chemistry (862) - cisce.org. isc chemistry.pdf · 150 chemistry (862) aims: 1. to foster...

150

CHEMISTRY (862)Aims:

1. To foster acquisition of knowledge andunderstanding of terms, concepts, facts,processes, techniques and principles relating tothe subject of Chemistry.

2. To develop the ability to apply the knowledge ofcontents and principles of Chemistry in new orunfamiliar situations.

3. To develop skills in proper handling ofapparatus and chemicals.

4. To develop an ability to appreciate achievementsin the field of Chemistry and its role in natureand society.

5. To develop an interest in activities involvingusage of the knowledge of Chemistry.

6. To develop a scientific attitude through the studyof Physical Sciences.

7. To acquaint students with the emerging frontiersand interdisciplinary aspects of the subject.

8. To develop skills relevant to the discipline.

9. To apprise students with interface of Chemistrywith other disciplines of Science, such as,Physics, Biology, Geology, Engineering, etc.

CLASS XI

There will be two papers in the subject.Paper I: Theory- 3 hours ... 70 marksPaper II: Practical - 3 hours ...20 marks

Project Work … 7 marksPractical File … 3 marks

PAPER I –THEORY – 70 Marks

There will be one paper of 3 hours duration dividedinto 2 parts.

Part I (20 marks) will consist of compulsory shortanswer questions, testing knowledge, application andskills relating to elementary/fundamental aspects ofthe entire syllabus.

Part II (50 marks) will be divided into 3 Sections,A, B and C. Candidates are required to answer twoout of three questions from Section A (each carrying10 marks), two out of three questions from Section B(each carrying 5 marks) and two out of threequestions from Section C (each carrying 10 marks).Therefore, a total of six questions are to be answeredin Part II.

SECTION A

1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry(i) Precision and Accuracy

Quantities and their measurements inChemistry, significant figures, SI Units.

(ii) Dimensional AnalysisConversion of units, numericals andapplications of units.

(iii) The concept of atoms having fixed propertiesin explaining the laws of chemicalcombination.

Study about atoms. Dalton’s atomic theory: Main postulates of the theory. Its limitations. Modern atomic theory.Laws of chemical combinations: Law of conservation of mass. Law of definite proportion. Law of multiple proportion. Law of reciprocal proportion. Gay-Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes.Statement, explanation and simple problemsbased on these laws.

(iv) Atomic and isotopic masses.The atomic mass unit is one of theexperimentally determined unit. It is equal to1/12 of the mass of the carbon 12 isotope.

(v) Chemical equivalents, volumetric calculationsin terms of normality. C = 12.00 should betaken as a standard for expressing atomicmasses.Equivalent weight expresses the combiningcapacity of the elements with the standardelements such as H, Cl, O, Ag, etc.Variable equivalent weight. Gram equivalentweights, relationship between gramequivalent weight, gram molecular weightand valency.

Determination of equivalent weight of acids,alkalis, salts, oxidising and reducing agents.(experimental details not required).

151

Terms used in volumetric calculations such aspercentage (w/w and w/v), normality,molarity, molality, mole fraction, etc. shouldbe discussed. Students are required to knowthe formulae.

Simple calculations on the above topics.

(vi) Relative molecular mass and mole. Thefollowing methods may be considered for thedetermination of relative molecular masses forthe gases: the molar volume method; VictorMeyer’s method (experimental details notrequired).

Numerical problems based on the abovemethod and Victor Meyer’s method. Moleconcept, Avogadro’s number and numericalproblems on mole concept. Gram molecularvolume.

(vii) Chemical reaction – Stoichiometriccalculations based on mass-mass,mass-volume and volume-volumerelationships.

Self explanatory.

2. Atomic Structure

(i) Electrons, Protons and Neutrons asfundamental particles, their charges andmasses.

Concept of indivisibility of atom as proposedby Dalton does not exist. The atom consists ofsubatomic fundamental particles. Productionof cathode rays and their properties.Production of anode rays and theirproperties.

Chadwick’s experiment for the discovery ofneutron and properties of neutron.

(ii) Rutherford’s nuclear model based on thescattering experiment.

Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom.Rutherford’s scattering experiment. Discoveryof nucleus. Defects of Rutherford model. Typesof spectra. Hydrogen spectra to be done indetail.(Numericals are not required).

(iii) Bohr’s atomic model.1. Postulates of Bohr’s theory – based on

Planck’s quantum theory.2. Numericals on Bohr’s atomic radii, velocity

and energy of orbits (derivation notrequired).

3. Defects in the Bohr’s Model.(iv) Atomic structure: wave mechanical model- a

simple mathematical treatment. Quantumnumbers; shape, size and orientation of s, pand d orbitals only (No derivation). Hund’srule of maximum multiplicity. Pauli’sexclusion principle, Aufbau principle,electronic configuration of elements in termsof s, p, d, f subshells.

Wave mechanical model - experimentalverification of wave nature of electron.

de Broglie’s equation. Numericals. Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle.

Numericals.

Quantum numbers – types of quantumnumbers, information obtained in terms ofdistance of electron from the nucleus, nodeand nodal planes, energy of electron,number of electrons present in an orbit andan orbital.

Pauli’s exclusion principle. Shape, size andorientation of the s, p and d subshells.

Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.

Aufbau principle, (n+l) rule.

Electronic configuration of elements interms of s, p, d, f subshells.

3. Periodic Table

(i) Atomic number (Proton number) as the basisfor classification of the elements in thePeriodic Table. IUPAC nomenclature forelements with Z> 100.

Mendeleev’s periodic law, defects in theMendeleev’s periodic table. Advantages anddisadvantages. Modern periodic law (atomicnumber taken as the basis of classification ofthe elements). Extended and long form ofperiodic table. General characteristics ofgroups and periods. Division of periodic tableas s, p, d and f blocks.

(ii) Extra nuclear structure as the basis ofperiodicity. Some idea of the following:ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy,atomic radius, atomic volume,electronegativity, etc must be given. Theperiodicity of electronic structure leading to

152

the periodicity of elements e.g. the relative easeof ionisation of elements.

Periodic properties such as valenceelectrons, atomic volume, atomic and ionicradii and their variation in groups andperiods.

The idea of ionisation enthalpy, electrongain enthalpy and electronegativity must begiven and their variation in groups andperiods may be discussed.

The factors (atomic number, atomic volumeand shielding effect, the number of electronsin the outermost orbit) which affect theseperiodic properties and their variation ingroups and periods.

(iii) Periodicity of elements with reference to s, p, dand f block elements.

Classification of elements on the basis of s, p,d, f block elements and also on the basis oftheir complete and incomplete electron shells.

Study of the periodicity of propertiesmentioned in point (ii) in terms of s, p, d, fblocks and the governing factors in terms ofthe block characteristics.

NOTE: Recommendations of the latest IUPACfor numbering of groups to be followed.Numbering 1 – 18 replacing old notation ofI – VIII. Details given at the end of thesyllabus.

4. Chemical Bonding:

Kossel-Lewis approach to Chemical Bonding.

Its application to electrovalent and covalent bonds.

Electrovalent Bond

(i) Electrovalent or ionic bond e.g formation ofNaCl, Li2O, MgO, CaO, MgF2, and Na2 S.

Cause of chemical combination, Octet rule,types of chemical bonds. Electrovalentformation of NaCl, Li2O, MgO, CaO, MgF2,

and Na2S. Properties of ionic compounds.Electron dot structure of the following ioniccompounds: NaCl, Li2O, MgO, CaO, MgF2,and Na2S must be taught in detail.

(ii) Factors influencing the formation of ionicbond, e.g electron gain enthalpy, ionisationenthalpy, lattice energy and electronegativity.

The conditions necessary for the formation ofionic bonds such as:

- low ionisation enthalpy of metals.

- high electron gain enthalpy of non-metals.

- high lattice energy.

- electronegativity difference between thereacting atoms should be appreciable.

All these points must be discussed in detail.

(iii) The relation between the ionic bonding andPeriodic Table.

The relationship between the formation ofcations and anions of the atoms and theirpositions in the periodic table should bediscussed.

Correlate the periodic property and theposition of the elements in the periodic table toshow the ease of formation of anions andcations and electrovalent and covalentcompounds.

(iv) Variable electrovalency and its causes.

Variable electrovalency; reasons for variableelectrovalency i.e, due to inert electron paireffect, by using suitable examples. Calculationof lattice enthalpy (Born-Haber cycle).

Covalent Bond

(i) Covalent bond, sigma and pi bonds e.g.formation of ammonia, nitrogen, ethene,ethyne, and carbon dioxide. Resonance.

Definition of covalent bonding, conditions forformation of covalent bonds, types of covalentbonds i.e single, double and triple bonds.Sigma and pi bonds. H2, O2, N2. Classificationof covalent bonds based on electronegativityof atoms - polar and non polar covalent bond,dipole moment, formation of CH4, H2O, NH3,ethane, ethene, ethyne and CO2, etc. and theirelectron dot structure or Lewis structure.Characteristics of covalent compounds.Comparison in electrovalency and covalency.Resonance in simple inorganic molecules likeozone, carbon dioxide, carbonate ion andnitrate ion.

153

(ii) Variable valency: chlorine exhibits the valencyof 1,3,5 & 7.

Variable valency, cause of variable covalencye.g. chlorine exhibits the valency 1, 3, 5 and 7.Discuss in terms of atomic structure.

Variable covalency of phosphorus and sulphurmay be discussed. Discuss in terms of atomicstructure.

(iii) Deviation from Octet rule and Fajan’s rules.Definition of Octet rule.

Failure of Octet rule, due to either incompleteoctet or exceeding of Octet with suitableexamples.

Fajan’s rules: Statements. Conditions forelectrovalency and covalency must bediscussed. Polar and non polar bonds shouldbe correlated with Fajan’s rules.

(iv) Co-ordinate or dative covalent bond, e.g.formation of oxy-acids of chlorine.

Co-ordinate or dative covalent bonding:definition, formation of hypochlorous acid,chloric acid, perchloric acid, ammonium ion,hydronium ion, nitric acid, ozone – structuralformulae of the above molecules based onco-ordinate bonding.

(v) Hydrogen bonding: its essential requirements,the examples of hydrogen fluoride, water(ice), alcohol, etc may be considered.

H-bonding – definition, types, condition forhydrogen bond formation, examples ofinter-molecular hydrogen bonding in detailtaking hydrogen fluoride, water and ice andethanol into account. Intramolecularhydrogen bonding.

(vi) Metallic bonding, van der Waals’ forces.Metallic bonding - Electron sea model andband model.

Explanation of metallic properties in terms ofmetallic bonding.

van der Waals’ forces and its types.

(vii)Valence Shell Electron Pair RepulsionTheory; Hybridization and shapes ofmolecules: hybridization involving s, p and dorbitals only; sigma and pi bonds.

Concept of electron-pair repulsion and shapesof molecules taking methane, ammonia andwater as examples.

Hybridization and molecular shapes –definition, hybridization of orbitals involvings, p and d orbitals (examples: ethane, ethene,ethyne, PCl5 and SF6).

(viii) Molecular orbital theory, Qualitativetreatment of homonuclear diatomic moleculesof first two periods (Hydrogen toNeon). Energy level diagrams, bonding,antibonding molecular orbitals, bond order,paramagnetism of O2 molecule. Relativestabilities of O2, O2

-, O22 - , O2

+ and N2, N2+,

N2-, N2

2-.

Self-explanatory.

5. The Gaseous State

(i) The gas laws, kinetic theory treatedqualitatively.

Characteristics of gases, comparison betweensolid, liquid and gas. Properties of gaseson the basis of kinetic theory of gases. Laws ofgases – Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, AbsoluteTemperature, Pressure Temperature Law,Avogadro’s Law. Simple numerical problemsbased on the above laws.

Postulates of Kinetic Theory must be discussedto explain gas laws. Concept of average, rootmean square and most probable velocities(No numericals).

(ii) PV = nRT or PV= (w/M)RT and theapplication of this equation of state.

Ideal gas equation PV = nRT; its applicationin calculation of relative molecular mass andin the calculation of the value of R.

(iii) Non ideal behaviour of gases and van derWaals’ equation.Non ideal behaviour of gases i.e. deviationfrom gas laws may be discussed at low and athigh temperature and pressure.

van der Waals’ equation (P + a/V2) (V-b)= RT for one mole of a gas. (Numericals notrequired)

The pressure correction and volumecorrection may be explained.

154

(iv) Dalton’s law, the Avogadro’s constant, themole, Graham’s law of diffusion, simplenumerical problems on the above.

Dalton’s Law of partial pressure. Application of Dalton’s Law. Numerical problems based on the above

law.

Avogadro’s constant. Relationship between the mole and

Avogadro number. Graham’s Law ofdiffusion and its application.

Simple numerical problems on the above.

6. Surface Chemistry

(i) Adsorption

Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids,Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption isotherms.

(ii) Colloidal State: Preparation and properties ofcolloids, both lyophilic and lyophobic colloids.Precipitation as evidence that the colloidalparticles are charged. Idea of gold number isrequired, but application of gold number is notrequired. The importance of large surface areain adsorption should also be appreciated.

Thomas Graham classified the substances ascrystalloid and colloid.

Classification of substances on the basis of theparticle size i.e. true solution, sol andsuspension.

Colloidal system is heterogeneous. Lyophilicand lyophobic colloids.

Classification of colloidal solutions as micro,macro and associated colloids.

Preparation of lyophilic colloids. Preparationof lyophobic colloids by colloid mill,peptisation, Bredig’s arc method (proceduraldetails not required) by oxidation, reduction,double decomposition and exchange of solventmethod should be discussed.

Purification of colloids (dialysis, ultrafiltration, and ultracentrifugation).

Properties of colloidal solutions such asBrownian movement, Tyndall effect,coagulation should be discussed.

Protection of colloids, Gold number and HardySchulze rule.

Application of colloids in life.

Electrophoresis (movement of dispersed phase).

Emulsions, surfactants, micelles (only definitionand examples).

(iii) Chromatography

Principle and its application (details not required).

7. Chemical Kinetics

Rate of a chemical reaction, basic idea of orderand molecularity of a reaction.

Rate of a chemical reaction; Relation betweenorder and the stoichiometric coefficients in thebalanced equation; Meaning of molecularity.Differences between the order and molecularity ofthe reaction. (Numericals are not required).

8. Chemical Energetics

(i) Introduction.

(a) Scope of thermodynamics- characteristicsof thermodynamics.

(b) Types of system – ideal system, realsystem, isolated system, closed system,open system.

(c) Meaning of surroundings.

(d) Properties of the system: macroscopic,intensive and extensive properties of thesystem.

(e) State of the system.

(f) Main processes the system undergoes:reversible, irreversible, adiabatic,isothermal, isobaric, isochoric, cyclic.

(g) Meaning of thermodynamic equilibrium.

(h) Meaning of thermodynamic process.

(ii) First law of Thermodynamics and itsmathematical statement.

(a) Idea of conservation of energy - totalenergy of the system and thesurroundings.

(b) Meaning of internal energy of the systemand change in internal energy of thesystem.

(c) Meaning of work done by the system andby the surroundings at constanttemperature.

155

(d) Meaning of heat absorbed by the systemand by the surroundings at constanttemperature.

(e) The sign convention for change ininternal energy, heat given out or gained,work done by the system or by thesurroundings.

(f) State function and path function- meaningwith examples.

(g) Internal energy change, work done andheat absorbed in a cyclic process.

(h) Internal energy change in an isolatedsystem and in non isolated system.

(i) Total internal energy change of a systemand surroundings.

(j) Significance of first law ofthermodynamics.

(k) Chemical change and internal energy.

(l) Need for enthalpy – constant pressure oropen vessel processes.

(m) Enthalpy a thermodynamic property –state function.

(n) Mathematical form of enthalpy atconstant pressure.

(iii) Ideas about Heat, Work and Energy.

Heat - the energy in transit.

Condition for the transfer of heat.

Limitation in conversion of heat intowork.

Condition at which heat transfer ceases.

Unit of heat.

Meaning of energy – capacity to do work.

Meaning of work – intensity factor andcapacity factor.

Types of work.

Mathematical form of reversible work.

Mathematical form of irreversible work.

Difference between the reversible andirreversible work done – graphically.

Adiabatic reversible expansion.

Relationship between Cv and internalenergy change.

Relationship between Cp and Cv.

(iv) Second law of thermodynamics – Reversibleand irreversible changes, isobaric, isochoricadiabatic processes; Entropy, Free Energy.Spontaneity of a chemical change.G = -2.303 RT logKeq.

Ideas about reversible (recapitulation),spontaneous and non spontaneousprocesses.

Inadequacy of first law and need forsecond law.

Meaning of entropy – derived from IIndlaw – statement of IInd law in terms ofentropy.

Physical significance of entropy

State function and not path function.

Relationship between adiabatic changeand entropy.

Entropy change of the universe and areversible isothermal process.

Entropy change of the universe andirreversible process.

Meaning of thermal death.

Meaning of energy content and workcontent (free energy) of the system –thermodynamic quantity – state function.

Types of work and meaning of the twotypes of work.

Meaning of Helmholtz’s Free energy andGibb’s free energy and the change inGibb’s and Helmholtz’s free energy.

Relationship between Gibb’s free energyand Helmholtz’s free energy.

Simple calculation on the change inGibb’s free energy and Helmholtz’s freeenergy.

Relationship between change in Gibb’sfree energy and equilibrium constant of achemical reaction.

Change in Gibb’s free energy inreversible, irreversible, isobaric andisochoric processes.

Based on change in Gibb’s free energy,defining the criteria for the spontaneity ofa change in terms of entropy andenthalpy; defining the limits for reversiblechemical reactions.

156

(v) Third Law of Thermodynamics – statementonly.Self explanatory.

(vi) Thermochemistry:(a) Definitions.

Heat of reaction:- Heat of formation – standard heat of

formation.- Heat of solution.- Heat of solution at infinite dilution.- Heat of dilution.- Heat of neutralization.- Heat of combustion.

(b) Constancy in the heat of neutralisation. Experimental verification in case of

strong acids and strong bases. Reason for that observation – ionic

neutralisation and the heat evolved.(c) Calorific value of a fuel.

Definition of calorific value.(d) Hess’s law of constant heat summation -

simple problems based on the abovedefinitions and concepts.Statement- explanation with example.Simple problems.

SECTION B9. Study of Representative Elements: Group 1, 2,

13, 14, 15 - The following should be included:a) Occurrence, (b) Physical State, (c) ElectronicConfiguration, (d) Atomic and Ionicradii, (e) Common oxidation state,(f) Electropositive / Electronegative character,(g) Ionisation enthalpy, (h) Reducing/oxidisingnature, (i) Distinctive behaviour of first memberof each group (namely Lithium, Beryllium,Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen), (j) Nature of oxides,hydroxides, hydrides, carbonates, nitrates,chlorides, sulphates, wherever applicable.

s-Block elements:

Group 1 – Lithium, Sodium: Generalcharacteristics in terms of physical and chemicalproperties.

Group 2 – Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium:General characteristics in terms of physical andchemical properties.

p-Block elements:

Group 13 – Boron, Aluminium: Generalcharacteristics in terms of physical and chemicalproperties; Boron’s Lewis acid character;amphoteric nature of aluminium.

Group 14 – Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin andLead: General characteristics in terms of physicaland chemical properties, property of catenation;structure of diamond, graphite and fullerene;stability of +2 oxidation state down the group interms of inert pair effect.

Group 15 – Nitrogen, Phosphorus: Generaltrends in group; unreactive nature of nitrogen;difference in the physical state of nitrogen andphosphorus in terms of bonding; allotropes ofphosphorus (white, red) - nature and uses.

10. Preparation, properties and uses ofCompounds of Groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15.

Only brief qualitative treatment is required forpreparation. Main emphasis must be given to thechemistry of preparation, chemical properties anduses of the given compounds. Biologicalimportance of magnesium, sodium, calcium andpotassium.

Group 1: Sodium chloride, Sodium hydroxide,Sodium carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate, Sodiumthiosulphate; Group 2: Magnesium chloridehexahydrate, Calcium oxide, Plaster of Paris,Cement; Group 13: Borax, Borax Bead Test,Boric acid, Alums; Group 14: Carbon monoxide,Carbon dioxide, Silicon dioxide, Silicon carbide,Silicones; Group 15: Oxides of nitrogen,Phosphorus trichloride, Phosphorus pentachloride,Oxoacids of phosphorus.

Group 1:

(i) Sodium chloride - Isolation. Uses.

(ii) Sodium hydroxide - only the principle ofpreparation by Castner-Kellner cell.

(iii) Sodium carbonate - equation of Solvay’sprocess. Uses.

157

(iv) Sodium bicarbonate - preparation fromsodium carbonate. Uses.

(v) Sodium thiosulphate - preparation fromsodium sulphite and its reaction with iodine,dilute acids and silver nitrate. Uses.

Group 2:

(i) Magnesium chloride hexahydrate -preparation from magnesium oxide. Effect ofheat.

(ii) Calcium oxide - preparation from limestone;reaction with water, carbon dioxide andsilica.

(iii) Plaster of Paris - preparation from gypsum.Uses.

(iv) Manufacture of cement.

Group 13:

(i) Borax- reaction with water and action of heaton hydrated compound (preparation notrequired).

(ii) Borax Bead Test.

(iii) Boric acid – preparation and action of heat.

(iv) Alums – preparation and uses.

Group 14:

(i) Carbon monoxide - preparation fromincomplete combustion of carbon. Hazards ofCO. Reducing nature of CO.

(ii) Carbon dioxide - preparation from limestoneand carbon, limewater test. Uses.

(iii) Silicon dioxide - structure, comparison withcarbon dioxide. Uses.

(iv) Silicon carbide - preparation from silica.Uses.

(v) Silicones - general method of preparation.Uses.

(vi) Silicates – structure and uses.

(vii)Zeolites – formula and use.

Group 15:

(i) Oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, N2O3, N2O4,N2O5) - preparation, structure and uses.

(ii) Ammonia– Preparation and manufacture.Properties: reaction with oxygen, copper

oxide, chlorine, HCl, formation of complexes.Uses.

(iii) Nitric Acid - Preparation and manufacture.Properties: reaction with copper (dilute andconcentrated HNO3), carbon and sulphur.Uses.

(iv) Phosphorus trichloride - Preparation fromphosphorous. Uses.

(v) Phosphorus pentachloride - preparation fromPCl3. Thermal dissociation and hydrolysis.Uses.

(vi) Phosphine – preparation from phosphorusand properties: reaction with halo acids).

(vii)Oxoacids of phosphorus (structure only).

11. Redox Reactions

Concept of oxidation and reduction in termsof oxygen, hydrogen, electrons.

Redox reactions – examples.

Oxidation number: Rules for calculation,simple calculations of oxidation state inmolecules and ions like K2Cr2O7, S2

23O , etc.

Oxidation and reduction in terms of change inoxidation number.

Balancing of redox reactions in acidic andbasic medium by oxidation number and ion-electron method.

SECTION C

(Note: Aliphatic compounds containing upto 5carbon atoms to be taught)

12. Introduction to Organic Chemistry

(i) The unique nature of carbon atom andcatenation.

Introduction to organic chemistry:

- Vital force theory.

- Reason for separate study of organicchemistry and its importance.

- Characteristics of carbon atoms (tetravalency).

- Reasons for large number of organiccompounds:

(a) Catenation.

(b) Isomerism and multiple bonding, etc.

158

(ii)Classification of organic compounds andhomologous series.

Classification of organic compounds:(definition and examples)

(a) Open chain.

(b) Closed chain.

(c) Homocyclic.

(d) Hetrocyclic.

(e) Aromatic.

(f) Alicyclic compounds.

(g) Homologous series and itscharacteristics.

(h) Functional groups.

(i) Nomenclature of organic compounds;hydrocarbons and other simplecompounds.

(j) IUPAC rules for naming organiccompounds.

(iii)Detection of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur,nitrogen and halogen.

Analysis of organic compounds:

Detection of elements (qualitative analysis)such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogensand sulphur should be considered by usingLassaigne’s test and reactions involved in it.

(iv) Estimation of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,halogens, sulphur and phosphorous.

Estimation of carbon and hydrogen.Estimation of nitrogen by Kjeldahl’s method;halogens by Carius’ method. Estimation ofsulphur and phosphorous. Numericalsincluded.

13. Isomerism

Definition. Classification of isomerism.

(i) Structural Isomerism.

(a) Chain isomerism.

(b) Positional isomerism.

(c) Functional isomerism.

(d) Metamerism.

(e) Tautomerism.

Definitions and examples.

(ii) Stereo Isomerism.

(a) Geometric isomerism (cis and trans only).

Definitions. Conditions for compounds toexhibit geometric isomerism; examples,Types of geometric isomers – cis andtrans, syn and anti.

(b) Optical isomerism

Definition.

Nicol Prism and plane polarised light.Polarimeter. Method of measuring angleof rotation. Specific rotation.

Conditions for optical activity.

d, l form.

External compensation - racemicmixture.

Internal compensation – meso form.

Examples – lactic acid and tartaric acid.

14. Types of Chemical Reactions and theirMechanisms

(i) Substitution, addition and eliminationreactions.

Substitution, addition and eliminationreactions – definition and examples.

(ii) Homolytic and heterolytic fission.

Homolytic and heterolytic fission – definitionand examples.

(iii) Electrophiles and nucleophiles.

Electrophiles and nucleophiles – definitionand examples (including neutral electrophilesand nucleophiles).

(iv) Inductive, mesomeric, electromeric effectsand hyperconjugation.

Inductive, electromeric, mesomeric effect andhyperconjugation – definition, examples andtheir reactivities.

(v) Free radicals and polar mechanisms (in termsof fission of the bonds and formation of thenew bonds) including SN1, SN2, E1 and E2

mechanisms. (SN1 and SN2 , E1 and E2

mechanisms are to be taught at this point).

159

Free radical: its formation due to the fissionof the bonds.

Meaning of S.

Meaning of N.

Meaning of 1 and 2.

Explain with relevant examples andconditions.

15. Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons

(i) Alkanes: General methods of preparation,Properties of alkanes.

- General formula of alkanes.

- Homologous series.

- Naming of alkanes.

- Isomerism of alkanes.

- Occurrence.

- Conformation (Sawhorse and Newmanprojections of ethane).

General methods of preparation:

- From sodium salts of carboxylic acids(decarboxylation and Kolbe’s electrolyticmethod).

- From alcohols.

- From alkyl halides (Wurtz reaction).

- From aldehydes.

Physical and chemical properties of alkanes.

Physical properties:

- State of existence.

- Freezing point.

- Melting point.

- Boiling point.

- Density.

Chemical properties:

- Combustibility.

- Reaction with chlorine (free radicalmechanism).

- Reaction with oxygen in presence ofcatalyst (formation of alcohol, aldehyde,and carboxylic acid).

Uses of alkanes.

(ii) Alkenes: general methods of preparation andproperties of alkenes.

- General formula of alkenes.

- Nomenclature of alkenes.

- General methods of preparation –dehydration of alcohols,dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides andKolbe’s electrolytic method.

- Physical and Chemical properties.

- Markownikoff’s rule and Anti-Markownikoff’s rule with mechanism.Explain by using suitable examples.

- Saytzeff’s rule.

(iii) Alkynes: methods of preparation (includingmanufacture), properties and uses of ethyne.

- General formula of alkynes.

- Nomenclature of the alkynes.

- General methods of preparations ofalkynes. Manufacture of ethyne bycalcium carbide and from natural gas.Dehydrohalogenation and Kolbe’selectrolytic method.

- Physical and chemical properties ofalkynes – addition reactions, formation ofacetylides.

- Uses.

- Distinguishing test between Alkane,Alkene and Alkyne.

(iv) Benzene: Coal tar as an important source ofaromatic compounds; preparation of benzenefrom sodium benzoate, properties and uses ofbenzene; resonance model of benzene;directive influence of substituents in thebenzene ring.

Coal tar as an important source ofaromatic compounds – a general study.

Benzene: Preparation from sodiumbenzoate. Physical properties and uses.

Resonance structures (Kekule’s) of benzene.

Directive influence (o-, p-, and m-) ofsubstituents in electrophilic and nucleophilicsubstitutions.

160


- Oxidation (formation of maleicanhydride).

- Pyrolysis (formation of bi-phenyl).

- Addition reactions with hydrogen,chlorine, bromine.

- With ozone.- Substitution reaction (halogenation,

nitration and sulphonation).- Alkylation, acetylation – Friedel Craft’s

reaction.- Carcinogenicity and toxicity of benzene

may be discussed.16. Applications of Chemicals

(i) In medicine: antipyretics, analgesics,tranquillisers, antiseptics, disinfectants,anti-microbials, anti-fertility drugs,antihistamines, antibiotics, antacids.Definition, common examples, uses.Structure not required. Differences betweenantiseptics and disinfectants to be specified.

(ii) Soaps and Detergents: classification, structureand some important examples.Soaps and Detergents – advantage ofdetergents over soaps, classification ofdetergents into anionic, cationic andnon-ionic.

17. Environmental Chemistry(i) Energy: Non-renewable and renewable sources,

use of diesel and petrol in trains buses, cars andother vehicles, use of LPG, use of CNG andtheir role in pollution control.Future sources of energy – hydrogen, alcohol,fuel cells and bio-fuels. Brief explanation.Methods of saving energy in homes andinstitutions – use of energy saving bulbs, solarcooker, bio-gas pipeline.Self explanatory.

(ii)Pollution: Environmental pollution:atmospheric pollution and water pollutionGaseous pollutants: oxides of nitrogen,carbon, sulphur, hydrocarbons; their sources,harmful effects and prevention; Green houseeffect and global warming; acid rain;

Particulate pollutants: smoke, dust, smog,fumes, mist; their sources, harmful effects andprevention.Water pollutants: pathogens, organic waste,chemical pollutants; their harmful effects andprevention.

PAPER II

PRACTICAL WORK- 20 Marks

Candidates are required to complete the followingexperiments:

1. Basic laboratory techniques:

Cutting a glass tube.

Bending a glass tube.

Drawing out a glass jet.

Boring a cork.

2. Titration: acid-base titration involving molarity.

Titrations involving:

Sodium carbonate solution/ dil H2SO4 or dil.HCl using methyl orange indicator.

NaOH or KOH solution/ dil H2SO4 or dil. HClusing methyl orange indicator.

Calculations involving molarity,concentration in grams l-1/ number of ions,water of crystallisation and percentage purity.

NOTE: Calculation of molarity must be upto 4decimal places at least, in order to avoid error.

3. Qualitative analysis: identification of thefollowing in a given mixture (containing twoanions and two cations):

Anions: CO32-, NO2

-, S2-, SO32-, SO4

2-, NO3-,

CH3COO-, Cl-, Br-, I-, C2O4-2.

Cations: NH4+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Mn2+,

Ni2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Mg2+.

Formal analytical procedure required.

Anions: Dilute acid group: CO32-, NO2

-, S2-, SO32-

Concentrated Acid Group: NO3-, Cl-,

Br-, I-

Special Group: SO42-, CH3COO-, C2O4

-2.

161

Cations: Group Zero:NH4+

Group I: Pb2+

Group II: Cu2+, Pb2+

Group III: Al3+, Fe3+

Group IV: Zn2+, Mn2+, Ni2+

Group V: Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+

Group VI: Mg2+

NOTE:

More than one radical will not be givenfrom the same group of anions and cations.

For wet test of anions, sodium carbonateextract must be used (except forcarbonate).

(Insoluble salts excluded)

4. Preparation of inorganic compounds

(i) Preparation of potash alum/Mohr’s salt.

(ii) Preparation of crystalline FeSO4/CuSO4.

5. Paper Chromatography

Preparation of chromatogram, separation ofpigments from extracts of leaves and flowers/inkmixtures; determination of Rf value.

PROJECT WORK AND PRACTICAL FILE -

10 Marks

Project Work – 7 Marks

The candidate is to creatively execute oneproject/assignment on a selected topic of Chemistry.Teachers may assign or students may choose any oneproject of their choice.

Suggested Evaluation criteria for Project Work:

Introduction / purpose

Contents

Analysis/ material aid ( graph, data, structure, piecharts, histograms, diagrams, etc)

Presentation

Bibliography

Practical File – 3 Marks

Teachers are required to assess students on the basisof the Chemistry Practical file maintained by themduring the academic year.

162

CLASS XII

There will be two papers in the subject.

Paper I: Theory - 3 hours ... 70 marks

Paper II: Practical - 3 hours ... 20 marks

Project Work … 7 marks

Practical File … 3 marks

PAPER I –THEORY – 70 Marks

There will be one paper of 3 hours duration dividedinto 2 parts.

Part I (20 marks) will consist of compulsory shortanswer questions, testing knowledge, application andskills relating to elementary/fundamental aspects ofthe entire syllabus.

Part II (50 marks) will be divided into 3 Sections,A, B and C. Candidates are required to answer twoout of three questions from Section A (each carrying10 marks), two out of three questions from Section B(each carrying 5 marks) and two out of threequestions from Section C (each carrying 10 marks).Therefore, a total of six questions are to be answeredin Part II.

SECTION A

1. Relative Molecular Mass and Mole

(i) Normality, molality, molarity, mole fraction,as measures of concentration.

Definition of the above terms with examples.Simple problems relating mass, molar massand mole.

(ii) Raoult's law and colligative properties.

Intensive property – definition and examples.

Extensive property – definition and examples.

Colligative properties – definition andexamples.

Raoult’s Law – I (for volatile solutes),

– II (for non-volatile solutes).

Ideal solution, non-ideal solution. Azeotropicmixtures – definition, types and examples.Solubility of gases in liquids – Henry’s Law,simple numericals.

(iii) Nonvolatile, non electrolytic solute.

Explanation of non-volatile solute andnon-electrolytic solute with examples.

(iv) Dissociation- Electrolytic solute.

Meaning of electrolytic solute – (if strongelectrolyte) – the number of particles of thesolute in solution is an exact multiple of thenumber of ions present in one molecule of thesolute. Meaning of electrolytic solute – (ifweak electrolyte) – the number of particles ofthe solute in solution is not an exact multipleof the number of ions present in one moleculeof the solute but a part of it depending on thedegree of dissociation. (This part may betaught after teaching ionic equilibria).Numericals included.

(v) Association.

The meaning of association with respect todimer formation. Numericals included.

(vi) Relative molecular mass of non-volatilesubstances:

(a) By relative lowering of vapour pressure.

Determination of relative molecular massby measurement of lowering of vapourpressure. Problems based on the above.Experimental details not required.

(b) Depression in freezing point.

Freezing point depression - molaldepression constant (cryoscopic constant)– definition and mathematical expression(derivation included). Problems based onthe above. Experimental details notrequired.

(c) Elevation in boiling point method.

Boiling point elevation – molal elevationconstant or ebullioscopic constant–definition and mathematical expression(derivation included). Problems based onthe above. Experimental details notrequired.

(d) Osmotic pressure and its application inthe determination of relative molecularmass.

163

Osmotic pressure – definition andexplanation, natural and chemicalsemipermeable membranes, reverseosmosis.

van’t Hoff- Boyle’s Law, van’t Hoff –Charles’ Law, van’t Hoff - Avogadro’slaw.

Problems based on the above.Experimental details not required.

(e) van’t Hoff factor.van’t Hoff factor for the electrolyteswhich dissociate and the molecules whichassociate in solution. Modification of theformula of colligative properties based onvan’t Hoff factor. Simple problems.Calculation of degree of dissociation andassociation. Experimental details notrequired.

(f) van’t Hoff equation and its interpretation.Self-explanatory.

(g) Simple numerical problems on differentmethods mentioned above for thedetermination of molecular masses.Abnormal molecular masses in case ofelectrolytes and in case of solutes whichassociate.

Self-explanatory.

2. States of Matter: Structure and Properties

Solid State

Crystalline and amorphous substances; lattice;unit cell; 3–D packing of atoms in a crystal lattice;relation between radius, edge length and nearestneighbour distance of atoms in a unit cell; densityof a unit cell; interstitial void; imperfections insolids, ionic, metallic and atomic solids, electricaland magnetic properties.

Definition of crystal lattice, unit cell; types of unitcell (scc, fcc, bcc); calculation of the number ofatoms per unit cell; packing in 3 – D; concept ofradius, edge length and nearest neighbourdistance; calculation of density of unit cell,radius, edge length, formula of the compound –numericals based on it; voids – types, location,formation; point defects – F centers; electricaland magnetic properties – piezoelectricity,pyroelectricity, ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic,

antiferromagnetic; crystalline and amorphoussubstances; characteristics of crystalline solids;ionic (NaCl), metallic (Cu), atomic (diamond andgraphite).

3. Chemical Kinetics

Qualitative meaning of chemical kinetics,comparison with chemical dynamics; slow and fastreactions; rate of reactions; factors affecting therate of reaction such as: concentration,temperature, nature of reactants and products,surface area of reactants, presence of catalyst andradiation; Rate constant; Rate law; Law of MassAction; concept of energy barrier; thresholdenergy, activation energy; formation of activatedcomplex; exothermic and endothermic reactions;collision theory for a chemical change; order of areaction; rate equation of zero and first orderreaction; half life period; molecularity of areaction; mechanism of elementary and overallreaction; variation of rate constant withtemperature; Arrhenius equation – K=Ae-Ea/RT;related graphs; catalyst.

(i) Meaning of Chemical Kinetics:

Scope and importance of Kinetics of thereaction.

Slow and fast reactions – explanation in termsof bonds.

(ii) Rate of Reaction:

Definition

Representation of rate of reaction in terms ofreactants and products.

Determination of rate of reactions graphically.

Instantaneous and average rate of reaction.

(iii) Law of Mass Action:

Statement and meaning of active mass.

Explanation with an example – generalreactions.

(iv) Effect of concentration of reactants on therate of a reaction:

Qualitative treatment.

Based on the law of Mass Action. Statement ofrate law.

General rate equation –Rate = k(Concentration of the reactant)n,

164

where k is rate constant and n is the order ofthe reaction.

Relation between the rate of the reaction withrate constant with respect to various reactants.

(v) Order of a reaction:

Meaning.

Relation between order and stoichiometriccoefficients in balanced equations.

Order as an experimental quantity.

Rate equation for zero order reaction and itsunit.

Mathematical derivation of rate equation forfirst order reaction.

Characteristics of first order reaction – rateconstant is independent of the initialconcentration, units to be derived.

Definition of half-life period.

Derivation of expression of half-life periodfrom first order rate equation.

Problems based on first order rate equationand half life period.

(vi) The concept of energy:

Exothermic and endothermic reactions.

Concept of energy barrier.

Threshold and activation energy.

Formation of activated complex.

Effect of catalyst on activation energy andreaction rate.

(vii) Collision Theory:

Condition for a Chemical change – Closecontact, particles should collide.

Collisions to be effective – optimum energyand proper orientation during collision.

Energy barrier built-up when the collision isabout to take place.

Activated complex formation.

Difference in energy of the reactant and theproduct – exoergic and endoergic reactionswith proper graphs and labelling.

(viii)Molecularity of the reaction:

Meaning – physical picture.

Relation between order, molecularity and therate of a reaction.

Differences between order and molecularity ofa reaction.

(ix) Mechanism of the reaction:

Meaning of elementary reaction.

Meaning of complex and overall reaction.

Explanation of the mechanism of the reaction.

Bottleneck principle and slow step.

Relationship between the rate expression,order of reactants and products at the rate-determining step.

Units of rate constant – explanation withsuitable examples.

(x) Effect of temperature on the rate constant of areaction:

Arrhenius equation – K=Ae-Ea/RT.

Meaning of the symbols of Arrhenius equation.

Related graph, evaluation of Ea and A from thegraph.

Meaning of slope of the graph.

Conversion from exponential to log form of theequation.

Relationship between the increase intemperature and the number of collisions.

Numerical based on Arrhenius equation.

(xi) Catalyst:

Definition.

Types of catalyst – positive and negative.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalystbased on the state of the reactant and thecatalyst.

Elementary treatment of intermediatecompound formation theory with examples;Adsorption Theory.

Effect of catalyst on the rate of reaction – thechange in the energy of activation in theactivation energy curve.

Characteristics of a catalyst – promoter,poison, specificity, surface area of a catalyst.

4. Chemical Equilibria

(i) Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium.The concept of equilibrium constant in terms ofconcentration or partial pressure to indicate thecomposition of the equilibrium mixture. Thefollowing are the examples: the dissociation ofdinitrogen tetroxide, hydrolysis of simple

165

esters, the Contact Process for the manufactureof sulphuric acid, the synthesis of ammonia byHaber’s process.

Irreversible and reversible reactions. Chemical equilibrium:

- Characteristics of chemicalequilibrium.

- The dynamic nature.- Law of mass action.- Equilibrium constant in terms of

concentration Kc.

- Gaseous reactions. Equilibriumconstant in terms of partial pressuresKp.

- Relationship between Kp and Kc

(Derivation required).- Characteristics of equilibrium constant.- Units for equilibrium constant.- Simple calculations of equilibrium

constant and concentration.The following examples should beconsidered to show maximum yield ofproducts:- Synthesis of ammonia by Haber’s

process.- The dissociation of dinitrogen tetra

oxide.- Hydrolysis of simple esters.- The Contact Process for the

manufacture of sulphuric acid.

(ii)Le Chatelier’s Principle and its applications tochemical equilibria.

Le Chatelier’s Principle. Statement andexplanation.

Factors affecting chemical and physicalequilibria should be discussed in the light ofLe Chatelier’s Principle.- Change of concentration.

- Change of temperature.

- Change of pressure.

- Effect of catalyst.

- Addition of inert gas.

5. Ionic Equilibria

(i) Ostwald’s dilution law and its derivation.Strength of acids and bases based on theirdissociation constant.

Ostwald’s dilution law - statement andderivation.

Strengths of acids and bases based on theirdissociation constant; problems based on theOstwald’s dilution law.

(ii) Arrhenius, Brönsted-Lowry and Lewisconcept of acids and bases, Multistageionization of acids and bases with examples.

Self explanatory.

(iii) Ionic product of water, pH of solutions andpH indicators.

Ionic product of water – definition, pH, pOH,pKw of solutions; Numericals on the aboveconcepts. pH indicators and their choice intitrimetry.

(iv) Common ion effect.

Common ion effect – definition, examples(acetic acid and Sodium acetate; ammoniumhydroxide and ammonium chloride),applications in salt analysis.

(v) Salt hydrolysis.

Salt hydrolysis – salts of strong acids andweak bases, weak acids and strong bases,weak acids and weak bases and the derivationof pH of the solutions of these salts in waterwith suitable examples (in detail).Numericals.

(vi) Buffer solutions.

Buffer solutions: definition, examples, action;its interpretations based on Le Chatelier’sprinciple. Henderson’s equation. Numericals.

166

(vii) Solubility product and its applications.

Solubility product: definition and applicationin qualitative salt analysis (Group II, III andIV cations). Numericals on solubility product.

6. Electrochemistry(i) Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis, Coulometer.

Faraday’s Ist law of electrolysis. Statement,mathematical form. Simple problems.

Faraday’s IInd law of electrolysis: Statement,mathematical form. Simple problems.

(ii) Relation between Faraday, Avogadro’snumber and charge on an electron. F = NAeshould be given (no details of Millikan’sexperiment are required).

Self-explanatory.

(iii) Galvanic cells, mechanism of currentproduction in a galvanic cell; and electrodepotential, standard hydrogen electrode,electrochemical series, Nernst equation.

Galvanic cells - introduction; representation,principle – oxidation reduction. Mechanism ofproduction of electric current in a galvaniccell. Measurement of potential. Singleelectrode potentials. Electrical double layer.

Standard hydrogen electrode - definition,preparation, application and limitations.

(a) Standard electrode potential,measurement of standard electrodepotential.

Measurement of standard electrodepotential of Zn ++ / Zn0 half cell (usingstandard hydrogen electrode).

(b) Idea of heterogeneous equilibria on thesurface of the electrode.

Cell notation.

(c) Factors affecting electrode potential.

Factors affecting electrode potential withexplanation - main emphasis on thetemperature and concentration andnature of the electrode.

(d) Electrochemical series and its explanationon the basis of standard electrodepotential.

Electrochemical series. Its explanation onthe basis of standard reduction potential.

Prediction of the feasibility of a reaction.

(e) Numericals based on calculation of emf ofa cell from the values of standardelectrode potential.

(f) Nernst equation (correlation with the freeenergy of the reaction).

- Nernst equation with suitableexamples.

- Prediction of spontaneity of areaction based on the cell emf.

- Numericals on cell emf and standardelectrode potential of half-cells.

(iv)Electrolytic conductance: specific conductance.Measuring of molar and equivalent conductance;Kohlrausch's law.Comparison of metallic conductance andelectrolytic conductance. Relationshipbetween conductance and resistance. Specificresistance and specific conductance.Cell constant: Calculation of cell constant.Meaning of equivalent conductance. Meaningof molar conductance. General relationshipbetween specific conductance, molarconductance and equivalent conductance.Units, numericals, graph.Molar conductance of a weak electrolyte at agiven concentration and at infinite dilution.Kohlrausch’s Law – definition andnumericals.

(v) Corrosion.Concept, mechanism of electrochemicalreaction, factors affecting it and itsprevention.

(vi) Batteries.Primary and Secondary Cells: Lead storagebattery and fuel cell – structure, reactions anduses.

SECTION B

7. Coordination Compounds

Concept of complexes; definition of ligands;classification of ligands, coordination number,coordination sphere; IUPAC nomenclature ofcoordination compounds; isomerism; magneticcharacteristics of coordination compounds on thebasis of valence bond theory and crystal fieldtheory. Stability constant; uses of coordinationcompounds in different fields.

167

Definition of coordination compounds /complex compounds.

Differences with a double salt.

Study of ligands – mono-, bi-, tri-, tetra-,penta-, hexa- and polydentate, chelatingligands.

Definition of coordination number, itscalculation for a complex coordinationsphere.

Study of oxidation state of an element in acomplex, its calculation.

IUPAC rules of nomenclature of coordinationcompounds.

Isomerism – types and examples.

Valence bond theory of coordinationcompounds – examples of formation of innerorbital [Fe(CN)6]3-, [Co(NH3)6]3+ and outerorbital [CoF6]3-, [Fe(H2O)6]2+ complexes,prediction of magnetic character.

Crystal field theory – crystal field splitting intetra and octahedral systems. Explanation ofcolour and magnetic character.

Stability of coordination compounds (explainstability on the basis of magnitude of K).

Importance and uses.

8. Chemistry of p-Block Elements: Group 16, 17, 18- The following should be included:

(a) Occurrence, (b) Physical State,(c) Electronic configuration, (d) Atomic andionic radii, (e) Common oxidation states,(f) Electronegative character, (g) Ionisationenthalpy, (h) Oxidising nature, (i) Nature ofoxides, hydroxides, hydrides, carbonates, nitrates,chlorides, sulphates, wherever applicable.

Group 16: O, S, Se, Te

General Characteristics in terms of physical andchemical properties.

Oxygen – lab method of preparation, formation ofoxides with metals and non-metals and theircommon nature.

Sulphur – extraction by Frasch process,allotropes of sulphur rhombic, monoclinic),structure of sulphur.

Group 17: F, Cl, Br, I

General characteristics in terms of physical andchemical properties.

Fluorine – electrolysis of potassium hydrogenfluoride; reaction of fluorine with hydrogen,water, hydrogen sulphide, dilute and conc.Alkalies.Chlorine – preparation from MnO2 and HCl, fromNaCl, MnO2 and conc. H2SO4 (only equations),reactions of chlorine with H2S, NH3, cold, diluteNaOH and hot, concentrated NaOH.Interhalogen compounds – structure,hybridization and shapes. XX′, XX′3, XX′5, XX′7.Group 18: Noble gases – He, Ne, Ar, Kr, XeGeneral Characteristics – state, low reactivity,formation of Xenon compounds with fluorine andoxygen – equation, hybridization, shape andstructure of compounds; uses of noble gases.

9. Preparation/ Manufacture, Properties andUses of Compounds of Groups 16, 17, – Ozone,Hydrogen peroxide, Sulphur Dioxide,Sulphuric Acid, Hydrochloric AcidGroup 16:Ozone:Manufacture by Siemen’s Ozoniser, thermaldecomposition of ozone, its oxidising nature –reaction with lead sulphide, potassium iodide andmercury, ozonolysis of ethene, ozone layerdepletion :causes and prevention (to be coveredtheoretically, no reactions are required),resonance in ozone structure and its uses.Hydrogen peroxide:Preparation from peroxide, structure, oxidisingproperties: reaction with KI, PbS, acidifiedFeSO4,; reducing properties – reaction withacidified KMnO4 and chlorine.Sulphur Dioxide:Laboratory and industrial preparation fromsulphites and sulphide ores, reaction of sulphurdioxide with NaOH, Cl2 and KMnO4.Sulphuric Acid:Manufacture by Contact Process (equations,conditions and diagram), properties - acidicnature, mode of dilution, oxidising action anddehydrating nature, uses of sulphuric acid inindustry.Group 17:

Hydrochloric acid:

Lab preparation, its acidic nature, reaction withammonia, carbonates and sulphites, formation ofaqua regia and its uses.

168

10. Chemistry of Transition and Inner-TransitionElements:

d-Block: 3d, 4d and 5d series

f-Block: 4f and 5f series

Study in terms of metallic character, atomic andionic radii, ionisation enthalpy, oxidisation states,variable valency, formation of colouredcompounds, formation of complexes, alloyformation.

Lanthanoids:

Lanthanoid contraction, shielding effect,radioactive nature.

Actinoids – general electronic configuration,oxidation state, comparison with lanthanoids anduses.

Metallurgy of Al, Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag in terms ofequations, thermodynamics and electrochemicalprinciples involved in the extraction of metals;electrolytic refining and uses.

Compounds –1. Silver nitrate: equation of preparation, use in

laboratory and in photography.

2. Potassium permanganate: structure, shape,equation of extraction from pyrolusite ore, itsoxidising nature in acidic, basic and neutralmedium, use in redox titration.

Oxidising nature in acidic [FeSO4,(COOH)2.2H2O, KI], basic (KI) and neutral(H2S) mediums to be done.

3. Potassium dichromate: equation of extractionfrom chromite ore, structure and shape ofmolecule and its use in titration.

Self-explanatory.

SECTION C

(Note: Aliphatic compounds containing upto5 carbon atoms to be taught)

11. Alkyl and Aryl Halides

(i) The nomenclature of aliphatic compoundscontaining halogen atom.

Naming the halogen derivatives of alkanes byusing common system and IUPAC system formono, di and tri-halo derivatives.

(ii) Preparation, properties, uses of haloalkanes.

Preparation from:

- Alkane and halogen.

- Alkene and hydrohalide.

- Alcohols with PCl3, PCl5 and SOCl2.

General properties:

Combustibility.

Nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Reaction with:

- sodium nitrite.

- silver nitrite.

- aq. sodium hydroxide.

- alcoholic potassium hydroxide.

Uses:

Uses of halogen derivatives of alkanes in dayto day life and in industry may be discussed.

(iii) Preparation, properties, and uses of thefollowing: ethyl bromide, chloroform,iodoform, haloform reaction.

Preparation. Properties and uses of ethylbromide, chloroform, iodoform.

Haloform reaction for the preparation ofchloroform and iodoform from alcohol shouldbe discussed.

(iv) Chlorobenzene.

Preparation from aniline.

Physical properties


- Electrophilic substitution (chlorinationnitration and sulphonation).

- Nucleophilic substitution - replacement ofchlorine with -OH, -NH2.

- Reduction to benzene.

- Wurtz-Fittig reaction.

- Fittig reaction.

- Addition reaction with magnesium(formation of Grignard reagent).

- Formula of DDT.

(v) Organometallic compounds.

Organometallic compounds includingGrignard’s reagent, preparation and theiruses. Wilkinson’s and Ziegler-Natta catalyst.

169

12. Alcohols and Phenols

(i) Classification, general formulae, structure andnomenclature.

Classification into monohydric, dihydric andpolyhydric alcohols, general formulae,structure and nomenclature of alcohols.Difference between primary, secondary andtertiary alcohols in terms of structure,physical properties and chemical properties.

(ii) Methods of preparation, manufacture,properties and uses.Methods of preparation:- Hydration of Alkenes – direct hydration,

hydroboration oxidation.- From Grignard’s reagent.- Hydrolysis of alkyl halides.- Reduction of carboxylic acids.Manufacture of methanol by Bosch processand ethanol by fermentation of carbohydrates,chemical equations required (only outline ofthe method of manufacture, detail notrequired).Properties:- Acidity of alcohols: reaction with sodium.- Esterification with mechanism.- Reaction with hydrogen halides.- Reaction with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2.- Reaction with acid chlorides and acid

anhydrides- Oxidation.- Dehydration with mechanism.Uses of alcohols.

(iii) Preparation, properties and uses ofethane-1, 2 diol, propane-1, 2, 3 triol (outline- no details).Ethane-1, 2-diol:- Preparation from ethene.- Physical properties.- Chemical properties: Oxidation to oxalic

acid and reaction with HCl.Propane – 1, 2, 3-triol:- Preparation from soap: saponification.- Physical properties.

- Chemical properties: Oxidation withKMnO4 and reaction with oxalic acid.

(iv) Conversion of one alcohol into another.

Self-explanatory.

(v) Distinction between primary, secondary andtertiary alcohols.

Distinction through oxidation, dehydrationand Lucas’ Test.

Phenol

Preparation of phenol from diazonium salt,chlorobenzene (Dow’s process) and frombenzene sulphonic acid.Manufacture from Cumene.Physical properties.Chemical properties:- Acidic character of phenol.- Reaction with sodium hydroxide.- Reaction with sodium.- Reaction with zinc.- Reaction with acetyl chloride and acetic

anhydride.

- Reaction with phosphorus penta chloride.

- Bromination, nitration and sulphonation(Electrophilic substitution reactions).

- Kolbe’s reaction (formation of salicylicacid).

- Reimer – Tiemann reaction

Test for phenol – FeCl3 test, azo dye test.

13. Ethers, Carbonyl Compounds.

(i) Ethers: general formula and structure.Nomenclature; preparation, properties anduses of ether (outline, no detail), withreference to diethyl ether.

Ethers: structure of ethereal group.

Preparation from alcohol (Williamson’ssynthesis).

Physical properties.


- Reaction with chlorine.

- Oxidation (peroxide formation).

- Reaction with HI.

- Reaction with PCl5.

Uses of ether.

170

(ii) Carbonyl compounds: methods ofpreparation, properties and uses of aldehydesand ketones.

Preparation:

- From alcohol.

- From alkenes (ozonolysis).

- From alkynes (hydration).

- From acid chlorides (Rosenmund’sreduction, reaction with dialkylcadmium).

- From calcium salt of carboxylic acids.



- Nucleophilic addition reactions.

- Reactions with ammonia, hydroxylamine,hydrazine and phenyl hydrazine.

- Oxidation reactions.

- Reduction: reduction to alcohol andalkanes (Clemmensen’s reduction andWolff-Kishner reduction).

- Base catalysed reactions: Aldol, crossAldol condensation, Cannizzaro’sreaction.

- Iodoform reaction.

Uses.

Tests: difference between formaldehyde andacetaldehyde; aldehydes and ketones.

Benzaldehyde

Lab preparation from Toluene, oxidation bychromyl chloride.



- Oxidation and reduction.

- Nucleophilic addition reaction (hydrogencyanide and sodium bisulphite).

- Reactions with ammonia and itsderivatives (hydroxyl amine, hydrazineand phenyl hydrazine).

- Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride.

- Cannizzaro reaction.

- Benzoin condensation.

- Electrophilic substitution - halogenation,nitration and sulphonation.

Test: distinction between aromatic andaliphatic aldehydes.

Uses of benzaldehyde.

14. Carboxylic acids and Acid Derivatives

(i) Carboxylic acids: classification, generalformulae, structure and nomenclature:monocarboxylic acids, general methods ofpreparation, properties and uses of acids.

Carboxylic acids: Classification of mono anddi carboxylic acids with examples.

Preparation:

- From alcohols, aldehydes.

- From nitriles.

- From Grignard’s reagent.



- Acidic character: reaction with activemetals, alkalies, carbonates andbicarbonates,

- Formation of acid derivatives.

- Decarboxylation (chemical and Kolbe’selectrolytic reaction).

- HVZ reactions.

Tests for acids: formic acid and acetic acid.

Uses of formic acid and acetic acid.

Oxalic acid:

Preparation from glycol and sodium formate.



- Reaction with alkali.

- Esterification reaction.

- Reaction with PCl5 .

- Action of heat on oxalic acid.

- Oxidation by potassium permanganate.

Test for oxalic acid.

Uses of oxalic acid.

Benzoic acid

Preparation from benzaldehyde and Toluene.

Physical properties


- With sodium hydroxide, sodiumcarbonate.

171

- Esterification reaction.

- With phosphorus pentachloride.

- Decarboxylation.

- Substitution of benzene ring (metadirective effect of carboxylic acid group)nitration and sulphonation.

Test for Benzoic acid.

Uses of Benzoic acid.

(ii) Acid derivatives: laboratory preparation,properties and uses of acetyl chloride, aceticanhydride, acetamide, ethylacetate; ureapreparation (by Wohler's synthesis),properties and uses of urea, manufacture ofurea from ammonia and by cyanamideprocess.

Acid derivatives:general and structuralformula, IUPAC nomenclature, trivial names,laboratory preparation and uses of thefollowing compounds:

Acetyl chloride, acetic anhydride, ethylacetate, acetamide, urea (Wohler’s synthesis).Manufacture of Urea from ammonia and bycyanamide process.



(a) Acetyl chloride:

- Hydrolysis.

- Acetylation of alcohol, ammonia andamines.

- Rosenmund’s reduction .- Formation of acetic anhydride.

- Reaction with Grignard reagent.

(b) Acetic anhydride

- Hydrolysis.

- Acetylation of ethanol and aniline.

- Reaction with PCl5 .

(c) Acetamide

- Acid hydrolysis.

- Reaction with alkalies.

- Hoffmann’s degradation.- Reaction with nitrous acid.

- Dehydration.

- Reduction.

- Amphoteric nature (Reaction withHCl and reaction with HgO).

(d) Ethyl acetate

- Acid hydrolysis.

- Saponification.

- Reaction with ammonia.

- Reaction with phosphorus pentachloride.

- Reduction.

(e) Urea

- Hydrolysis.

- Salt formation with nitric acid.

- Biuret reaction (Test).

- Reaction with hot sodium hydroxide(formation of ammonia and carbondioxide).

15. Cyanides, Isocyanides, Nitro compounds,Amines and Diazonium Salts

Their nomenclature, general methods ofpreparation, correlation of physical propertieswith their structure, chemical properties, theiruses.

Cyanides, isocyanides and nitro compounds.

Methods of preparation:

Cyanides:

- From alkyl halide.

- From amide.

Isocyanides:


- From primary amines.

Nitro compounds:


- From primary amines.



Cyanides and isocyanides:

- Hydrolysis.

- Reduction.

Nitro compounds:

- Reduction in acidic and neutral medium.

Uses.

172

Nitrobenzene

Method of preparation (by nitration ofbenzene with a mixture of concentrated nitricand sulphuric acids).

Physical Properties.


- Electrophilic substitution (Chlorinationand nitration) – meta substitution.

- Reduction to aniline.

Uses of nitrobenzene.

AminesNomenclature, classification with examples,general formula, methods of preparation.

Preparation:

- From alcohol.


- From cyanide.

- From amide (Hofmann degradation).

- From nitro compounds.



- Basic character of amines.

- Alkylation and acylation.

- Reaction with nitrous acid.

- Carbylamine reaction.

Distinction between primary, secondary andtertiary amines (Hinsberg’s Test).

Aniline

Method of preparation (by the reduction ofnitrobenzene).


Chemical properties.

- Reaction with HCl and H2 SO4 .

- Acetylation, alkylation.

- Benzoylation.

- Carbylamine reaction.

- Diazotisation.

- Electrophilic substitution (bromination,nitration and sulphonation).

Test for aniline.

Uses of aniline.- Diazonium Salts: Preparation from

aniline, importance in synthesis of otherorganic compounds.

- Sandmeyer’s reaction, Gattermannreaction and Balz – Scheimann reaction.

16. PolymersPolymerisation: the principle of addition andcondensation polymerisation illustrated byreference to natural and synthetic polymers e.g.proteins, polyolefins and synthetic fibres;thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics,chemotrophs; reference should also be made tothe effect of chain-length and cross-linking onphysical properties of polymers.Classification: Polythene, polypropene, PVC,PTFE, polystyrene, natural rubber, polyester,Nylon 66, Nylon 6, bakelite (to be learnt in termsof monomers). Uses.

17. Biomolecules – carbohydrates, proteins,enzymes, vitamins and nucleic acids.Carbohydrates: definition, classification - mono(aldose, ketose), oligo (di, tri, tetra saccharides)and poly saccharides – examples: reducing sugarsand non reducing sugars – examples and uses.Structures for glucose and fructose (Open andcyclic).Test for glucose and fructose (bromine water testwith equation).Proteins: Amino acids – general structure,classification and zwitter ion formation.Isoelectric point. Classification of proteins on thebasis of molecular shape; primary and secondarystructures of proteins – denaturation. (Definitionsonly. Details and diagrams are not required).Enzymes: definition, mechanism of enzymaticaction.Vitamins A, B, C, D, E and K: classification(fat soluble and water soluble), deficiencydiseases. (Chemical names and structures are notrequired).Nucleic acids: basic unit – purine and pyrimidine,DNA – structure (double helical), RNA(No chemical structure required).

173

PAPER IIPRACTICAL WORK – 20 Marks

Candidates are required to complete the followingexperiments:

1. TitrationsOxidation-reduction titrations: potassiummanganate (VII) / ammonium iron (II) sulphate;potassium manganate (VII) / oxalic acid.The candidate may be required to determine thepercentage purity of a compound and the numberof molecules of water of crystallization inhydrated salts. In such experiments sufficientworking details including recognition of the endpoint will be given.Candidates will be required to calculate: Molarity Concentration in grams l-1 / molecular mass Number of molecules of water of

crystallisation/ percentage purity.

NOTE: Molarity must be calculated upto 4decimal places at least, in order to avoid error.

2. Study of the rate of reactionThe candidates will be required, having beengiven full instructions, to carry out an experimenton the rate of reaction, e.g. reaction betweensodium thiosulphate (using differentconcentrations) and hydrochloric acid,magnesium and dil. sulphuric acid/ dil.hydrochloric acid (using different concentrations).

3. Identification of the following compounds andfunctional groups based on observations Alcoholic group - glycerol

Aldehyde group- formaldehyde

Ketonic group – acetone

Carboxylic group – benzoic acid

Amino group - aniline

*Please Note: Carbylamine reaction should notbe performed.

4. Characteristic tests of carbohydrates andproteins Carbohydrates – glucose Proteins – powdered milk

5. Experiments related to pH change using pHpaper or universal indicator. Determination of pH of some solutions

obtained from fruit juice, solutions of knownand varied concentrations of acids, bases andsalts.

Comparison of pH of the solutions of strongand weak acids of the same concentration.

6. ElectrochemistrySetting up a simple voltaic cell.Variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+//Cu2+/Cuwith change in concentration of electrolyte(CuSO4, ZnSO4) at room temperature.

7. Qualitative analysisQualitative analysis: identification of thefollowing in a given mixture (containing twoanions and two cations):

Anions: CO32-, NO2

-, S2-, SO32-, SO4

2-, NO3-,

CH3COO-, Cl-, Br-, I-, C2O4-2.

Cations: NH4+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Al3+, Fe3+, Zn2+, Mn2+ ,

Ni2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Mg2+.

More than one radical will not be given fromthe same group of anions and cations.(Insoluble salts excluded).Anions: Dilute acid group – CO3

2-, NO2-, S2-, SO3

2-

Concentrated Acid Group – NO3-, Cl-,

Br-, I-

Special Group - SO42-, CH3COO-, C2O4

-2.Cations: Group Zero: NH4

+

Group I: Pb2+

Group II: Cu2+, Pb2+

Group III: Al3+, Fe3+

Group IV: Zn2+, Mn2+, Ni2+

Group V: Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+

Group VI: Mg2+

174

NOTE: Formal analytical procedure is required for

Qualitative Analysis. Specific solvent for O.S. to be used; Before adding Group III reagents to the

filtrate of Group II, H2S must be removedfollowed by boiling with conc. Nitric acid.

The right order for buffer (NH4Cl andNH4OH) must be used.

The flame test with the precipitate obtained inGroup V for Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+ will also beaccepted as a confirmatory test.

For wet test of anions, sodium carbonateextract must be used (except for carbonate).

PATTERN OF CHEMISTRY PRACTICALPAPER

Questions in the practical paper will be set as follows:

Question 1 Volumetric Analysis

Question 2 Any one or a combination of thefollowing experiments:

Study of the rate of reaction.

Identification of the organiccompounds and functional groupsbased on observations

Characteristic tests of carbohydratesand proteins.

Experiments related to pHdetermination using pH paper oruniversal indicator.

Electrochemistry.

Question 3 Qualitative Analysis (Salt mixture).

PROJECT WORK AND PRACTICAL FILE -10 Marks

Project Work – 7 Marks

The project work is to be assessed by a VisitingExaminer appointed locally and approved by theCouncil.

The candidate is to creatively execute oneproject/assignment on an aspect of Chemistry.Teachers may assign or students may select a topic oftheir choice. Following is only a suggestive list ofprojects.

Suggested Evaluation criteria for Project Work:

Introduction / purpose

Contents

Analysis/ material aid ( graph, data, structure, piecharts, histograms, diagrams, etc)

Presentation

Bibliography

Suggested Assignments:1. Amino acids: Peptides, structure and

classification, proteins structure and their role inthe growth of living beings.

2. Nucleic Acid: DNA and RNA – their structure.Unique nature. Importance in evolution and theircharacteristic features.

3. Lipids: structure, membranes and their functions.4. Carbohydrates and their metabolism, Blood -

haemoglobin and respiration.5. Immune systems.6. Vitamins and hormones7. Simple idea of chemical evolution.8. Natural polymers (any five) - structure,

characteristics, uses.9. Synthetic polymers (any five) - method of

preparation, structure, characteristics and uses.10. Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics -

methods of preparation, characteristics and uses.11. Types of dyes - methods of preparation,

characteristics and uses.12. Chemicals in medicines: antiseptics, antibiotics,

antacids, etc. and their uses.13. Various rocket propellants and their

characteristics.14. Preparation of soap, nail polish, boot polish,

varnish, nail polish remover, shampoo and scents.15. Chemicals and chemical processes in forensic

studies.16. Air pollution, water pollution.17. Insecticides, pesticides and chemical fertilisers.18. Coal and coal tar as a source of many chemicals.19. Ancient Indian medicines and medicinal plants.20. Explosives - preparations and their uses.

Practical File – 3 Marks

The Visiting Examiner is required to assess studentson the basis of the Chemistry Practical file maintainedby them during the academic year.[

175

NOTE: According to the recommendation of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), thegroups are numbered from 1 to 18 replacing the older notation of groups IA ….. VIIA, VIII, IB …… VIIB and 0.However, for the examination both notations will be accepted.

Oldnotation

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 0

Newnotation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

chemistry (862) - cisce.org. isc chemistry.pdf · 150 chemistry (862) aims: 1. to foster...

Documents