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20 NATIVE AMERICANSConflict with European settlers

22 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAThe Oregon Trail • The Gold Rush • The Homestead Act

24 WORLD EXPLORATIONCook • Into Africa • To the Poles •Exploring space

26 DAWN OF THE MODERN AGE“Scramble for Africa” • Industrial technology

28 WORLD AT WARWorld War I • The Russian Revolution •World War II

30 AFTER THE WARUnited Nations • The Cold War •Independence • Apartheid • The Modern World

32 INDEX

C O N T E N T S

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CONTENTS

4 RUSSIAThe Rus • Mongol rule • Ivan the Terrible •The Romanovs

6 VOYAGES OF EXPLORATIONColumbus • Trade routes • Henry theNavigator • Portuguese voyages • The “New World” • The conquistadors

8 RENAISSANCEItaly in the 14th century • Humanism •Writers and artists • New Horizons

10 REFORMATIONLuther • Church corruption • The Anglican Church • Counter-Reformation

12 ISLAMIC EMPIRESThe Ottoman Turks • The Safavids • Mughal India

14 COLONIES AND COMMERCEThe slave trade •Wealth and profit • Trade with China

16 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONAmerican and French Revolutions

18 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONCoal and iron • New ways of life • The spread of industry

First published in 2009 by Orpheus Books Ltd., 6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire OX28 4AW England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright © 2009 Orpheus Books Ltd

Created and produced by Orpheus Books Ltd

Text Nicola Barber

Consultant Dr Robert Peberdy

Illustrators Simone Boni, Stephen Conlin, Giuliano Fornari, Luigi Galante, Andrea Ricciardi di Gaudesi, Gary Hincks, Steve Noon, Nicki Palin, Alessandro Rabatti, Claudia Saraceni, Sergio, Thomas Trojer,

Alan Weston

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 905473 50 2

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in Singapore

C O N T E N T S

2

Photographs on pages 15, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30: The Illustrated London News Picture Library.

Photograph on page 8: © National Gallery, London

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I VA N T H E T E R R I B L EIvan IV (ruled 1533-84) was the firstRussian ruler to be crowned czar, in 1547.The power of the new czar extended acrossall of Russia, and his brutality was soonbeing felt by many of his subjects, earninghim the name “Ivan the Terrible”. In 1565Ivan set up a special police force in order tobreak the power of the Russian nobility.Noble landowners were thrown off theirestates, and many were murdered. Ivan gavethese estates to his officials. Many peoplefled from the area around Moscow.After the death of Ivan the Terrible,Russia entered a period known as the“Time of Troubles”, when civil wars andinvasions rocked the whole of Russia.

T H E R O M A N O V SThe Time of Troubles came to end in 1613after the defeat of Polish invaders, and theelection of Michael Romanov as the newczar. The Romanov czars were to ruleRussia for the next 300 years. One of themost famous czars was Peter the Great(ruled 1682-1725). He founded the city ofSt. Petersburg in 1703. He also did much toreorganize the government of Russia,introducing many Western ideas.

M O D E R N H I S T O R Y

5

RUSSIA

THE NAME RUSSIA comes from theViking people who arrived at the town

of Novgorod in the 860s. These Vikingswere known as the “Varangian Rus”. Somehistorians think that they were invited toNovgorod to sort out quarrels between theSlav peoples who lived there. Others saythat the Vikings invaded. Whichever iscorrect, the Vikings settled in the areabetween Novgorod and Kiev, and it becameknown as the “land of the Rus”.The first ruler to bring the area under hissingle authority was Prince Vladimir I(ruled 980-1015). He became a Christian in988, and made Orthodox Christianity theofficial religion of his new state.

M O N G O L R U L EIn 1223 Mongols attacked Russia, nearlyreaching the city of Kiev. In further attacksin 1237 the Mongols sacked the city anddevastated much of the land. Russia becamepart of the Mongol Empire, included in aregion known as the “Golden Horde”. TheMongols forced their subject peoples to payheavy taxes and in 1330 they began toentrust the task of collecting these taxes tothe Prince of Moscow, Ivan I. At around thesame time, the leader of the OrthodoxChristian Church in Russia made Moscowhis main centre. Kiev declined as the powerof Moscow increased.The Mongols’ control over the GoldenHorde grew weaker in the 1300s. In 1380an army led by Prince Dmitri of Moscowdefeated the Mongols at Kulikovo, near theRiver Don. A century later (in 1480), underthe rule of Ivan III, Mongol power inRussia finally came to an end. Ivan declaredhimself “Czar of all Russia”, using the Slavversion of the name of the Romanemperor, Caesar. From this time, all Russianleaders were known as czars (or tsars).


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During the rule of Catherine the Great(ruled 1762-1796) Russia’s empireexpanded further. But most ordinaryRussians were serfs (peasants) living interrible poverty. An uprising in the 1770swas put down by the government withgreat severity. Afterwards, Catherineincreased control over the serfs even further.

Ivan the Terrible ordered the buildingof St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow.Work started on it in the 1550s. It wasbuilt to celebrate Ivan’s victories overthe Tatars (Mongol peoples) in thesoutheast. St. Basil’s stands inside theKremlin (opposite), a fortified citadelin the centre of Moscow.

The Cossacks (right)were famed for theirriding skills andbravery in battle. Theword Cossack means “adventurer”.

Ivan the Terrible was thegrandson of Ivan III (knownas “Ivan the Great”). Hebecame renowned for hiscruelty. During his reignof terror, he ordered themurder of anyone heconsidered a threat. Heeven killed his own sonin a fit of rage, in 1581.




T H E “ N E W W O R L D ”The Italian sailor Christopher Columbustried to persuade the Portuguese to pay fora voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, but theyrefused. Eventually his 1492 voyage wassponsored by Queen Isabella of Spain. TheSpanish were very excited by Columbus’sdiscovery, and they paid for three morevoyages under his command. However,European interest in the “New World” wasto have a terrible outcome for the nativepeoples of the Americas (see pages 20-21).Other sailors also set out to explore this“New World”. Another Italian, John Cabot,sailing in the service of the English king

Henry VII, reached the coast of NorthAmerica in 1497. Amerigo Vespucci sailedto South America in 1499 and again in1501. A German map-maker wrote aversion of his first name, Amerigo, on anearly map of the new continent, giving usthe name “America”.


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VOYAGES OFEXPLORATION

IN 1492 Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) sailed west across the AtlanticOcean. His aim was to find a sea route tothe rich lands of the Far East—the lands ofspices and silks. These lands were known toEuropeans as the Indies. When Columbusset foot on one of the Caribbean islands hewas convinced that he had found theIndies. He called the local people that hemet “Indians”. To this day, the Caribbeanislands are known as the “West Indies”.

P O R T U G U E S E V OYA G E SBetween 1424 and 1434 Prince Henry theNavigator sent many expeditions to explorethe west coast of Africa. He wanted to findthe source of the gold that was brought byMuslim traders north across the Sahara. In1487 a Portuguese sailor calledBartholomeu Dias became the firstEuropean to sail around the southernmosttip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. Heturned back soon after rounding the Cape,and arrived back in Portugal in 1488. Tenyears later, Vasco da Gama went evenfurther. He sailed around the Cape of GoodHope, up the east coast of Africa andreached India in 1498. He made a secondvoyage in 1502.


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T R A D E R O U T E SLuxury goods such as jewels, silks and spiceshad long been imported into Europe fromthe East along the Silk Road. But suchoverland routes had fallen under control ofthe Turks. In the 1400s both the Portugueseand the Spanish became interested infinding an alternative sea route to the richesof the East.

H E N R Y T H E N AV I G ATO RPrince Henry of Portugal, known as“Henry the Navigator”, played a large partin directing Portuguese exploration in the1400s. The Portuguese designed a new typeof ship, called the caravel, which couldwithstand the ocean waves, yet was veryeasy to manoeuvre. Instruments such as theastrolabe also helped sailors to find theirway with more accuracy.

Columbus’s fleet wasmade up of three ships,the Niña, the Pinta andthe Santa Maria. He madethree later voyages,exploring the Caribbeancoasts of Central andSouth America.

In 1519 five ships set sail fromSpain. They were commanded byFerdinand Magellan. He plannedto sail down the coast of SouthAmerica and round its southern-most tip. His aim was to sail westto find a route to the SpiceIslands in the Far East, for theeastwards route around Africawas forbidden to Spanish ships.In fact, Magellan’s fleet becamethe first to sail right around theworld, although Magellan himselfwas killed in the Philippines.

Spanish invaders, known as“conquistadors” (conquerors)arrive in the Americas. Twofamous conquistadors wereHernan Cortes (1485-1547)and Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541). Cortes conquered theAztec Empire, while the IncaEmpire fell to Pizarro. TheSpanish claimed the “NewWorld” for themselves andquickly established coloniesthere, often using brutalforce. The local peoples wereforced to work on theirplantations. The Spanish alsobrought with them Europeandiseases, such as smallpox,that were previously unknownto the local peoples. NativeAmericans had no immunityto these diseases, andepidemics swept through theirpopulations, killing manythousands.

The Chinese explorer Zheng He made seven expeditionsbetween 1405 and 1433. He explored as far as the eastcoast of Africa in a junk, a Chinese ship.




W R I T E R S A N D A R T I S T SIn literature, some of the first writers to usehumanism in their work were the Italianpoets Dante and Petrarch. Humanism alsohad a major influence on styles of painting.In the Middle Ages, artists painted in a flat,decorative style. They were not concernedwith making their figures look natural. TheFlorentine painter Giotto became the firstartist to try to portray figures in a lifelikeway. Later in the Renaissance, artists such asLeonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo andRaphael worked for rich patrons in Romeand elsewhere. Michelangelo’s best-knownwork is the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel inthe Vatican in Rome. Leonardo da Vinci wasfascinated by the natural world, andparticularly by the human body.

N E W H O R I Z O N SAs well as being a period of new ideas inthe arts, the Renaissance was also a time fornew inventions and discoveries. The 1400swas a time of exploration, when continentspreviously unknown to Europeans werediscovered. In astronomy, Nicolaus


9

RENAISSANCE

THE WORD Renaissance means“rebirth” and it describes a time when

the arts and learning of ancient Greece andRome were rediscovered by people inEurope. The Renaissance started in the 14thcentury in Italy, and spread across Europeduring the 15th century. Many historiansuse the Renaissance to mark the end of theMiddle Ages in Europe. It was a time whenpeople started to think about themselves,and the world around them, in a new way.

B E G I N N I N G S Italy in the 1300s was not the unifiedcountry that it is today. It was made up ofmany city-states which were controlled bypowerful families, such as the Gonzagafamily in Mantua. These wealthy familiesemployed architects to design grandbuildings that echoed the classical designs ofancient Greece and Rome, and artists todecorate them. They also encouragedscholars to study the works of ancientGreek and Roman writers. During the 1400s the Medici family roseto power in Florence and made the city animportant centre for the Renaissance. Venicebecame another leading centre.

H U M A N I S MRenaissance scholars were interested in thestudy of human nature. This was known ashumanism. They read texts about the greatcivilizations of Greece and Rome that hadlong lain forgotten. The study of humanismwas boosted when many scholars fled westfrom Constantinople in 1453, bringing withthem many precious books.


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Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, putforward the idea that the Earth orbited theSun (and not the other way round aspreviously thought). Inventions such as thesailor’s compass, gunpowder and printingalso revolutionized life for many people.

The Renaissance started in the cities ofnorthern Italy. Wealthy families paid forbuildings designed in the classical style.

Saint Catherine of Alexandria by Raphael (1483-1520)

The first stone of St. Peter’s in Rome was laid by Pope JuliusII in 1506. Some of the greatest architects of the Renaissanceplayed a part in its design. They included Bramante,Michelangelo and Bernini, who designed the magnificentbaldacchino (canopy) that towers over the main altar.

Michelangelo designed the huge 132-metre high dome,although it was not completed until after his death.

Leonardo daVinci (1452-1519) was apainter, scientistand engineer: a“RenaissanceMan”. Thisdesign for a rotorwas made inabout 1500.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), thegreat Italian astronomer.



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T H E A N G L I C A N C H U R C HEngland broke with the Catholic Churchfor its own reasons. King Henry VIII wishedto divorce his first wife, Catherine ofAragon. When the pope refused to grant thedivorce, Henry broke with the Church in1534, having already become the head ofthe Church in England in 1531. Later,during the reign of Edward VI, theProtestant Church in England becameknown as the Anglican Church.

C O U N T E R- R E F O R M AT I O NAs Protestantism spread across Europe, theCatholic Church began to fight back with amovement known as the Counter-Reformation. There was reform within theChurch, and many of the old abuses werewiped out. Catholic priests went out amongthe people and campaigned againstProtestantism. The Catholic Church stillremained very powerful, particularly inSpain and Italy. But the split betweenCatholics and Protestants in Europe led topersecution and conflict. In 1572 thousands

of Huguenots were murdered byFrench Catholics in the St.Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.Religious wars continued

during thefollowingcenturies.


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REFORMATION

ON 31st October 1517 a Germanmonk called Martin Luther nailed a

document on to the door of the CastleChurch in Wittenberg. The document,known as the Ninety-five Theses, containeda series of attacks on the corruption of theRoman Catholic Church. Luther’s act ofprotest marked the beginning of a religiousmovement called the Reformation.

C H U R C H C O R R U P T I O NBy the time of the Renaissance (see pages 8-9), the Roman Catholic Church wasextremely powerful throughout Europe. Itscentre was in Rome, where the pope andhis court lived in lavish style. Many peoplethought that the Church had becomecorrupt, for example in its practices ofoffering important positions within theChurch, or of selling “indulgences” (pardons

from sins), for money. These abuses wereattacked by humanist scholars such as theDutch priest, Desiderius Erasmus. But it wasLuther’s protest that started the process thateventually led to a split in the RomanCatholic Church.Although Luther had no intention ofbreaking with the Catholic Church whenhe first demanded his reforms, he wasexcommunicated (thrown out) of theChurch by the pope in 1521. Nevertheless,he received support for his reforms fromsome rulers in Germany. It was during thistime that the word Protestant began to beused to describe those “protesting” againstthe Catholic Church. The Protestantmovement spread across Germany, and intoSweden and Denmark. In Switzerland it wastaken up by a priest called Ulrich Zwingliwho worked in Zürich.


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Another reformer, called John Calvin,lived in Geneva in Switzerland. He workedto establish Protestantism in France, wherehis followers became known as Huguenots.Calvin’s teachings were taken further afieldto Scotland by John Knox.

Martin Luther posts his Ninety-five Theseson the door of the Castle Church inWittenberg. He believed that people weresaved by faith alone.

The Escorial in Spain was built by Philip II,a supporter of the Counter-Reformation.

A Spanish wargalleon of the 16thcentury. England andSpain went to war in1588, when Spain,under Philip II, attemptedto invade England. But theSpanish Armada (fleet) waswrecked by storms around Britain.

A soldier in the ThirtyYears’ War (1618-48), a conflictbetweenProtestant andCatholic statesin Europe.



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M U G H A L I N D I AThe Mughal Empire was founded in 1526,with the victory of Babur, a ruler fromAfghanistan, at the Battle of Panipat. Baburcould trace his ancestry back to Tamerlaneand Genghis Khan. He became the first ofthe six Great Mughals who ruled over anempire that stretched across almost thewhole of India. The Mughal rulers wereMuslims, while the majority of theirsubjects were Hindus. Babur’s grandson, Akbar, is considered tobe the greatest of the Mughal emperors. Hecame to power in 1556 when he was only13 years old. He set up a system ofgovernment, and tolerated all religions.

Akbar’s son, Jahangir, succeeded after hisdeath in 1605. During this time the MughalEmpire was at the height of its powers. ShahJahan (ruled 1628-58) and Aurangzeb (ruled1658-1707) succeeded as emperors, but afterAurangzeb’s death the empire declined, andparts of it came under British rule.


13

ISLAMIC EMPIRES

IN 1453 the Ottoman Turks capturedConstantinople. This was the final stage inthe Ottoman conquest of the ByzantineEmpire, and Constantinople, renamedIstanbul, became the centre of a wealthyand glittering Islamic empire.The Ottoman Turks originally settled inAnatolia (present-day Turkey) in the 1200s.They gradually conquered the surroundingterritories, building up a vast empire. By the1600s, the Ottoman Empire was the largestin the world, covering much of easternEurope, North Africa and the Middle East. The name “Ottoman” comes fromOsman, the first sultan (ruler) of the empire.One of the most famous of the Ottomansultans was Sulaiman I, known as Sulaimanthe Law-Giver, or the Magnificent (ruled1520-66). Sulaiman expanded his empireand made it into a power to be feared andrespected. Craftwork, literature, educationand architecture flourished during his reign.

T H E S A FAV I D SThe Safavids were another Turkish people.Under their leader Ismail I, they gainedpower in Persia in the 1500s. Ismail becamethe first shah (ruler) of the Safavid dynasty.

The most famous of the Safavid rulerswas Shah Abbas (ruled 1587-1629). Underhis leadership, the Safavid army defeated theOttomans and recaptured land lost in earlierwars. Shah Abbas made his capital atIsfahan, and encouraged study of the artsand architecture. After his death, the Safavidempire began to decline, and it was overrunby armies from Afghanistan in 1722.


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The Ottoman sultans lived in magnificentluxury in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul,the capital of their vast empire.

The Royal Mosque in thecity of Isfahan, in Persia(present-day Iran).Building work on themagnificent RoyalMosque and the LotfollahMosque was startedduring the reign of ShahAbbas, although the RoyalMosque was notcompleted until after hisdeath. During the 17thcentury, at the height ofthe Safavid Empire, thecity of Isfahan, wasrenowned all over theworld for its beauty.Situated high on a barrenplain, it had tree-linedavenues, 162 mosquesand 273 public baths.

Dancers performing at thecourt of the greatMughal emperors. TheMughals builtmagnificent palaces,surrounded bybeautiful gardenswhere they couldtake refuge fromthe summer heat.Water played animportant part inMughal gardens,cascading downformal terraces,or gushing intopools.

The Taj Mahal (above) lies onthe banks of the YamunaRiver near Agra, India. It wasbuilt by Shah Jahan (left) as atomb for his wife, Mumtaz.Work on the tomb started in1632 and continued for 22years. It was designed by IsaKhan, a Persian architect.



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W E A LT H A N D P R O F I T

Overseas colonies brought huge wealth tocountries in Europe. Spain plundered itscolonies on the American mainland,importing vast amounts of gold and silver.Portugal, too, had rich sources of gold in itscolony in Brazil. Goods such as sugar (fromthe Caribbean), tea (from China), coffee andchocolate (from South America) alsobecame increasingly popular across Europe.The slave trade was another source of vastwealth. The slave trade between Africa andAmerica is known as the “triangular trade”because it was made up of three stages.Ships sailed to Africa from Europe loadedwith goods to exchange for slaves—gunsand alcohol, for example. Captives werethen transported across the Atlantic. In theCaribbean, the captives were sold and themoney used to buy sugar, rum and tobaccowhich was then taken back to Europe.Britain became one of the leaders of theslave trade, but other European countriessuch as France, Holland and Portugal alsotook part in this terrible trade. In Britain,the ports of London, Liverpool and Bristolflourished as the profits poured in.

T R A D E W I T H C H I N AAlthough the Chinese were happy toexport goods such as silks and spices to theWest, they rigorously controlled importsinto their country. Foreigners were allowedto trade through one port only, Guangzhou.


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COLONIES ANDCOMMERCE

THE VOYAGES of exploration of the16th century (see pages 6-7) opened up

new possibilities to countries in Europe.Spain and Portugal began to establishcolonies and trading posts in the landsdiscovered by their sailors. Spain tookcontrol of large areas of land in theCaribbean, as well as Central and SouthAmerica. Portugal set up trading posts alongthe coasts of Africa and India. They weresoon joined by Holland, France and Britain,who also began to lay claim to trading portsand other possessions overseas.

The Spanish colonists planted sugar caneplants in plantations, where they forced thelocal Indians to work. But so many of thelocal people died, from ill-treatment andfrom disease epidemics (see page 7), thatthere was soon a shortage of labourers. Inthe early 1500s the first captives werebrought from Africa to the Americas towork as slaves on the plantations. Thetrickle soon turned to a flood, as thousandsof people were transported across theAtlantic Ocean. Many died on the journeyfrom the terrible conditions on board ship.


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T H E S L AV E T R A D ESpanish colonists in the Caribbean quicklydiscovered that sugar cane grew well in thehot, humid climate of the islands. Sugar wasa increasingly popular in Europe,particularly as it could be used to sweetenthe new drinks that were also arriving fromoverseas colonies—coffee, tea and cocoa.

In the 19th century British merchants inChina tried to get round these restrictionsby illegally importing the drug, opium.They were backed by the British govern-ment, resulting in the Opium Wars betweenBritain and China (1839-42, 1856-60).China was forced to back down and acceptEuropean trade in its territories.

The British steamship Nemesis attacksChinese junks (ships) during the OpiumWars. Opium is a drug that is made fromthe juice of the opium poppy. It isdangerous because it is addictive. Opiumaddiction was a serious problem in Chinain the 18th and 19th centuries.

World trade received a boost with theopening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Thecanal created a shortcut between theMediterranean Sea and Red Sea.

Pirates attack a treasure-carrying Spanishgalleon in the Caribbean Sea in the 1600s.

Black African captives were often chainedtogether and forced to walk to the slaveports on the West African coast.

Founded by the Dutch, the settlement ofNew Amsterdam was taken over by theBritish in 1664 and renamed New York.



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T H E F R E N C H R E V O L U T I O NIn France, discontent about taxation wasalso growing amongst the ordinary peoplein the late 18th century. At that time,neither clergy nor noble families in Francepaid any taxes. The burden of taxation fellon working people and peasants. In 1788 abad harvest meant that many people wereclose to starvation. The country was almostbankrupt as a result of costly wars and the

extravagant lifestyle of the monarchy. Whenthe king refused to listen to the demands ofthe people, they formed the NationalAssembly. At the same time, unrest wasgrowing in the streets and on 14th July1789 a mob attacked the royal prison inParis, the Bastille. This event marked thebeginning of the French Revolution.On 26th August the National Assemblymade a Declaration of the Rights of Man,giving the same basic rights to all citizens,including liberty and equality. Soon, Francewas also at war with many other Europeannations. A general called NapoleonBonaparte had risen quickly through theranks of the French army. In 1799 he seizedpower in France and began his campaign toconquer the rest of Europe.


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THE AGE OFREVOLUTION

IN THE second half of the 18th centurytwo major revolutions took place. Thefirst was in North America (1775-83), andit led to the birth of the United States ofAmerica. The second happened in France,starting with the storming of the BastillePrison in Paris in 1789.

R E V O L U T I O N I N A M E R I C AFrom the early 16th century onwards,North America had been settled by groupsof colonists from various Europeancountries. During the Seven Years’ War(1756-63), British and French colonistsfought over territory in North America.

Britain emerged victorious, with controlof a vast area of land. By this time therewere 13 British colonies in North America(apart from Canada). The colonists wereunder British rule, but had no say in howthey were governed. During the years afterthe war, the British government imposedmany different taxes on the colonists. Thesetaxes provoked protests against what thecolonists called “taxation withoutrepresentation”. The first shots betweenBritish troops and American colonists werefired in Lexington, Massachusetts on 19thApril 1775, marking the opening of thewar. In July 1776 the colonists issued theDeclaration of Independence and theUnited States of America was born. Theend of the war came in 1783, when Britishtroops surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia.


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On 14th July 1789 aParisian mob stormed theroyal prison in the capital,the Bastille. Althoughthere were few prisonersin the prison, the stormingof the prison seriouslyweakened the authorityand power of the Frenchking, Louis XIV. At thesame time, riots broke outacross the country. TheFrench Revolution hadbegun. The king, Louis XIVand his wife, Marie-Antoinette, tried toescape, but they werearrested. The NationalAssembly abolished themonarchy in 1792. Theking was tried andexecuted on the guillotinein January 1793. Marie-Antoinette followed him tothe guillotine in October ofthe same year.

The guillotine was the mainmethod of execution duringthe French Revolution.Thousands of peoplesuspected of being hostileto the government werebeheaded during the “Reignof Terror” 1793-94.

One of the many battles of the NapoleonicWars (1799-1815). Napoleon built anempire which covered much of Europe by1812. He was finallydefeated at the Battle ofWaterloo in June 1815.

A meeting of leaders of theAmerican colonists in theSecond Continental Congressin July 1775. The Congressissued the Declaration ofIndependence, drawn up byThomas Jefferson, whichasserted the independence ofthe American colonies fromBritain. The Declaration wasnot recognized by Britainuntil the signing of the Treatyof Paris in 1783 after the endof the war in which Britishforces were defeated byAmerican troops commandedby George Washington.



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C O A L A N D I R O NOne of the reasons the IndustrialRevolution developed rapidly in Britainwas that there were plentiful supplies of coaland iron. Coal heated the furnaces whereiron was separated from its ore (smelting). Italso provided fuel for steam engines. Ironwas used to make engines and machines, aswell as bridges and railways. As industrygrew, it became vital to be able to transportgoods around the country. This resulted in aperiod of canal-building, followed by thedevelopment of the railways.

T H E S P R E A D O F I N D U S T R Y The process of industrialization spreadrapidly across Europe in the 19th century,particularly in Belgium, France andGermany. It reached the United States inthe middle of the 19th century, andcountries such as Japan later in the century.


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THE INDUSTRIALREVOLUTION

THE INDUSTRIAL Revolution is thename given to a series of changes that

took place in the late 18th and 19thcenturies. The Industrial Revolution beganin Britain, but during the 19th century itquickly spread to other European countriesand to North America.Up until the mid-1700s, mostmanufacturing was carried out on a smallscale in people’s homes or in smallworkshops. Machines were driven by hand,or sometimes by water- or animal-power. Inthe 18th century, new and bigger machineswere invented making it possible to producegoods more quickly and efficiently. Thesenew machines needed more power thancould be provided by animals or water. Thedevelopment of the steam engine answeredthis need.This new machinery was too bigfor homes or workshops, so manufacturingmoved into mills and factories.

The Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale, Shropshire,England, was the first bridge in the world to bemade out of iron. It crosses the River Severn andwas completed in 1779. Coalbrookdale was oneof the main centres of iron production in theIndustrial Revolution.

An industrial scene in the 19th century. Goodswere transported by canal and, after the late1820s, by railway. The new mills and factoriesneeded supplies of coal to drive their steamengines, as well as supplies of raw materials tomanufacture their goods, for example, textiles.


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A N E W L I F EThe Industrial Revolution caused greatchanges in the way people lived andworked. Millions of people moved fromrural areas to work in the new factories,mills and mines. However, in some places,working conditions were appalling anddangerous. Women and children workedlong hours for little pay. Housing in thenew industrial centres was oftenovercrowded and insanitary. Under pressurefrom the workers and reformers, thegovernment eventually passed laws whichaimed to improve workers’ conditions.

Children worked in the mines, cutting coaland transporting it to the surface.

Shipbuilding (left) boomedduring the IndustrialRevolution. Steamships withiron hulls and screwpropellers were used totransport raw materials andother goods around theworld. The first ship of thiskind, the Great Britain, waslaunched in 1843.

A new railway in Japan(above). Japan became anindustrialized country in thelate 19th century.

A paper mill in Britain in1854 (below). Equipped withcoal-powered steam engines,mills manufactured goodssuch as paper and cloth.



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F I G H T I N G F O R T H E L A N DMost Native Americans did not want tomove from their traditional homelands, andfought bitterly against the Americangovernment. In the southeast, for example,the Cherokee were forced off their lands bygovernment troops and forced to walkthousands of kilometres to reservations inthe West. Thousands died, and this journeybecame known as “The Trail of Tears”. TheNative Americans of the Plains also foughtthe settlers who moved into theirterritories. But their old ways of life weredestroyed when hunters almost completelywiped out the herds of buffalo that lived onthe Great Plains. Sometimes, however, therewere Native American victories over thearmy: for example, at the Battle of LittleBighorn (1876), when Sioux warriorsdefeated General Custer’s troops.

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NATIVE AMERICANS

WHEN the first Europeans arrived inNorth America in the 16th century,

they found the land occupied by tribes ofNative Americans. These local people hadlived there for generations, developing theirown cultures and ways of life. The arrival ofEuropeans changed the Native Americans’lives for ever. Imported diseases (see page 7)spread like wildfire through the localpeoples, killing millions. Many more werekilled in land disputes with the Europeancolonists. During the 19th century Europeansettlers poured into the United States ofAmerica and the country expandedwestwards (see pages 22-23). At first, theAmerican government set aside some areasof land for the Native Americans, known as“reservations”. Then, in 1830, thegovernment passed the Indian Removal Actwhich gave it the right to force NativeAmericans to move from their homelandson to land in the West that the Europeansettlers did not want.


20

Warriors of the Sioux tribeprepared for battle bydancing together to draw onthe power of the “GreatSpirit” (below). Manywarriors painted an image ofa powerful beast on to theirshields, to strengthenthemselves for battle.

Sioux chiefs (above), such asSitting Bull, wore impressiveeagle-feather headdresses asa sign of their great bravery.Sitting Bull was the leader ofthe Sioux at the time of theirvictory at the Battle of LittleBighorn. He was killed byAmerican troops in 1890.

The people of the Great Plains lived in tipis, tents made frombuffalo hides stretched over wooden poles. After Europeansintroduced the horse into North America in the 16th century,the Native Americans of the Plains became skilful riders,using horses to helpthem hunt the herds of buffalo that lived on the Plains. Buffaloprovided the Plainspeoples with meat forfood, as well as hidesfor clothing andshelter. Whenthe herds ofbuffalo weredestroyed in the19th century,the NativeAmericans’ wayof life wasdestroyed, too.



150# DTP:39 PAGE:23(AB)

T H E G O L D R U S HIn January 1848 a man called JamesMarshall was inspecting his employer’ssawmill when he noticed somethingglittering in the water of the millstream. Hepicked it up. It was gold! The news of thediscovery of gold in California soon leakedout. People came from all parts of America,and many parts of the world, to seek theirfortunes in the goldfields of the West. Sometravelled overland across the continent,others came by sea to San Francisco. Veryfew made any money.

T H E H O M E S T E A D A C TBy 1850 American settlers had reached theMississippi River. In the west, farmers werebeginning to move into Oregon andCalifornia. But much of the central part ofthe country, the Great Plains, remainedunsettled. In 1862 the government passedthe Homestead Act, which encouragedpeople to move there and farm the land. Atthe same time, the railway was being builtacross the continent. All of this spelt disasterfor the Native Americans (see pages 20-21).


23

THE GROWTH OFAMERICA

WHEN European colonists arrived inNorth America in the 16th century,

they founded settlements along the eastcoast. But after the end of the Seven Years’War (see page 16), settlers began to movewest of the Appalachian Mountains. Theseearly pioneers were often fur traders, orfarmers looking for new, free land.

T H E O R E G O N T R A I LIn the 1840s the USA gained control ofOregon on the northwest coast. It alsoacquired New Mexico following victory ina war with Mexico. The possibility ofstarting a new life in the West encouragedmany people to set out on the dangerousjourney westwards. Many took the OregonTrail, which started at the Missouri Riverand ended in the lush Willamette Valley. Thejourney was very hazardous, and many died.


22

The movement westwards continued overthe following decades. Then, in 1803,President Jefferson bought the vast territoryof Louisiana from the French government.Louisiana stretched from the MississippiRiver to the Rocky Mountains. Jeffersonsent out an expedition, led by MeriwetherLewis and William Clark, to discover moreabout his purchase. In 1805 the expeditionreached the west coast of America.

When travelling along the Oregonor California trails, pioneers setout in groups of wagons, knownas wagon trains. This was forsafety in case of Native Americanattack. At night, when the wagonsstopped, they were drawn up toform a ring, called a corral, forprotection. Tents were pitchedinside. The women prepared foodfor an evening meal, while themen made repairs to the wagons,and tended to the animals.

The pioneers who set out alongthe Oregon and California trailspacked their supplies and theirbelongings into wagons. Thesewagons were wooden, with irontyres and a canvas covering.Water was stored in a barrelstrapped to one side. They werepulled by teams of oxen.

Abraham Lincoln was president of the USAfrom 1861-5, during the American CivilWar. He helped to bring an end to slavery.

Jewish refugees arrive inNew York City (right).Between 1840 and 1930,millions of peopleemigrated to the UnitedStates from all overEurope. They includedIrish and Germans and,after 1890, Italians, andJews fleeing persecutionin Russia.

Bandits hold up a train in the American West(below). Outlaw gangsroamed the West in thesecond half of the 19thcentury and trains werefrequent targets. The firstrailway to link the eastcoast cities of Americawith the Pacific coast wascompleted in 1869.



150# DTP:39 PAGE:25(AB)

I N TO A F R I C ADuring the 18th and 19th centuriesEuropean and American explorers venturedinto parts of Africa never before visited bywhite people. They wanted to learn aboutthe geography and people of Africa—aswell as what raw materials could beobtained. They also wanted to find newmarkets for European goods.

E X P LO R I N G S PA C E Exploration in the 20th century has gonebeyond Earth and into space. The firstperson to travel through space was Russiancosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, in 1961. In thefollowing year, the Americans sent their firstastronaut, John Glenn, into orbit. The spacerace between the countries resulted in theAmericans landing the first person on theMoon in 1969. Since then, unmannedprobes have landed on Mars, and haveexplored the Solar System, sendinginformation and pictures back to Earth.


25

WORLD EXPLORATION

IN 1768 a ship called the Endeavour sailedfrom England. It was commanded byLieutenant (later Captain) James Cook(1728-79). The Endeavour was on a scientificvoyage, bound for Tahiti in the PacificOcean. But Cook had other instructions aswell. At this time, European knowledge ofthe South Pacific was based on vaguereports, mostly from Dutch sailors. Cookwas to explore further. In fact, this was tobe the first of three great voyages made byCook, in which he charted much of thecoastline of Australia and New Zealand, aswell as many Pacific islands. He also sailedfurther south than anyone had before him.


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T O T H E P O L E SBy the end of the 19th century there werefew places on Earth that had not beenexplored and mapped by people. Theexceptions were the North and Southpoles. After many years of planning andfailed attempts, the American Robert Pearyreached the North Pole in 1909. The raceto the South Pole was won by NorwegianRoald Amundsen in 1911.

The Frenchman, RenéCaillié (1799-1838), wasthe first European to go toTimbuktu in Africa andreturn safely. Travellingdisguised as an Arab, hereached Timbuktu in1828 after a journey ofabout 2400 km, mostlyon foot. A trading town onthe southern edge of theSahara, Timbuktu waspart of the Islamic worldand closed to Europeans.On his return home,Caillié was awarded aprize of 10,000 francs bythe Geographical Societyof Paris.

Cook’s ship, theEndeavour, had threemasts and three decks. Itwas about 30 m long.The lower decks werepacked full of stores forthe long voyage. Cookwanted to stop his crewgetting a disease calledscurvy. This was causedby a lack of vitamin C(found in fresh fruit andvegetables), althoughpeople did not know thatat the time. Cook gavehis sailors pickledcabbage and a type oforange marmalade.

Henry Stanley was an American journalistwho went to Africa to seek fame andfortune—which he did when he “found” theBritish explorer David Livingstone in 1871.

Robert Peary (1856-1920)spent time with the Inuit peopleof Greenland, learning aboutmethods of survival in the harshArctic conditions. He usedhusky dogs to pull sledges onhis expeditions, and woretraditional Inuit clothing.

Roald Amundsen (1872-1928,right) reached the South Pole on14th December 1911 (above).Like Peary, Amundsen used dogsto pull his sledges. Amundsen’srival was Robert Scott, a Britishexplorer who arrived at theSouth Pole some days afterAmundsen. Scott and his teamdied on the return journey.

US astronaut Neil Armstrong (born 1930)became the first man to set foot on theMoon in July 1969. He travelled with twoother astronauts, Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin andMichael Collins, in Apollo 11.

On 29th May 1953 a NewZealander called EdmundHillary and a NepaleseSherpa called TenzingNorgay became the firstpeople to stand on the topof the highest mountain inthe world—Everest.Mount Everest stands8863 m above sea level.Hillary and Tenzingcarried oxygen to helpthem breathe in the thinair at the top of themountain. Worried thattheir oxygen may run out,they stayed on the top foronly 15 minutes—justlong enough to take somephotographs to prove thatthey had made it.



150# DTP:39 PAGE:27(AB)

A busy street scene in NewYork City in about 1900.Horse-drawn buses ranalong metal tracks laidin the roads. Motorcars were still arare sight.

I N D U S T R I A L T E C H N O LO G YIndustrialization during the 19th centurywent hand-in-hand with the invention ofnew technology. New inventions such asthe telephone, the camera, the typewriterand electric lighting transformed everydaylife for many people. The increasedproduction of iron and steel, andimprovements in their technology,resulted in the construction ofdramatic new structures such as theEiffel Tower in Paris, and the firstskyscrapers in Chicago and NewYork in the USA. Methods of transport alsobenefited from new designsand technology. Railwaysallowed ordinary peopleto travel further and

more cheaply than ever before. One of thegreatest feats of railway building was theconstruction of the Trans-Siberian Railway,which linked the Russian capital, Moscow,with Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean. The

bicycle was another inventionthat gave ordinary peoplegreater freedom. The motorcar started to become popularin the 1890s, but it was notuntil the mass production ofHenry Ford’s Model T in1908 that most people couldafford to buy one. In 1903two American brothers,Orville and Wilbur Wright,made the first successfulpowered flight, marking thebirth of the aeroplane—and anew form of transport.


27

DAWN OF THEMODERN AGE

ALTHOUGH Britain had been the firstto experience the Industrial

Revolution (see pages 18-19), other nationswere quick to catch up. In the second halfof the 19th and early part of the 20thcentury, Germany, Russia and the UnitedStates began to challenge British dominancein areas such as steel and textile production,and shipbuilding.As production increased in Europe andAmerica, the industrialized countries lookedabroad for sources of cheap raw materials,and for new markets in which to sell theirmanufactured goods. The wealthy nationsexploited their old colonies, but also lookedfor opportunities to acquire new colonies.Following the exploration of the interior ofAfrica (see pages 24-25), European nationsbegan to lay claim to large parts of theAfrican continent. This became known asthe “Scramble for Africa”.

“ S C R A M B L E F O R A F R I C A”In 1880 a tiny part of Africa was ruled byEuropean nations. Only 20 years later,Europe had laid claim to the entire Africancontinent with the exception of Ethiopiaand Liberia. In 1884 a conference was heldin Berlin to decide how Africa was to bedivided up—but no African representativeswere present to decide their own future.


26

People in the early 20thcentury found it difficultto get used to the noiseand speed of newmethods of transport suchas the car and aeroplane.The engines used topower the earliest carswere developedseparately by two Germanengineers, GottliebDaimler and Karl Benz in1885. The first pneumatic(air-filled) tyres wereproduced by a Frenchfirm, Michelin, 10 yearslater. The car industrygrew rapidly in the USAthanks to a ready supplyof oil to provide petrol,and the introduction ofmass-productiontechniques in carmanufacturing.

For poor children in the cities, life at thebeginning of the 20th century was hard,with cramped conditions and little to eat.


150# DTP:39 PAGE:28JOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:WORLD HISTORY

150# DTP:39 PAGE:29

T H E R U S S I A N R E V O L U T I O NRussia suffered some humiliating defeats atthe beginning of World War I, for example,at the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914, whenGerman forces killed or captured thousandsof Russian soldiers. Russia was ruled byCzar Nicholas II, a member of theRomanov dynasty (see page 5), but severeshortages of food and the massive warcasualties led to popular unrest. In 1917 anuprising in St. Petersburg forced the czar togive up his throne. In a deliberate attemptto weaken Russia even further, Germanyallowed a revolutionary called Lenin toreturn from exile in Switzerland. Lenin ledanother uprising in Russia, seizing controlof the government. He then started peacetalks with the Central Powers, and Russiawithdrew from the war.

W O R L D W A R I IPeople called World War I the “war to endwars”, but the peace treaty that was drawnup in 1918 punished Germany severely forits part in the war. This led to extremenationalism in Germany and the rise topower of the National Socialist (Nazi)leader, Adolf Hitler, in the 1930s. In 1939Germany invaded Poland, drawing nationsacross the world into war once again.


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WORLD AT WAR

THE BEGINNING of the 20th centurywas a time of increasing rivalry

between the European nations. Somenations joined together to form alliances,promising to help each other if they wereattacked. Germany, Austria-Hungary andItaly formed the Triple Alliance (laterknown as the Central Powers). Britain,France and Russia formed the TripleEntente (later known as the Allies).However, the event that sparked off wartook place in Sarajevo, Bosnia, whenArchduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to thethrone of Austria-Hungary, was assassinatedby a Serbian protester in 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, promptingRussia to send troops to defend Serbia.Soon, Germany, France and Britain had alsobeen drawn into World War I.The war was fought mainly on twofronts, in the West across Belgium andFrance, and in the East along the Russian

border. In the West, the fighting soonturned into stalemate. A system of trencheswas dug (bottom), stretching from theEnglish Channel to Switzerland and battleswere fought along this line. Millions ofsoldiers died on both sides. In 1917 theUnited States joined the war, helping theAllies to defeat the Central Powers in 1918.


28

The war was fought between the Axispowers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and theAllies (Britain and the Commonwealthcountries, France, the Soviet Union and theUnited States). Battles were fought all overthe world—in the jungles of Southeast Asia,on Pacific islands, in the deserts of NorthAfrica and on the oceans. The war alsocame to European cities, as bombing raidsdestroyed buildings and killed many people.The war ended with the defeat of the Axispowers, but only after the dropping ofnuclear bombs on the Japanese cities ofHiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

The Fokker plane of theso-called “Red Baron”was painted brightred. BaronManfred vonRichthofen was aGerman flyinghero of WorldWar I.

Tanks (right) were usedfor the first time in

World War I.

Russian revolutionaries go into action.They were called Bolsheviks, from theRussian word for “majority”.

Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)rose to power as leaderof the German Nazi partyin the 1930s. OtherFascist leaders includedMussolini in Italy andFranco in Spain.

A British Spitfireplane. Spitfiresfought Germanfighters andbombers in theBattle of Britain(1940) in WorldWar II.

World War II was fought on battlefields allover the world. These troops are fighting inthe desert of North Africa.

UK Text (AB)



150# DTP:39 PAGE:31(AB)

AFTER THE WAR

WORLD WAR II came to an end in1945 (see page 29). Millions had died

and cities around the world were left inruins. In particular, Hitler had beendetermined to wipe out Jewishcommunities in the territories hecontrolled, and millions had died in slavecamps and concentration camps. Theterrible death and destruction inspiredpeople to ensure that such a war couldnever happen again. In 1945 50 nationssigned the charter of the United Nations,promising to promote world peace.

I N D E P E N D E N C EIndia had been a British territory since1858. Despite Indian demands for reformand, after 1917, for independence, Britainwas very reluctant to let India go. After the1920s the campaign for independence wasled by Mahatma Gandhi. It was not until after World War II thatthe British government finally agreed toIndian independence. However, religiousmatters led to terrible bloodshed. Althoughthe majority of people in India wereHindus, there were also many Muslims whodid not want to live under Hindu rule. TheMuslim leader Mohammed Ali Jinnahcampaigned for a separate state for Muslims,

and the British were eventually forced toagree. In 1947 two areas in northwest andnortheast India became the Muslim state ofPakistan (the northeast part is present-dayBangladesh). As people moved from onestate to the other, violence broke outbetween the two sides: thousands died. Indiabecame independent on 15th August 1947.Many other former colonies also gainedtheir independence after World War II.Many African colonies became independentpeacefully—others were forced to fight forit. In South Africa, the white minority useda policy called “apartheid” to keep the blackmajority out of power. The struggle toend apartheid finally succeeded in1994, when free elections wereheld and Nelson Mandelabecame president.

T H E M O D E R N W O R L DThe Cold War finally came to an end in theearly 1990s as Communism collapsed. Today,many countries are fighting a “war onterror” after the events of 11th September2001. US-led wars in Iraq and Afghanistan

have begun since then. There also continues

to be a huge gap betweenrich and poor countries.Making sure everyonehas food, health careand education is amajor challengefor the future.

M O D E R N H I S T O R Y M O D E R N H I S T O R Y

30 31

T H E C O L D W A RAt the end of the war, it was clear that twocountries—the United States of Americaand the Soviet Union—had become theworld’s leading powers, the “superpowers”.(The Soviet Union was formed in 1922when Russia joined with other territoriesunder Communist rule.) After the war,Soviet leaders tried to extend Communistrule in Europe and Asia. The strugglebetween the Communists and theAmericans was known as the “Cold War”.

Mohandas KaramchandGandhi (1869-1948) led theIndian campaign forindependence. He becameknown as Mahatma, meaning“Great Soul”. He was apeace-loving man who led acampaign of non-co-operationagainst the British, butrefused to use violence. Oneof his most famous protestswas the Salt March of 1930,when he led hundreds ofpeople to the sea to make saltfrom seawater. This was inprotest at the Salt Actsimposed by the British, whichforced people to buy heavilytaxed salt direct from thegovernment.

The Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin (right), USPresident Roosevelt (centre) and theBritish leader, Winston Churchill (left),meet at the Yalta Conference in 1945 todiscuss plans for after the end of war.

After the war, Germany wasdivided up between the USA,Britain, France and the SovietUnion. The capital, Berlin, layin the Soviet zone, but wasalso divided between the fourpowers. In 1949 three zoneswere joined together to formWest Germany, while theSoviet zone became EastGermany with a Communistgovernment. Berlin remaineddivided and, in 1961, theCommunists built a wallacross the city to preventpeople moving from East toWest. The hated wall camedown in 1989 (right), whenCommunism in easternEurope collapsed.

`The Communists came topower in China in 1949,under the leadership ofMao Zedong (right). Maooversaw dramatic reformsin China designed toimprove the economy andincrease food production.Industries were broughtunder government controland land was taken overby co-operatives.However, many peoplewere killed or sent intoexile for criticizing Mao.

This is the same view ofNew York as on page 27,about 100 years later. Thecar has transformed life forpeople in the 20th century,giving them more freedomthan ever before, but it hasalso introduced newproblems. Pollution fromexhaust fumes is a majorproblem in most cities. Airpollution is also a cause ofglobal warming, whichcould affect the climatepatterns of the Earth.


150# DTP:39 PAGE:32

Aaeroplanes 26-27Africa 14-15, 24-25, 26European colonization of 26, 31

European exploration of 6, 24-25

Allies 28-29America, European discovery of 6-7,20

European settlement of 20, 22-23

American Civil War 23American Revolution

16-17Americans, Native 33,

20-21, 22-23Anglican Church 11apartheid 5Arctic, exploration of 25Axis powers 29Aztec Empire 7

BBastille, storming of the

16Berlin 31Conference of 26

Berlin Wall 31Bonaparte, Napoleon 17Britain (Great) 14, 16-17,

18-19, 28-29, 30-31Battle of 29

British Empire 13Byzantine Empire 12

CCabot, John 7Calvin, John 10Cape of Good Hope 6Caribbean Sea 6, 14-15cars 26cathedrals 4Catherine of Aragon 11Catherine the Great 5Central America 6, 14Central Powers 28-29China 15, 30Churchill, Winston 30coal 19Cold War 30-31colonies, British 16Dutch 14European 14-15, 26, 31French 16Portuguese 15Spanish 7, 14-15

Colonies, The Thirteen 16-17

Columbus, Christopher 6-7

Communism 30-31

J K LJapan 19, 29Jefferson, Thomas 17, 22Jews 23, 30Knox, John 10Lenin 29Leonardo da Vinci 9Lincoln, Abraham 23Louis XIV 16Luther, Martin 10

MMagellan, Ferdinand 7Mandela, Nelson 31Mao Zedong 30Marie-Antoinette 16Medici family 8Michelangelo 9Moon, landing on the 25Moscow 4-5Mughal Empire 13Muslims 6, 13, 30-31Mussolini, Benito 29

NNagasaki 29Napoleonic Wars 17Nazi Party 29New York 14, 23, 27, 31Nicholas II 29Ninety-five Theses 10North America 16, 18,

20-21, 22-23nuclear bombs 29

O POpium Wars 15Orthodox Christian

Church 4 Ottoman Empire 12Pacific Ocean, European

exploration of 24Paris, Treaty of 17Peter the Great 5Philip II 10-11pirates 15Pizarro, Francisco 7pollution 31population 16poverty 26, 31Protestant Church 10-11

Rrailways, development of

18-19, 23, 27Reformation 10-11Reign of Terror 16Renaissance 8-9Roman Catholic Church

10-11Romanovs 5, 29Rome 8-9, 10Roosevelt, Franklin D. 30Russia 4-5, 23, 26-27,

28-29Russian Empire 5Russian Revolution 29

collapse of 31Constantinople 8, 12Cook, Captain James 24Copernicus, Nicolaus 9Cortes, Hernan 7Counter-Reformation

10-11Custer, General 21czar 5

D EDante 9Declaration of

Independence 16-17Declaration of the Rights

of Man 17Dias, Bartholomeu 6disease 7, 14Eiffel Tower 27Erasmus, Desiderius 10Europe 14, 15, 17, 18-19,

26, 28-29exploration 6-7, 9, 14,

24-25

F Gfactories 18-19Ferdinand, Archduke

Franz 28 Florence 8-9Ford, Henry 27France 10, 16-17, 19,

28-29, 31Franco, Francisco 29French Revolution 16-17Gagarin, Yuri 25Galileo Galilei 9galleons, Spanish 11, 15Gandhi, Mohandas

(Mahatma) 30Genghis Khan 13Germany 10, 19, 26,

28-29, 31global warming 31gold 23Greece, ancient 8guillotine 16gunpowder 9

H IHenry VIII 11Hinduism 13Hiroshima 29Hitler, Adolf 29, 30Huguenots 10-11humanism 8Inca Empire 7India 6, 13, 14, 30-31Industrial Revolution

18-19, 26Inuit 25inventions 9, 27iron 19Iron Bridge 18Isabella, Queen of Spain 7Islamic empires 12-13Istanbul 12Italy 8-9, 11, 28-29Ivan IV (the Terrible)4-5

SSafavids 12Sahara desert 6, 24St. Peter’s, Rome 9 St. Petersburg 5, 29San Francisco 23Second Continental

Congress 17Serbia 28serfs 5Seven Years’ War 16, 22shipbuilding 19, 26ships, steam-powered 19

Silk Road 6Sioux 20-21Sistine Chapel 9skyscrapers 27slave trade 14-15South Africa 31South America 6-7, 14South Pole, race to the 25Soviet Union (USSR) 29,

30-31space, exploration of 25Spain 6, 11, 14, 29Spanish Armada 11Spanish conquistadors

(conquerors) 7Spice Islands 7Stalin, Joseph 30steam engine, development

of 18-19Suez Canal 15Sulaiman I (the

Magnificent) 12Switzerland 10

TTahiti 24Taj Mahal 13Tamerlane 13Thirty Years’ War 10Timbuktu 24tipis 21trade,African 25Arab 6Chinese 15European 6, 14-15world 15, 26

Trail of Tears 21Trans-Siberian Railway 27Triple Alliance 28Triple Entente 28Turks 6, 12

U V WUnited Nations 30United States of America

16-17, 19, 20-21, 22-23, 26-27, 30

Vasco da Gama 6Vatican 9Vespucci, Amerigo 7Washington, George 17Waterloo, Battle of 17West, American 20-21,

22-23World War I 28World War II 29, 30-31

I N D E X

32

INDEXPage numbers in boldrefer to main entries.

childrenˇs illustrated encyclopedia world history€¦ · world war i • the russian revolution...

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