children and sport psychologywebsites.rcc.edu/daddona/files/2016/09/chapter-22.pdf · research...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 22: Children and Sport Psychology
22
Children and Sport Psychology
C H A P T E R
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Session Outline
• The importance of children’s sport psychology
• Why a psychology of the young athlete?
• Why children participate in sport
• Why children discontinue participation in sport
• Role of friends in youth sport (continued)
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Session Outline (continued)
• Stress and burnout in children’s competitive sport
• Effective coaching practices for young athletes
• Role of parents
• The professionalization of children’s sports
• Stages of athletic talent development
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The Importance of Children’s Sport Psychology
• Some of the most important implications of sport psychology are found in the children’s sport arena, where participants are plentiful and are highly involved.
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Why a Psychology of the Young Athlete?
• So many children are involved (an estimated 45 million in the United States).
• Children are intensely involved in youth sport.
• Participation peaks at a critical developmental period in the child’s life (~age 12).
• Organized sport is not automatically beneficial; qualified, competent adult leadership is needed.
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Why Children Participate in Youth Sport
• Children have different reasons for participating in sport than adults (have fun, improve skills, get exercise, be with and make new friends, compete).
• Boys and girls have similar motives for involvement but these may vary in importance.
• See “Motives for Participation in Youth Sports” on p. 517 of text.
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Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport
• Participation statistics – Peak participation occurs between the ages of 10
and 13 years.
– For every 10 children who begin a sport season, 3 to 4 quit before the start of the next season.
(continued)
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Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)
• Motives for withdrawal – Major reason: Other things to do
– Some negative reasons (e.g., not as good as they wanted to be, boredom, didn’t like the pressure) cited by some children
(continued)
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Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)
• The importance of perceived competence: Children with low perceptions of their athletic abilities drop out or do not participate in sport, whereas children with high perceptions of their competence participate and persist.
(continued)
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Figure 22.1
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Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)
• Sport-specific dropouts withdraw from a particular program but enter into other sports.
• Sport-general dropouts withdraw from all sport participation.
• Sport-general dropouts are a special concern.
(continued)
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Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)
• Key: Understand underlying motives for withdrawal.
• Summary – Most of the motives children have are intrinsic (e.g.,
to have fun, to learn skills). Winning clearly is neither the only nor the most common motive for participation.
– Most young athletes have multiple reasons for participation, not a single motive.
(continued)
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Why Children Discontinue Participation in Sport (continued)
• Summary – Although most children withdraw because of change
of interests, a significant minority discontinue for negative reasons (e.g., pressure)
– Underlying the descriptive motive (e.g., fun) is the child’s need to feel worthy.
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Strategies for Structuring Sport Situations to Meet the Needs
of Young Athletes
• Coaches can enhance motivation by structuring environments to meet specific needs.
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Facilitating Motivation in Young Athletes: Implications for Practice
• Implications for practice – Enhance perceived competence—teach young
athletes to define success as exceeding their own goals, not simply winning.
– Keep participation and withdrawal statistics.
(continued)
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Facilitating Motivation in Young Athletes (continued)
• Implications for practice – When children discontinue, rigorously analyze why
they are withdrawing from sport.
– Is the child interested in another sport?
– Is withdrawal permanent or temporary?
– Did the child have a say in the decision?
– What are effects on long-term welfare?
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Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport
• Companionship: Spending time together
• Pleasant play association: Enjoying being around one’s friends
• Enhancement of self-esteem: Having friends say things or take actions that boost one’s self-esteem
(continued)
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Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport (continued)
• Help and guidance: Providing assistance in learning sport skills as well as general assistance, such as in school
• Prosocial behavior: Saying and doing things that conform to social convention, such as sharing or not saying negative things
• Intimacy: Mutual feelings of close, personal bonds
(continued)
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Positive Role of Friends in Youth Sport (continued)
• Emotional support: Expressing feelings of concern for one another; absence of conflicts (some friends do not argue, fight, or disagree)
• Conflict resolution: Ability of friends to resolve conflicts
• Attractive personal qualities: Positive characteristics such as personality or physical features
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Negative Role of Friends in Youth Sport
• Conflict (e.g., insults, arguments)
• Unattractive personal qualities (e.g., self-centered)
• Betrayal
• Inaccessibility (lack of opportunity to interact)
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Role of Friends in Youth Sport
• Peer relations affect motivation for physical activity.
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Friendship in Sport: Implications for Practice
• Enhance peer relationships by creating motivational climates that enhance task goals and foster cooperation versus competition.
• Conduct drills that require small groups of players to interact, which will maximize involvement.
• Reduce displays of social status (e.g., public picking of teams).
(continued)
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Friendship in Sport: Implications for Practice (continued)
• In sport settings, provide time for children to be with friends and to make new friends.
• Encourage positive peer reinforcement.
• Emphasize teamwork, foster cohesion, and emphasize the pursuit of team goals.
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Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
• Are young athletes placed under too much stress?
• No. The majority of young athletes are not under excessive stress (less than 10% are).
(continued)
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Figure 22.2
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Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport (continued)
• Is state anxiety heightened in young athletes? – High stress (state anxiety) levels are relatively rare
but affect 2.5 million children in specific situations.
– Stress among elite junior competitors is caused by fear of failure and feelings of inadequacy.
– Children at risk for heightened state anxiety exhibit certain personal characteristics.
(continued)
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Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport (continued)
• Excessive trait anxiety does not appear to be associated with youth sport participation.
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Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety
• High trait anxiety
• Low self-esteem
• Maladaptive perfectionism
• Low performance expectancies relative to team
• Low self-performance expectations
• Frequent worries about failure (continued)
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Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety
(continued) • Frequent worries about adult expectations
and evaluation by others
• Less perceived fun
• Less satisfaction with their performance, regardless of winning or losing
(continued)
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Personal Characteristics of Children at Risk for Heightened State Anxiety
(continued)
• Perception that participation is important to parents
• Outcome goal orientation and low perceived ability
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Situational Sources of Stress
• Defeat versus victory: Children experience more state anxiety after losing than after winning.
• Event importance: The more importance is placed on a contest, the more state anxiety is experienced by participants.
(continued)
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Situational Sources of Stress (continued)
• Sport type: Children in individual sports experience more state anxiety than children in team sports.
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Stress-Induced Burnout
• Burnout is a special case of sport withdrawal in which a young athlete discontinues sport involvement in response to chronic stress.
• Characteristics of burnout include one-dimensional self-definitions and little or no control in decision making.
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Factors Associated with Burnout in Young Athletes
• Very high self- and other-imposed expectations
• Win-at-all-costs attitude
• Parental pressure
• Long repetitive practices with little variety
• Inconsistent coaching practices
(continued)
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Factors Associated with Burnout in Young Athletes (continued)
• Overuse injuries from excessive practice
• Excessive time demands
• High travel demands
• Love from others displayed on the basis of winning and losing
• Perfectionism
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Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport
• Practical implications – Develop confidence and constructive attitude toward
mistakes.
– Use concrete physical strategies (e.g., stress bag to put worries in).
– Use fun strategies (e.g., jelly belly, spaghetti toes relaxation).
(continued)
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Stress and Burnout in Children’s Competitive Sport (continued)
• Practical implications – Use simple strategies (e.g., change channels).
– Vary approaches to the same exercise.
– Individualize approaches to the child’s interests.
– Remain positive and optimistic.
– Use role models (e.g., Michael Jordan).
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Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
• Children have special coaching needs different from the needs of adults.
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What the Research Says About Coaching Children
• Smith, Smoll, and Curtis’ (1979) classic research notes that a coach’s instruction, reinforcement, and mistake-contingent instruction and encouragement correlate with a player’s self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes.
• Learning a positive approach to coaching results in lower player dropout rates (5% compared with 26% for untrained coaches).
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Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes
• Implications for practice – Catch kids doing things right and give them plenty of
praise.
– Give praise sincerely.
– Develop realistic expectations.
– Reward efforts as much as outcome.
– Focus on teaching and practicing skills (maximize participation in an activity).
(continued)
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Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes (continued)
• Implications for practice – Modify skills and activities so they are
developmentally appropriate.
– Modify rules to maximize action and participation.
– Reward correct technique, not just outcome.
– Use a positive “sandwich” approach when you correct errors.
(continued)
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Effective Coaching Practices for Young Athletes (continued)
• Implications for practice – Create an environment that reduces fear of trying
new skills.
– Be enthusiastic.
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Different Parental Roles in Youth Sports (Fredericks & Eccles, 2004)
• Socializer
• Role model
• Interpreter of child’s sport experience
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Research Findings on Parental Roles
• Parental enjoyment of physical activity is related to parental encouragement and a child’s perceived competence and participation.
• Parental support buffers the adverse stressful effects that players experience.
(continued)
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Research Findings on Parental Roles (continued)
• The goal orientations of parent and child are significantly related.
• Parents can play a highly positive or a highly negative role in the youth sport experience.
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Parental Roles in Youth Sports
• Educate parents about their responsibilities and the sport parent code of conduct: Appreciate the tricky business of parental support.
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Sport Parent Responsibilities
• Encourage your children to play sports, but don’t pressure them. Let your child choose to play—and quit—if she or he wants.
• Understand what your child wants from sport and provide a supportive atmosphere for achieving those goals.
(continued)
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Sport Parent Responsibilities (continued)
• Set limits on your child’s participation in sport. Determine when your child is physically and emotionally ready to play and to ensure that conditions are safe.
• Make sure the coach is qualified to guide your child through the sport experience.
• Keep winning in perspective, and help your child do the same.
(continued)
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Sport Parent Responsibilities (continued)
• Help your child set realistic performance goals.
• Help your child understand the valuable lessons sport can teach.
• Help your child meet his or her responsibilities to the team and coach.
• Discipline your child appropriately when necessary.
(continued)
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Sport Parent Responsibilities (continued)
• Turn your child over to the coach at practices and games—don’t meddle or coach from the stands.
• Supply the coach with information regarding any allergies or special health conditions your child has. Make sure your child takes any necessary medication to games and practices.
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Sport Parent Code of Conduct • Remain in the spectator area during games.
• Don’t advise the coach on how to coach.
• Don’t make derogatory comments to coaches, officials, or parents of either team.
• Don’t try to coach your child during the contest.
• Don’t drink alcohol at contests or come to a contest having drunk too much.
(continued)
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Sport Parent Code of Conduct (continued)
• Cheer for your child’s team.
• Show interest, enthusiasm, and support for your child.
• Be in control of your emotions.
• Help when asked by coaches or officials.
• Thank coaches, officials, and other volunteers who conduct the event.
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Professionalization of Children’s Sports
• Youth sports is becoming professionalized in the sense that a shift is occurring from a focus on physical, social, and psychological developmental to more extrinsic goals like winning, rankings, fame, and earning college athletic scholarships.
• Early sport specialization, year-round intense training, and private coaching characterize a professionalized approach.
(continued)
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Professionalization of Children’s Sports (continued)
• Myths associated with the professionalized approach to athletic talent development in youth: – Myth 1: Athletic talent can be accurately predicted at
a young age.
– Myth 2: More is always better!
– Myth 3: Stages of talent development can be skipped.
(continued)
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Professionalization of Children’s Sports (continued)
– Myth 4: Intense training will lead to a college athletic scholarship.
– Myth 5: Early single-sport specialization is essential.
– Myth 6: One cannot have fun if he or she is going to be an elite athlete.
– Myth 7: Talented children need different entry programs and coaching approaches than their less talented counterparts.
(continued)
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Professionalization of Children’s Sports (continued)
• Opportunities for athletic talent development are important.
• Programs must be carried out in developmentally appropriate ways, guided by scientific evidence, and not pushed on children at younger and younger ages.
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Stages of Athletic Talent Development
• Entry (initial) phase
• Investment phase
• Elite performance excellence phase
• Excellence maintenance phase
(continued)
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Stages of Athletic Talent Development (continued)
• Most champion athletes did not start out with champion aspirations in mind.
• Most champion athletes were exposed to active lifestyles and played multiple sports as children.
• Champions must fall in love with the sport before pursuing intense involvement.
• To optimize talent, young athletes should not specialize in a single sport too early, and parents and coaches should emphasize fun and development.
(continued)
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Stages of Athletic Talent Development (continued)
• Sport specialization guidelines (ISSP) – Early diversification (sampling of different sports)
– High amounts of deliberate play
– Opportunity to specialize (~age 13)
– Highly specialized training (late adolescence or ~age 16)