chemistry3 - vandelay
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First and Second Ionisation Energies
“The ionization potential, ionization energy or EI of an atom or molecule is the energy required to
remove one mole of electrons from one mole of isolated gaseous atoms or ions. More generally, the
nth ionization energy is the energy required to strip it of an nth mole of electrons after the first n − 1
mole of electrons have already been removed. It is considered in physical chemistry as a measure of
the "reluctance" of an atom or ion to surrender an electron, or the "strength" by which the electron is
bound; the greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron. The ionization
potential is an indicator of the reactivity of an element. Elements with a low ionization energy tend to
be reducing agents and to form salts.
Values and trends
The next ionization energy involves removing an electron from an orbital closer to the nucleus.
Electrons in the closer orbital experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction, and thus, require
more energy to be removed.
In order to determine how many electrons are in the outermost shell of an element, one can use the
ionization energy. If, for example, it required 1,500 kJ/mol to remove one mole of electrons and
required 6,000 kJ/mol to remove another mole of electrons and then 5,000 kJ/mol, etc. this means
that the element had one electron in its outermost shell. This means that the element is a metal and in
order for this element to achieve a stable complete outer shell, it looks to destroy one electron. Thus,
the first electron is easy to remove and consequently the ionization energy is low. Notice, however,
that once the stable complete outer shell has been formed, it becomes much more difficult to remove
the next electron. If that electron can be removed the consequent one can be removed a bit more
easily.
Atomic Radius
Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined physical quantity,
nor is it constant in all circumstances. The value assigned to the radius of a particular atom will
always depend on the definition chosen for "atomic radius", and different definitions are more
appropriate for different situations.
The term "atomic radius" itself is problematic: it may be restricted to the size of free atoms, or it maybe used as a general term for the different measures of the size of atoms, both bound in molecules
and free. In the latter case, which is the approach adopted here, it should also include ionic radius, as
the distinction between covalent and ionic bonding is itself somewhat arbitrary.
The atomic radius is determined entirely by the electrons: The size of the atomic nucleus is measured
in femtometres, 100,000 times smaller than the cloud of electrons. However the electrons do not
have definite positions—although they are more likely to be in certain regions than others—and the
electron cloud does not have a sharp edge.
Despite (or maybe because of) these difficulties, many different attempts have been made to quantify
the size of atoms (and ions), based both on experimental measurements and calculation methods. It isundeniable that atoms do behave as if they were spheres with a radius of 30–300 pm, that atomic size
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varies in a predictable and explicable manner across the periodic table and that this variation has
important consequences for the chemistry of the elements.
Periodic trends in atomic radius
Atomic radius tends to increase as one proceeds down any group of the periodic table. This satisfies
simple intuition: atoms with more electrons have larger radii. However as one proceeds across anyrow of the periodic table, a deeper intuition is required: atoms with more numerous electrons exhibit
decreasing radius. This contraction results from the increasing number of protons in the nucleus.
Protons make little contribution to the size of the atom, but they increase the positive charge of the
nucleus, which draws the electrons into tighter orbitals.
factor principle increase with... tend to effect
electron
shells quantum mechanics
Principal Quantum Number,
Azimuthal Quantum Number
atomic
radius↑
increase on
descending a group
nuclear
charge
attractive force acting on electrons
by protons in nucleus atomic number
atomic
radius↓
decrease on passing
along a period
shielding
repulsive force acting on
outermost shell electrons by inner
electrons
number of electron shells atomic
radius↑
reduce the effect of
the 2nd factor
The increasing nuclear charge is partly counterbalanced by the increasing number of electrons in a
phenomenon that is known as shielding, which is why the size of atoms usually increases as a group
is descended. However, there are two occasions where shielding is less effective: in these cases, theatoms are smaller than would otherwise be expected.
Lanthanide contraction
The electrons in the 4f-subshell, which is progressively filled from cerium ( Z = 58) to lutetium ( Z =
71), are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells
further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii which are smaller
than would be expected and which are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements
immediately above them. Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as
zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. The effect of the
lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum ( Z = 78), after which it is masked by a relativisticeffect known as the inert pair effect.
d-Block contraction
The d-block contraction is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar
cause. In this case, it is the poor shielding capacity of the 3d-electrons which affects the atomic radii
and chemistries of the elements immediately following the first row of the transition metals, from
gallium ( Z = 31) to bromine ( Z = 35).”
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First Ionisation Energy – Spreadsheet
number symbol name 1st
1 H hydrogen 1312.0
2 He helium 2372.3
3 Li lithium 520.24 Be beryllium 899.5
5 B boron 800.6
6 C carbon 1086.5
7 N nitrogen 1402.3
8 O oxygen 1313.9
9 F fluorine 1681.0
10 Ne neon 2080.7
11 Na sodium 495.8
12 Mg magnesium 737.7
13 Al aluminium 577.5
14 Si silicon 786.5
15 P phosphorus 1011.8
16 S sulfur 999.6
17 Cl chlorine 1251.2
18 Ar argon 1520.6
19 K potassium 418.8
20 Ca calcium 589.8
21 Sc scandium 633.1
22 Ti titanium 658.8
23 V vanadium 650.9
24 Cr chromium 652.9
25 Mn manganese 717.3
26 Fe iron 762.5
27 Co cobalt 760.4
28 Ni nickel 737.1
29Cu copper 745.5
30 Zn zinc 906.4
31 Ga gallium 578.832 Ge germanium 762
33 As arsenic 947.0
34 Se selenium 941.0
35 Br bromine 1139.9
36 Kr krypton 1350.8
37 Rb rubidium 403.0
38 Sr strontium 549.5
39 Y yttrium 600
40 Zr zirconium 640.141 Nb niobium 652.1
42 Mo molybdenum 684.3
43 Tc technetium 702
44 Ru ruthenium 710.2
45 Rh rhodium 719.7
46 Pd palladium 804.4
47 Ag silver 731.0
48 Cd cadmium 867.8
49 In indium 558.3
50 Sn tin 708.6
51 Sb antimony 834
52 Te tellurium 869.3
53 I iodine 1008.4
54 Xe xenon 1170.4
55 Cs caesium 375.7
56 Ba barium 502.9
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Second Ionisation Energy – Spreadsheet
number symbol name 2nd
1 H hydrogen
2 He helium 5250.5
3 Li lithium 7298.14 Be beryllium 1757.1
5 B boron 2427.1
6 C carbon 2352.6
7 N nitrogen 2856
8 O oxygen 3388.3
9 F fluorine 3374.2
10 Ne neon 3952.3
11 Na sodium 4562
12 Mg magnesium 1450.7
13 Al aluminium 1816.7
14 Si silicon 1577.1
15 P phosphorus 1907
16 S sulfur 2252
17 Cl chlorine 2298
18 Ar argon 2665.8
19 K potassium 3052
20 Ca calcium 1145.4
21 Sc scandium 1235.0
22 Ti titanium 1309.8
23 V vanadium 1414
24 Cr chromium 1590.6
25 Mn manganese 1509.0
26 Fe iron 1561.9
27 Co cobalt 1648
28 Ni nickel 1753.0
29Cu copper 1957.9
30 Zn zinc 1733.3
31 Ga gallium 1979.332 Ge germanium 1537.5
33 As arsenic 1798
34 Se selenium 2045
35 Br bromine 2103
36 Kr krypton 2350.4
37 Rb rubidium 2633
38 Sr strontium 1064.2
39 Y yttrium 1180
40 Zr zirconium 127041 Nb niobium 1380
42 Mo molybdenum 1560
43 Tc technetium 1470
44 Ru ruthenium 1620
45 Rh rhodium 1740
46 Pd palladium 1870
47 Ag silver 2070
48 Cd cadmium 1631.4
49 In indium 1820.7
50 Sn tin 1411.8
51 Sb antimony 1594.9
52 Te tellurium 1790
53 I iodine 1845.9
54 Xe xenon 2046.4
55 Cs caesium 2234.3
56 Ba barium 965.2
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Atomic radii – Spreadsheet
Note: All measurements given are in picometres (pm).
number symbol name covalent
1 H hydrogen 372 He helium 32
3 Li lithium 134
4 Be beryllium 90
5 B boron 82
6 C carbon 77
7 N nitrogen 75
8 O oxygen 73
9 F fluorine 71
10 Ne neon 6911 Na sodium 154
12 Mg magnesium 130
13 Al aluminium 118
14 Si silicon 111
15 P phosphorus 106
16 S sulfur 102
17 Cl chlorine 99
18 Ar argon 97
19 K potassium 196
20 Ca calcium 174
21 Sc scandium 144
22 Ti titanium 136
23 V vanadium 125
24 Cr chromium 127
25 Mn manganese 139
26 Fe iron 125
27 Co cobalt 126
28 Ni nickel 121
29 Cu copper 138
30 Zn zinc 13131 Ga gallium 126
32 Ge germanium 122
33 As arsenic 119
34 Se selenium 116
35 Br bromine 114
36 Kr krypton 110
37 Rb rubidium 211
38 Sr strontium 192
39 Y yttrium 16240 Zr zirconium 148
41 Nb niobium 137
42 Mo molybdenum 145
43 Tc technetium 156
44 Ru ruthenium 126
45 Rh rhodium 135
46 Pd palladium 131
47 Ag silver 153
48 Cd cadmium 148
49 In indium 144
50 Sn tin 141
51 Sb antimony 138
52 Te tellurium 135
53 I iodine 133
54 Xe xenon 130
55 Cs caesium 225
56 Ba barium 198
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