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ChemotypicCharacterizationandBiologicalActivityofRosmarinusofficinalis

ArticleinTheOpenFoodScienceJournal·March2017

DOI:10.3390/foods6030020

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NasserAli

AlbahaUniversity

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foods

Article

Chemotypic Characterization and Biological Activityof Rosmarinus officinalis

Prabodh Satyal 1,2, Tyler H. Jones 2, Elizabeth M. Lopez 2, Robert L. McFeeters 2,Nasser A. Awadh Ali 3,4, Iman Mansi 5, Ali G. Al-kaf 3 and William N. Setzer 2,*

1 Alchemy Aromatics LLC, 621 Park East Blvd., New Albany, IN 47150, USA; prabodhsatyal@gmail.com2 Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA;

tyler85@gmail.com (T.H.J.); eml0024@tigermail.auburn.edu (E.M.L.); robert.mcfeeters@uah.edu (R.L.M.)3 Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Sana’a University, P.O. Box 18084, Sana’a, Yemen;

alinasser9678@yahoo.com or naali@bu.edu.sa (N.A.A.A.); alialkaf21@gmail.com (A.G.A)4 Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Clinical Pharmacy, Albaha University,

P.O. Box 1988, Al Baha, Saudi Arabia5 Department of Clinical pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,

The Hashemite University, P.O. Box 330127, Zarqa 13133, Jordan; man_mansi@hu.edu.jo* Correspondence: wsetzer@chemistry.uah.edu; Tel.: +1-256-824-6519

Academic Editor: Esther SendraReceived: 13 February 2017; Accepted: 1 March 2017; Published: 5 March 2017

Abstract: Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is a popular herb in cooking, traditional healing, andaromatherapy. The essential oils of R. officinalis were obtained from plants growing in Victoria(Australia), Alabama (USA), Western Cape (South Africa), Kenya, Nepal, and Yemen. Chemicalcompositions of the rosemary oils were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry as wellas chiral gas chromatography. The oils were dominated by (+)-α-pinene (13.5%–37.7%), 1,8-cineole(16.1%–29.3%), (+)-verbenone (0.8%–16.9%), (−)-borneol (2.1%–6.9%), (−)-camphor (0.7%–7.0%), andracemic limonene (1.6%–4.4%). Hierarchical cluster analysis, based on the compositions of theseessential oils in addition to 72 compositions reported in the literature, revealed at least five differentchemotypes of rosemary oil. Antifungal, cytotoxicity, xanthine oxidase inhibitory, and tyrosinaseinhibitory activity screenings were carried out, but showed only marginal activities.

Keywords: essential oil; chemical composition; chiral gas chromatography; enantiomeric distribution;mass spectrometry; hierarchical cluster analysis; antifungal; cytotoxic; enzyme inhibition

1. Introduction

Rosmarinus officinalis L., “rosemary” (Lamiaceae) is an evergreen shrub with aromatic needle-likeleaves. It is native to the Mediterranean and Asia, but is now cultivated in temperate locations aroundthe world as a decorative garden plant and culinary herb. Rosemary leaves have been used to flavorfoods such as lamb, pork, chicken, fish, and stuffings, and to prepare herbal oils, butters, and vinegars.

Rosemary has long been used in traditional medicine for a variety of conditions [1]. In theMediterranean region, an infusion of the aerial parts is taken internally to treat colds and cough [2,3]as an antispasmodic, antihypertensive, and antiepileptic [4–10], to treat diabetes [6,9], and intestinalparasites [11]. A maceration of R. officinalis in alcohol or olive oil is used externally to treat contusions,rheumatism, and muscular and joint pains [3,12,13]. In Mexico, native peoples inhale the smokefrom the burning plant to treat cough [14] or drink an infusion to treat vomiting, stomachache, orintestinal parasites [15]. Rosemary extracts contain a number of phytochemicals, including carnosicacid, carnosol, 12-O-methylcarnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, and genkwanin [16]. Rosemary essential oilscontain 1,8-cineole [17], α-pinene [18], verbenone [19], camphor, and borneol [20], but the compositions

Foods 2017, 6, 20; doi:10.3390/foods6030020 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

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Foods 2017, 6, 20 2 of 15

can vary widely. There are several varieties of R. officinalis. The Missouri Botanical Garden currentlylists 16 sub-taxa [21] and numerous cultivars have been developed as well.

Rosemary essential oil is used in aromatherapy as a nerve stimulant for purposes includingmemory loss and lethargy [22]. Rosemary oil has shown psychostimulant activity. In a mouse model,a dose of 100 µg/kg caused a significant increase in locomotor activity [23]. In humans, massaged [24]or inhaled [25] rosemary oil has caused significant increased blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratoryrate; oral administration of rosemary oil significantly increased blood pressure in hypotensivepatients [26]. Inhaled rosemary oil has been shown to increase memory and concentration abilities [27].In addition to psychostimulatory effects, rosemary essential oil has shown anticholinesterase [28],acaricidal [29,30], antibacterial [31,32], antifungal [33,34], and antinociceptive [35] activities.

The biological activities of R. officinalis essential oils doubtless depend on the chemicalcompositions, and at least 13 different rosemary oil chemotypes have been previously identified,based on the relative percentages of α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, borneol, verbenone, and bornylacetate [31,36–41]. In this work, we have characterized the essential oils of R. officinalis collected fromAlabama (USA), Western Cape (South Africa), Victoria (Australia), Kenya, Nepal, and Yemen, andscreened these essential oils for antifungal activity. In addition, a hierarchical cluster analysis hasbeen carried out based on the compositions of an additional 72 rosemary essential oils reported inthe literature.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

Leaves of R. officinalis from flowering plants in Huntsville, Alabama (34◦38′27.2” N, 86◦33′44.4” W,elevation 183 m above sea level (asl)) were identified by W.N. Setzer, and collected on 4 August 2016.The fresh plant material (55.44 g) was hydrodistilled for 4 h using a Likens-Nickerson apparatus withcontinuous extraction with dichloromethane to give 950 mg (1.7% yield) colorless essential oil, whichwas stored at −20 ◦C until analysis.

The leaves of R. officinalis were collected during the flowering stage in May 2013, from Dhamarprovince, Yemen. The plant was identified by Dr. Hassan M. Ibrahim of the Botany Department,Faculty of Sciences, Sana’a University. A voucher specimen of the plant material (YMP-lam-31) hasbeen deposited at the Pharmacognosy Department, Sana’a University, Yemen. The dried leaves werehydrodistilled for 3 h in a Clevenger type apparatus according to the European Pharmacopoeia [42].The obtained oil was subsequently dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and kept at 4 ◦C until analysis. Afterfiltration, the yield of the oil was 1.1% w/w.

R. officinalis, in the flowering stage, from Jumla, Nepal (29◦16′28.99” N, 82◦11′1.79” E, elevation2500 m asl), was identified by Prasun Satyal, and collected on 2 July 2016. The fresh plant material(100 g) was hydrodistilled for 4 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus and collected to give 500 mg(0.5% yield) colorless essential oil after drying with Na2SO4.

R. officinalis from Ribeeck Kasteel, Western Cape, South Africa (33◦23′7.21” S, 18◦53′54.65” E,elevation 300 m asl), was identified by Prabodh Satyal, and collected on 20 August 2016. The freshplant material (500 g) was subjected to steam distillation for 4 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus andcollected to give 4 g (0.8% yield) colorless essential oil after drying with Na2SO4.

Flowering R. officinalis from Lancefield, Victoria, Australia (37◦16′ S, 144◦43′ E, elevation 495 masl), was identified by Chris Burder, and collected on 20 December 2015. The fresh plant material (1 kg)was subjected to steam distillation for 3 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus and collected to give 9 g(0.9% yield) colorless essential oil after drying with Na2SO4.

R. officinalis from Thika, Kenya (1◦1′ S, 37◦5′ E, elevation 1500 m asl), was identified by AaronSorensen, and collected on 8 July 2016. The fresh plant material (1 kg) was subjected to steam distillationfor 3.5 h using a Clevenger-type apparatus and collected to give 10 g (1.0% yield) pale yellow essentialoil after drying with Na2SO4.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276492956_Antifungal_activity_of_chemotype_essential_oils_from_rosemary_against_Candida_albicans?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258853233_Effectiveness_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_essential_oil_as_antihypotensive_agent_in_primary_hypotensive_patients_and_its_influence_in_Health-Related_Quality_of_Life?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257398892_Effect_of_bioclimatic_area_on_the_essential_oil_composition_and_antibacterial_activity_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256542106_Rosmarinus_officinalis_essential_oil_Antiproliferative_antioxidant_and_antibacterial_activities?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249657481_Effects_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_and_Salvia_officinalis_essential_oils_on_Tetranychus_urticae_Koch_Acari_Tetranychidae?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247157843_Effects_of_Inhaled_Rosemary_Oil_on_Subjective_Feelings_and_Activities_of_the_Nervous_System?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236165211_Chemical_composition_and_antifungal_activity_of_essentiel_oils_of_seven_moroccan_labiatae_agains_botrytis_cinerea?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233870615_Inhibitory_effect_of_Turkish_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_on_acetylcholinesterase_and_butyrylcholinesterase_enzymes?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230209220_Actions_of_essential_oils_on_the_central_nervous_system_An_updated_review?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230144340_Composition_and_niticidal_activity_of_essential_oils_of_three_chemotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_acclimatized_in_Morocco?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229700736_Chemical_composition_and_antimicrobial_activity_ofRosmarinus_officinalis_L_oils_from_Sardinia_and_Corsica?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229700736_Chemical_composition_and_antimicrobial_activity_ofRosmarinus_officinalis_L_oils_from_Sardinia_and_Corsica?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228341058_Simultaneous_Aromatherapy_Massage_with_Rosemary_Oil_on_Humans?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223591775_Comparative_evaluation_of_11_essential_oils_of_different_origin_as_functional_antioxidants_antiradicals_and_antimicrobials_in_foods?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223209741_Screening_of_the_essential_oil_composition_of_wild_Sicilian_rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45798968_Essential_oils_composition_in_two_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_varieties_and_incidence_for_antimicrobial_and_antioxidant_activities?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23966728_Antinociceptive_Effect_and_GCMS_Analysis_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_Essential_Oil_from_its_Aerial_Parts?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11338398_Main_Agronomic-Productive_Characteristics_of_Two_Ecotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_and_Chemical_Composition_of_Their_Essential_Oils?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==

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2.2. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

The essential oils of R. officinalis were analyzed by GC-MS using a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010Ultra operated in the electron impact (EI) mode (electron energy = 70 eV), scan range = 40–400 atomicmass units, scan rate = 3.0 scans/s, and GC-MS solution software. The GC column was a ZB-5 fusedsilica capillary column with a (5% phenyl)-polymethylsiloxane stationary phase and a film thicknessof 0.25 µm. The carrier gas was helium with a column head pressure of 552 kPa and flow rate of1.37 mL/min. Injector temperature was 250 ◦C and the ion source temperature was 200 ◦C. The GCoven temperature program was programmed for 50 ◦C initial temperature, temperature increased at arate of 2 ◦C/min to 260 ◦C. A 5% w/v solution of the sample in CH2Cl2 was prepared and 0.1 µL wasinjected with a splitting mode (30:1). Identification of the oil components was based on their retentionindices determined by reference to a homologous series of n-alkanes, and by comparison of their massspectral fragmentation patterns with those reported in the literature [43], and stored in our in-houseMS library.

2.3. Chiral Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Chiral analysis of the essential oils was performed on a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010S operated inthe EI mode (electron energy = 70 eV), scan range = 40–400 amu, scan rate = 3.0 scans/s. GC wasequipped with a Restek B-Dex 325 capillary column (30 mL × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 µm film). Oventemperature was started at 50 ◦C, and then gradually raised to 120 ◦C at 1.5 ◦C/min. The oven wasthen raised to 200 ◦C at 2 ◦C/min and held for 5 min. Helium was the carrier gas and the flow ratewas maintained at 1.8 mL/min. Samples were diluted 3% w/v with CH2Cl2 and then a 0.1 µL samplewas injected in a split mode with a split ratio of 1:45.

2.4. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis

A total of 72 R. officinalis essential oil compositions from the publishedliterature [17–20,28–37,39,41,44–81] in addition to the six samples from this study were treated asoperational taxonomic units (OTUs). The percentage composition of 23 major essential oil components(1,8-cineole, α-pinene, camphor, verbenone, borneol, camphene, myrcene, bornyl acetate, β-pinene,limonene, α-terpineol, linalool, β-caryophyllene, p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, geraniol,α-phellandrene, terpinolene, α-terpinene, α-humulene, sabinene, and caryophyllene oxide) wasused to determine the chemical relationship between the various R. officinalis essential oil samplesby agglomerative hierarchical cluster (AHC) analysis using the XLSTAT software, version 2015.4.01(Addinsoft™, New York, NY, USA). Pearson correlation was selected as a measure of similarity, andthe unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA) was used for cluster definition.

2.5. Antifungal Screening

Antifungal activity was carried out as previously described [82]. Briefly, minimum inhibitoryconcentrations were determined using microdilution methods for Candida albicans (American TypeCulture Collection, ATCC #18804), Cryptococcus neoformans (serotype D or var. neoformans) (ATCC#24067), and Aspergillus niger (ATCC #16888). Single colonies from potato dextrose agar plates weregrown in potato dextrose broth for three days. Cells were diluted to 2 × 103 cells/mL using MOPS(3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid) buffered RPMI (Roswell Park Memorial Institute) mediumand aliquoted into sterile 12 × 75 mm tubes (900 µL). Essential oil (100 µL) was added to each tubefollowed by incubation at 37 ◦C for three days in a shaking incubator (175 rpm). Minimum inhibitoryconcentrations (MICs) were calculated from microdilution in 96-well plates, performed in triplicate.Serial dilution was performed by adding 50 µL of RPMI to each well, then an equal volume of essentialoil to be tested to the first row. After mixing, 50 µL was removed and added to the next row. Theprocedure was repeated for each row, discarding the final 50 µL removed. To the mixture in each

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310752142_Identification_of_essential_oil_components_by_gas_chromatographymass_spectrometry?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309476980_Essential_Oil_Characterization_of_Thymus_vulgaris_from_Various_Geographical_Locations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257398892_Effect_of_bioclimatic_area_on_the_essential_oil_composition_and_antibacterial_activity_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256542106_Rosmarinus_officinalis_essential_oil_Antiproliferative_antioxidant_and_antibacterial_activities?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249657481_Effects_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_and_Salvia_officinalis_essential_oils_on_Tetranychus_urticae_Koch_Acari_Tetranychidae?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236165211_Chemical_composition_and_antifungal_activity_of_essentiel_oils_of_seven_moroccan_labiatae_agains_botrytis_cinerea?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233870615_Inhibitory_effect_of_Turkish_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_on_acetylcholinesterase_and_butyrylcholinesterase_enzymes?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232995393_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_Labiatae_Essential_Oils_from_the_South_of_Brazil_and_Uruguay?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230144340_Composition_and_niticidal_activity_of_essential_oils_of_three_chemotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_acclimatized_in_Morocco?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230089892_Oil_composition_variability_among_populations_in_relationship_with_their_ecological_areas_in_Tunisian_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229700736_Chemical_composition_and_antimicrobial_activity_ofRosmarinus_officinalis_L_oils_from_Sardinia_and_Corsica?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223813583_Antimicrobial_activities_of_methanol_extracts_and_essential_oils_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_depending_on_location_and_seasonal_variations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223591775_Comparative_evaluation_of_11_essential_oils_of_different_origin_as_functional_antioxidants_antiradicals_and_antimicrobials_in_foods?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223209741_Screening_of_the_essential_oil_composition_of_wild_Sicilian_rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23966728_Antinociceptive_Effect_and_GCMS_Analysis_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_Essential_Oil_from_its_Aerial_Parts?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12429729_GC-MS_Analysis_of_Essential_Oils_from_Some_Greek_Aromatic_Plants_and_Their_Fungitoxicity_on_Penicillium_digitatum?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11338398_Main_Agronomic-Productive_Characteristics_of_Two_Ecotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_and_Chemical_Composition_of_Their_Essential_Oils?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==

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well, 50 µL of cells were added. The plates were incubated for two days at 37 ◦C before growth wasquantitated from turbidity.

2.6. Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition Assay

Using xanthine as substrate, the xanthine oxidase (XO) activity of R. officinalis oil from Yemenwas assayed spectrophotometrically according to Apaya and Hernandez [83]. A mixture containing1 mL of 100 µg/mL of R. officinalis oil or allopurinol, 1.9 mL of 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer,and 1 mL of xanthine substrate (0.6 mM) was preincubated for 10 min at 25 ◦C, and the reaction wasstarted by the addition of 0.1 mL of XO enzyme (0.1 U/mL in phosphate buffer). The reaction wasincubated at 25 ◦C for 30 min, and the absorbance was measured against phosphate buffer as blankat 295 nm using quartz cuvettes. Allopurinol was used as standard enzyme inhibitors. The percentxanthine oxidase inhibition was calculated according to the following formula:

% inhibition = 100 − (A1 − B) × 100/(Ao − B) (1)

where A1 is the activity of the enzyme in presence of the oil, B is the absorbance in absence of theenzyme, and Ao is the absorbance in absence of the oil or inhibitor.

2.7. Tyrosinase Inhibition Assay

In vitro mushroom tyrosinase inhibitory activity of R. officinalis oil from Yemen was determinedby a spectrophotometric approach using L-tyrosine as the substrate [84]. In a total volume of200 µL, the enzyme activity was measured in buffer containing 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH 6.5,50 U/mL mushroom tyrosinase, and 50 µg/mL L-tyrosine. The reaction (conversion of L-tyrosineto DOPAchrome) was conducted at 37 ◦C for 30 min, and absorbance was then measured at thewavelength of 490 nm using a microplate reader. Blanks were run for the same concentration ofessential oil in the absence of the enzyme. The inhibition assays were carried out in the presence of100 µg/mL of the essential oil. Kojic acid and arbutin were used as positive control inhibitors in theseassays. The absorbance of the same mixture without the essential oil was used as the negative control.The percent inhibition of tyrosinase activity was calculated as follows:

% inhibition = ((A − B)/A) × 100 (2)

where A is the absorbance difference at 490 nm of the negative control (enzyme activity withoutoil)—the absorbance of the blank (no enzyme, no oil); B is the absorbance of test sample (withenzyme)—the absorbance of test sample blank (no enzyme).

2.8. Cytotoxicity Screening

Human colorectal cancer cell lines (SW480 and HCT116) were generously provided byDr. Rick F. Thorne (University of Newcastle, Australia) and were cultured in Dulbecco’s ModifiedEagle Medium (DMEM) containing 10% fetal calf serum (Bio Whittaker, Verviers, Belgium). Therosemary oil from Yemen was tested for acute cytotoxic effect; the essential oil was dissolved indimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and different dilutions in culture buffer were prepared. The acutecytotoxic effect of the essential oil on colorectal cancer cells was determined using the MTT(3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay [85]. Briefly, cells were seeded at5000 cells per well onto flat-bottomed 96-well culture plates and allowed to grow for 24 h before thedesired treatment. Cells were then incubated with 200 µL of essential oil concentrations (0–200 µg/mL)for 72 h. Cells were then labeled with MTT from the Vybrant MTT Cell Proliferation Assay Kit(Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instruction and resultingformazan was solubilized with DMSO. Absorbance was read in a microplate reader at 540 nm.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281553330_Synthesis_antimicrobial_and_in_vitro_antitumor_activities_of_a_series_of_123-thiadiazole_and_123-selenadiazole_derivatives?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268875609_Novel_Virtual_Screening_Approach_for_the_Discovery_of_Human_Tyrosinase_Inhibitors?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267557618_Xanthine_Oxidase_Inhibition_of_selected_Philippine_medicinal_plants?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==

Foods 2017, 6, 20 5 of 15

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Essential Oil Compositions

The chemical compositions of six Rosmarinus officinalis essential oils are compiled in Table 1.α-Pinene and 1,8-cineole dominated the essential oils of all six samples (13.5%–38.1% and 16.3%–29.4%,respectively). Verbenone was also relatively abundant in the samples from Alabama (USA), Kenya,and Yemen. The sample from Yemen, with its relatively high verbenone content (18.6%) and relativelylow α-pinene content (13.5%), along with 1,8-cineole (20.6%) and camphor (7.0%), firmly places it inthe verbenoniferum chemotype, type IIIA, according to Napoli et al. [39]. The other five samples in thisstudy have higher concentrations of α-pinene than 1,8-cineole or verbenone, and can be characterized,based on Napoli et al., as cineoliferum type VIA [39].

Table 1. Chemical compositions of essential oils of Rosmarinus officinalis from six differentgeographical locations.

RI CompoundPercent Composition

Alabama Western Cape Kenya Victoria Nepal Yemen

800 n-Octane — a — — tr b — —801 Hexanal tr — — — — —849 (2E)-Hexenal tr — — — — —850 (3Z)-Hexenol tr — 0.1 — — —920 Artemisia triene — — — tr — —922 Tricyclene 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1925 α-Thujene 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2934 α-Pinene 25.4 33.6 31.7 37.9 38.1 13.5941 Thujadiene — — — — — tr947 α-Fenchene tr 0.2 tr tr 0.1 —950 Camphene 2.5 7.6 2.6 4.6 4.6 1.5953 Thuja-2,4(10)-diene 0.5 1.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.3972 Sabinene tr — 0.1 tr 0.1 tr978 β-Pinene 1.4 2.3 2.1 3.0 2.8 1.0890 1-Octen-3-ol — 0.6 — — — 0.1984 6-Methyl-5-Hepten-2-one — — tr tr tr —984 3-Octanone — 0.2 — — — tr989 Myrcene 1.3 1.6 1.2 1.5 1.4 0.7989 Dehydro-1,8-cineole — — 0.1 — — —

1004 p-Mentha-1(7),8-diene — — — tr tr —1005 α-Phellandrene 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 —1009 δ-3-Carene — — — — 0.1 0.21017 α-Terpinene 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 tr1019 p-Cymene 0.9 1.6 0.4 1.6 1.5 1.11029 Limonene 2.7 4.4 2.3 3.5 3.5 1.61031 1,8-cineole 18.8 16.3 20.9 29.4 23.0 20.61035 (Z)-β-Ocimene — 0.6 tr tr tr —1044 (E)-β-Ocimene — 0.2 — — — —1048 Thujol — — — — — 0.11058 γ-Terpinene 1.0 0.4 1.0 0.8 1.2 0.11069 cis-Sabinene hydrate 0.1 tr 0.3 tr — 0.41070 cis-4-Thujanol — — — — tr —1085 Terpinolene 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.21086 trans-Linalool oxide (furanoid) — — — — — 0.11090 p-Cymenene tr 0.1 tr 0.1 0.1 —1091 Rosefuran — — — tr — —1098 Linalool 2.7 3.1 2.8 2.3 2.2 3.81098 cis-Decahydronaphthalene + Perillene — — — — — 0.11100 trans-Sabinene hydrate — — 0.2 — — —1103 Hotrienol — — — tr — —1105 (2E)-Hexenyl propanoate — — — tr — —1106 Isochrysanthenone tr 0.1 tr tr tr —1117 endo-Fenchol tr 0.1 tr tr tr tr1117 2,4-Dimethyl-2,4 heptadienal — — — — — 0.1

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223209741_Screening_of_the_essential_oil_composition_of_wild_Sicilian_rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223209741_Screening_of_the_essential_oil_composition_of_wild_Sicilian_rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==

Foods 2017, 6, 20 6 of 15

Table 1. Cont.

RI CompoundPercent Composition

Alabama Western Cape Kenya Victoria Nepal Yemen

1122 Chrysanthenone 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.51123 cis-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol tr — tr tr — —1126 α-Campholenal 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.11139 trans-Pinocarveol 0.1 0.5 — 0.1 0.1 0.11141 cis-Verbenol 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 tr 0.21144 trans-Verbenol 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.1 —1146 Camphor 2.4 0.7 2.1 1.7 1.7 7.01154 trans-β-Terpineol tr 0.1 tr — tr tr1155 Camphene hydrate — — — tr — —1161 trans-Pinocamphone 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.21162 Pinocarvone 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.21165 Isofenchol 0.2 tr 0.2 tr 0.1 —1169 δ-Terpineol 0.3 — 0.3 0.1 0.2 —1171 Borneol 4.0 7.0 2.8 2.1 2.5 5.51175 cis-Pinocamphone 0.7 1.1 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.91177 p-1,8-Menthadien-4-ol tr tr tr tr — tr1179 Terpinen-4-ol 1.1 0.7 1.0 0.5 2.2 1.01185 p-Cymen-8-ol 0.1 tr 0.1 tr tr 0.31194 α-Terpineol 2.9 1.0 2.6 0.9 1.5 3.21197 Methyl chavicol tr — tr tr tr —1206 Verbenone 17.1 0.8 11.9 2.5 2.7 18.61213 3-Oxo-1,8-cineole 0.1 — 0.1 tr — tr1218 (4-Methylpentyl)-cyclohexane 0.4 — 0.2 — tr 0.21218 trans-Carveol — — — tr — —1225 Citronellol 0.3 — 0.3 tr 0.2 0.31228 Bornyl formate. — — — tr — —1238 Neral 0.1 — 0.2 tr 0.1 0.11239 cis-Shisool 0.3 0.3 0.1 tr 0.1 0.31242 Carvone 0.1 — tr tr tr tr1242 Hexyl isovalerate — — — — tr —1246 trans-Shisool 0.4 0.3 0.2 tr 0.1 0.51247 Carvotanacetone — — — — — 3.01250 Geraniol 4.8 — 4.6 0.7 1.6 3.81252 cis-Myrtanol 0.1 — tr — — 0.11257 Methyl citronellate — — — — tr —1267 Geranial 0.1 — 0.2 0.1 0.1 —1268 Isopiperitenone 0.1 0.1 0.2 — 0.1 0.31280 cis-Verbenyl acetate — tr — tr — 0.11284 Bornyl acetate 1.7 2.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.81290 Thymol — — — — — 0.51296 Carvacrol tr — — — — —1297 Perilla alcohol tr — — — — —1297 Geranyl formate + Carvacrol — — — — — 0.11321 Myrtenyl acetate tr — tr — — —1321 Methyl geranate — — — — tr —1332 δ-Elemene 0.1 — — tr — —1332 cis-Piperitol acetate — — tr — tr tr1337 Piperitenone. tr — 0.1 — tr 0.11348 Citronellyl acetate tr — — — — —1349 Eugenol 0.1 — — — — —1361 Neoisodihydrocarvyl acetate — — — — — tr1367 Linalyl isobutanoate 0.1 — — tr —1368 α-Ylangene — 0.2 — — — —1174 α-Copaene — 0.8 — — — 0.11378 Geranyl acetate 0.2 0.2 tr 0.1 0.31392 2-Ethylidene-6-methyl-3,5-heptadienal — 0.1 0.2 0.1 — —1400 Methyleugenol 0.4 0.2 0.2 tr 0.1 0.21419 β-Caryophyllene 0.6 2.5 0.7 1.3 1.4 1.21427 β-Gurjunene — — — — — 0.11431 α-Maaliene — — — — — tr1438 Aromadendrene — 0.2 — — — —1448 Geranyl acetone tr 0.1 tr — — 0.11454 α-Humulene 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.21472 cis-Cadina-1(6),4-diene — 0.1 — — — —

Foods 2017, 6, 20 7 of 15

Table 1. Cont.

RI CompoundPercent Composition

Alabama Western Cape Kenya Victoria Nepal Yemen

1475 trans-Cadina-1(6),4-diene — 0.7 — — tr 0.11481 ar-Curcumene — tr — — — —1488 β-Selinene — 0.1 — — — —1492 γ-Amorphene — 0.1 — — — —1496 α-Selinene — 0.2 — — — —1537 α-Cadinene — 0.1 — — — —1499 α-Muurolene — 0.3 — — 0.1 —1503 Valencene. — 0.1 — — — —1509 β-Bisabolene — 0.1 — — — —1513 δ-Amorphene — 0.6 — — 0.1 tr1516 δ-Cadinene — 1.0 — — 0.3 0.11522 trans-Calamenene — 0.2 — — — —1533 trans-Cadine-1,4-diene — 0.1 — — — —1541 α-Calacorene — 0.1 — — — —1548 Elemol — — — — 0.5 —1566 Maaliol — — — — — 1.61573 Spathulenol — — — — — 0.11582 Caryophyllene oxide 0.2 0.3 0.2 tr 0.1 0.51582 Gleenol — — — — — tr1608 Humulene epoxide II tr 0.1 — — — tr1631 γ-Eudesmol — — — — 0.1 —1635 Caryophylla-4(12),8(13)-dien-5-ol tr — — — — —1654 14-Hydroxy-9-epi-(Z)-Caryophyllene 0.1 0.1 — — — —1655 α-Eudesmol — — — — 0.2 —1683 α-Bisabolol — — — — — tr1764 Benzyl benzoate tr — — — — —1777 8α-Acetoxyelemol — — — — tr —

Total Compounds Identified 53 66 52 36 52 59Percent Composition Identified 99.1 99.7 99.5 99.9 99.7 98.8

a — = not detected. b tr = trace (

Foods 2017, 6, 20 8 of 15

Table 2. Enantiomeric distribution of monoterpenoids in Rosmarinus officinalis essential oils from sixdifferent geographical locations.

CompoundEnantiomeric Distribution, (+)/(−)

Alabama Western Cape Kenya Victoria Nepal

α-Pinene 99/1 99/1 97/3 99/1 98/2Camphene 75/25 78/22 75/25 75/25 75/25β-Pinene 33/67 29/71 31/69 30/70 30/70Limonene 48/52 40/60 53/47 54/46 54/46Linalool 5/95 3/97 5/95 3/97 5/95

Camphor 15/85 16/84 15/85 15/85 15/85Borneol 2/98 2/98 5/95 5/95 4/96

Terpinen-4-ol 69/31 70/30 70/30 70/30 70/30α-Terpineol 74/26 75/25 71/29 68/32 66/34Verbenone 100/0 100/0 100/0 100/0 100/0

Bornyl acetate 0/100 0/100 0/100 0/100 0/100

3.2. Chemotypes of Rosemary

In order to provide additional insight into the chemotypes of rosemary essential oils, we havecarried out a hierarchical cluster analysis based on the chemical compositions of the six oils inthis study along with 72 additional rosemary oil chemical compositions from the literature. Thedendrogram of the analysis is shown in Figure 1. Based on this analysis, there are five differentchemotypes: (1) α-pinene/1,8-cineole, (2) verbenone/α-pinene/camphor/ 1,8-cineole, (3) myrcene/1,8-cineole/camphor, (4) 1,8-cineole/camphor/α-pinene, and (5) α-pinene/β-pinene/ camphene.Chemotype 1, dominated by α-pinene [36,37,89–92], is a cluster made up of 32 samples, includingthose from Victoria (Australia), Nepal, Kenya, Western Cape (South Africa), and Alabama (USA).Chemotype 2, dominated by verbenone (i.e., the verbenoniferum chemotype) [39,74], has eight samples,including the sample from Yemen. Chemotype 3, dominated by myrcene [89], has four samples in thisanalysis. Chemotype 4 is dominated by 1,8-cineole [36,38,93–95] and is comprised of 33 samples, andcan be considered comparable to the cineoliferum chemotype described by Napoli and co-workers [39].The fifth chemotype, represented by only one sample from Mexico [35], has nearly equal quantities ofα-pinene, β-pinene, and camphene; the relatively high β-pinene concentration (12%) separates thissample from chemotype 1.

3.3. Antifungal Activity

Antifungal activity was tested against three common opportunistic fungal pathogens. Yeast-likeC. albicans and mold-like A. niger are Ascomycota while C. neoformans is a Basidiomycota. Overall, noinhibitory activity at or below 2500 ppm for the R. officinalis essential oil chemotypes was overservedagainst either ascomycete. Inhibitory activity was observed against C. neoformans for the majority ofR. officinalis chemotypes tested. Though not exceedingly promising, R. officinalis from Australia diddemonstrate an MIC of 625 ppm. Previous investigations of antifungal activity rosemary oil againstA. niger [76,96,97] and C. albicans [19,98,99] have also found rosemary oil to be inactive, while againstC. neoformans it had been found to be moderately active (MIC = 156 µg/mL) [100]. Thus, rosemary oilcannot be considered a worthwhile antifungal agent.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295395353_Volatile_diversity_in_wild_populations_of_rosemary_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_from_the_Tyrrhenian_Sea_vicinity_cultivated_under_homogeneous_environmental_conditions?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257772829_Geographical_Differentiation_of_Rosemary_Based_on_GCMS_and_Fast_HPLC_Analyses?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230634256_A_Study_of_Moroccan_Rosemary_Oils?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230591812_The_effects_of_thyme_Thymus_vulgaris_and_rosemary_Rosmarinus_officinalis_essential_oils_on_Brochothrix_thermosphacta_and_on_the_shelf_life_of_beef_packaged_in_high-oxygen_modified_atmosphere?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230144340_Composition_and_niticidal_activity_of_essential_oils_of_three_chemotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_acclimatized_in_Morocco?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229196830_Influence_of_different_stabilizing_operations_and_storage_time_on_the_composition_of_essential_oil_of_thyme_Thymus_officinalis_L_and_rosemary_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223813583_Antimicrobial_activities_of_methanol_extracts_and_essential_oils_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_depending_on_location_and_seasonal_variations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223209741_Screening_of_the_essential_oil_composition_of_wild_Sicilian_rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223209741_Screening_of_the_essential_oil_composition_of_wild_Sicilian_rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221925236_Rosemary_Compounds_as_Nutraceutical_Health_Products?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221925236_Rosemary_Compounds_as_Nutraceutical_Health_Products?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51519803_Chemical_composition_and_antimicrobial_activity_of_the_essential_oil_of_Rosemary?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51068740_An_analytical_and_theoretical_approach_for_the_profiling_of_the_antioxidant_activity_of_essential_oils_The_case_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45798968_Essential_oils_composition_in_two_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_varieties_and_incidence_for_antimicrobial_and_antioxidant_activities?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23966728_Antinociceptive_Effect_and_GCMS_Analysis_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_Essential_Oil_from_its_Aerial_Parts?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11338398_Main_Agronomic-Productive_Characteristics_of_Two_Ecotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_and_Chemical_Composition_of_Their_Essential_Oils?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11338398_Main_Agronomic-Productive_Characteristics_of_Two_Ecotypes_of_Rosmarinus_officinalis_L_and_Chemical_Composition_of_Their_Essential_Oils?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7992285_Antifungal_effect_of_various_essential_oils_against_Candida_albicans_Potentiation_of_antifungal_action_of_amphotericin_B_by_essential_oil_from_Thymus_vulgaris?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7856830_The_inhibition_of_Candida_albicans_by_selected_essential_oils_and_their_major_components?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7095464_Anti-Aspergillus_activities_of_plant_essential_oils_and_their_combination_effects_with_ketoconazole_or_amphotericin_B?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6569046_Antileishmanial_and_antifungal_activity_of_plants_used_in_traditional_medicine_in_Brazil?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-d359f0c837d0c84d6e4f2e6d22ec0b8d-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMxNDI0NTYyMjtBUzo0Njg5OTAzNjAzMzAyNDJAMTQ4ODgyNzQyMzQ5NA==

Foods 2017, 6, 20 9 of 15Foods 2017, 6, 19 10 of 15

Figure 1. Dendrogram obtained from the agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis of 78 Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil compositions

Port

ugal

[52]

Braz

il-4

[18]

Arg

entin

a-1

[77]

Arg

entin

a-2

[77]

Turk

ey-3

[19]

Yem

en (t

his)

Cor

sica

-2 [3

1]Si

cily

-5 [3

9]Sa

rdin

ia-2

[31]

Sard

inia

-4 [3

4]Ita

ly-8

[74]

Sard

inia

-1 [3

1]C

rete

-2 [7

0]A

lger

ia-3

[63]

Tuni

sia-

1 [2

0]A

lger

ia-2

[73]

Alg

eria

-4 [5

9]Ita

ly-7

[36]

Turk

ey-4

[28]

Cre

te-1

[17]

Sici

ly-1

[39]

Turk

ey-1

[19]

Egyp

t [81

]Si

cily

-2 [3

9]Tu

nisi

a-2

[20]

Mor

occo

-6 [5

5]A

ustr

ia [4

8]G

erm

any

[57]

Turk

ey-2

[19]

Italy

-2 [5

4]Br

azil-

3 [6

2]Pa

kist

an [3

2]M

oroc

co-3

[37]

Mor

occo

-4 [3

7]Sp

ain-

1 [6

6]Tu

nisi

a-3

[20]

Indi

a-1

[44]

Indi

a-2

[80]

Spai

n-2

[50]

Spai

n-4

[41]

Spai

n-5

[69]

Spai

n-3

[30]

Chi

na-3

[72]

Chi

na-1

[75]

Chi

na-2

[76]

Mex

ico-

1 [3

5]Ir

an-1

[64]

Italy

-5 [7

9]K

enya

(thi

s)A

laba

ma

(this

)M

exic

o-2

[29]

Leba

non

[46]

Vic

tori

a (th

is)

Nep

al (t

his)

Braz

il-2

[60]

Italy

-1 [5

3]W

. Cap

e (th

is)

Elba

[61]

Braz

il-1

[56]

Iran

-5 [6

7]Ita

ly-4

[78]

Chi

na-4

[45]

Sici

ly-4

[39]

Sici

ly-3

[39]

Alg

eria

-6 [5

8]Ir

an-4

[71]

Italy

-6 [3

6]Ita

ly-3

[78]

Uru

guay

[18]

Iran

-2 [6

8]Ir

an-3

[68]

Mor

occo

-2 [3

7]A

lger

ia-5

[65]

Mor

occo

-1 [5

1]M

oroc

co-5

[33]

Sard

inia

-3 [5

3]C

orsi

ca-1

[31]

Alg

eria

-1 [4

9]

0.4031763

0.5031763

0.6031763

0.7031763

0.8031763

0.9031763

Sim

ilari

tyRosemary Oil Dendrogram

(3) (2) (4) (5) (1)

Figure 1. Dendrogram obtained from the agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis of 78 Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil compositions.

Foods 2017, 6, 20 10 of 15

3.4. Other Biological Assays

The rosemary oil from Yemen was screened for xanthine oxidase inhibitory, tyrosinase inhibitory,and cytotoxic (SW480 and HCT116 human colorectal carcinoma cells) activity, but showed no activityin any of these assays. Yemeni rosemary oil showed only 8.6% ± 4.7% inhibition of xanthineoxidase. Against tyrosinase, Yemeni rosemary oil showed only 3.3% ± 1.5% inhibition at 100 µg/mL.In contrast, rosemary oil from cultivated plants from Mauritius did show tyrosinase inhibitory activity(median inhibitory concentration, IC50 = 97 µg/mL) [101]. Rosemary oil was found to be relativelynon-toxic to SK-OV-3, HO-8910, Bel-7402 (IC50 ≥250 µg/mL) [102], MCF-7, LNCaP, and NIH-3T3 cells(IC50 >180 µg/mL) [32], but active against A549 cells (IC50 = 80 µg/mL) [103]. In summary, the enzymeinhibitory potential of rosemary oil is fairly low. In high concentrations, however, rosemary oil may beharmful to some mammalian tissues.

4. Conclusions

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil has been extensively studied for its chemicalcomposition and its biological activities. α-Pinene and 1,8-cineole generally dominate the essentialoil compositions, but camphor, verbenone, camphene, and myrcene may also appear in highconcentrations. The enantiomeric distributions of monoterpenoids in rosemary oils seem to remainrelatively constant regardless of environmental factors. Based on the relative concentrations of themajor components in rosemary oils, we can define at least five separate chemotypes. The differentchemotypes are likely to present different biological activities, but rosemary oil, in general, is relativelyinactive in terms of antifungal, enzyme inhibitory, or antitumor potential.

Acknowledgments: We thank Joshua Thomerson, Chris Burder, Aaron Sorensen, and Prasun Satyal for assistancewith plant collection and distillation, and Badri P. Mainali for help with library research. T.H.J. was supported, inpart, by a grant to R.L.M. from the Herman Frasch Foundation for Chemical Research in conjunction with theAmerican Chemical Society.

Author Contributions: P.S., R.L.M., N.A.A.A., and W.N.S. conceived and designed the experiments; T.H.J., E.M.L.,I.M., and A.G.A. performed the experiments; P.S., R.L.M., N.A.A.A., and W.N.S. analyzed the data; R.L.M.contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; R.L.M., N.A.A.A., and W.N.S. wrote the paper.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funding agency had no role in the design ofthe study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decisionto publish the results.

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