, public health poor, no social security system.



China and the Democratic IdeaChina and the Democratic Idea• China has also slipped on World Bank’s voice and

accountability and rule of law indicators. – “Market-Leninism” combines economic openness and

political rigidity.

• As Chinese conditions improve they will likely become more politically active.

• Reasons for pessimism about Chinese democracy– History of bureaucratic and authoritarian rule– Hierarchical values of Confucian culture– Communist Party remains coercive. – Low standard of living, large population, poverty, state-

dominated media and communications– Many Chinese apathetic about politics



China and the Democratic Idea (ContChina and the Democratic Idea (Cont’’d)d)• Reasons for optimism about Chinese democracy

– Success in Taiwan– High literacy rate, extensive industrialization, burgeoning

middle class, and economic growth

• Changes could be harbingers of democracy– Increased autonomy of local governments – Term limits and retirement age for officials– Increasing role of National People’s Congress in

policymaking– Introduction of competitive elections– Depoliticalization of legal system– Resurgence of civil societycivil society—refers to space occupied by

voluntary associations outside the state.



Chinese Politics in Comparative PerspectiveChinese Politics in Comparative Perspective China as a Communist Party-StateChina as a Communist Party-State• China is an interesting comparative case for two reasons:

– Can be compared with other communist party-states o Shared basic features of totalitarianism political systemo TotalitarianismTotalitarianism—state attempts to exercise total control over

all aspects of public and private life, including the economy, culture, education, and social organizations, through an integrated system of ideological, economic, and political control.

o China is much less totalitarian today than during Maoist era.

– Can be compared with developing nationso Similar economic and political situations

• PRC is now a “consultative authoritarian regime”– Recognizes need to obtain information, advice, and support– Still bent on suppressing dissent



China as a Third World StateChina as a Third World State• When Chinese Communist Party came to power, China was

poor. – Economy devastated by world war and civil strife– In a weak and subordinate position in world order

• China has made progress in improving standard of living, building strong state, and enhancing international role.

– China’s rulers have been successful at creating a developmental statedevelopmental state—Government power and public policy used effectively to promote economic growth.

– In contrast, some third world countries have served narrow class of foreign interests more than national interests resulting in predatory statespredatory states—preying on their people and nation’s resources to enrich the few at the expense of the many.

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