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Chemistry Project To Study the Setting of Cement

Setting of Cement

AIM

To Study the Setting of Cement

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project work is submitted by ROHIT GUPTA to the Chemistry department,

Aditya Birla Public School, Kovaya was carried out by him under the guidance & supervision during

academic year 2009-2010.

Principal Mr. B D Kotwani Aditya Birla public

School (Head of chemistry dept.) Kovaya

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to Principal, Raji Jayaprasad, Aditya Birla public

school, kovaya for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she provided for this project work. I

sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall remain indebted to

her.

Type text to search here. Submit

http://projects.icbse.com/

http://projects.icbse.com/chemistry/329.pdf

I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. B D Kotwani, chemistry teacher, who guided me to the successful

completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for his

invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude and

immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work.

I can’t forget to offer my sincere thanks to my classmates who helped me to carry out this project work

successfully & for their valuable advice & support, which I received from them time to time.

ROHIT GUPTA.

DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that this project work has been originally carried under the guidance and

supervision of Mr. B D Kotwani, head of chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public School, kovaya.

ROHIT GUPTA.

Experiment – 1

AIM : To study the setting of mixtures of cement with lime,

sand, of different qualities, rice husk, fly ash, etc……………..

Requirements :

Beakers, glass rod, weights, small wooden boxes or empty match boxes. Lime, pit sand, river sand,

cement, fly ash, rice husk…

Introduction

Cement is essentially a finely ground mixture of calcium silicates (3Cao. SiO2) and aluminates (3Cao.

ALO3) which sets to a hard mass treated with water. This property makes cement capable of joining

rigid masses like bricks, stones, tiles etc. into coherent structures. The cements have property of

setting and hardening under water due to certain physicochemical process and are, therefore, called

hydraulic cements. During setting of cement, the physical changes taking place are gel formation and

crystallization and chemical changes are hydration and hydrolysis.

The process of solidification of cement paste involves: (i) setting, and (ii) hardening.

Setting is stiffening of the original plastic mass into initial gel formation. After setting, hardening starts

due to gradual start of crystallization in the interior of the mass. The strength developed by cement at

any time depends upon the amount of gel formed and the extent of crystallization. A mixture of

cement, sand, small pieces of stone (gravel) and

water is known as concrete and sets to an extremely hard structure.

When cement is used for construction purposes, it is always mixed with sand and little water to make a

pasty material called mortar. Here cement or lime forms the binding material and function of sand is

to prevent shrinking and cracking and to increase the bulk, thereby reducing the cost of the mortar.

When cement is used as the binding material it is called cement mortar and when lime is used as the

binder it is called lime-mortar. Sand in addition to its other functions also increases the adhesive

qualities of the binding material.

Effect of quality of sand on setting of cement mortar.

Sand obtained from different sources has different qualities. For example, sea sand obtained from sea

contains some unwanted salts and retards the setting of cement and is unsuitable for making mortar.

On the other hand, pit sand obtained from pits in the soil and river sand obtained from river bed are

considered excellent for preparing mortar and concrete.

Effect of time on setting of cement mortar. Time has an important role on the strength developed

by cement mortar. When a cement sand paste in the ratio 1:3 in water is allowed to dry, the strength

of the solid mass keeps on

increasing with increase in the time given for setting. It acquires nearly full strength in 28 days.

Procedure :-

1. Prepare the sets of mixtures of various compositions as given in the observation table.

2. Take each of the mixtures in different beakers and prepare their pastes by adding minimum

quantity of water.

3. Take 10 empty match-box inner cases and mark them from 1 to 10.

4. Transfer the prepared pastes immediately into the matchboxes and compact them by pressing

with hand.

5. Spray water from time to time over the pastes so that they are always moist.

6. Take out the slabs after three days and test for its strength. For that hold a weight of 10g on

the hand at a fixed height (say 50 cm above the ground) and drop the weight on the slab. See

if the slab breaks or not. If it does not break then take 20g weight and drop it from the same

height. This way keep on increasing the weight and note down the minimum weight required

to break the slab.

Observations

Setting time allowed = 3 days.

COMPOSITION OF MORTAR (Ratio by volume of various

components)

MINIMUM WEIGHT

SL.NO CEMENT RIVER PIT LIM FLY- RICE- REQUIRED TO BREAK THE

SAND SAND

E

ASH HUSK SLAB

1 3 **** **** **** **** …………………………………… g

2 m 6 **** **** **** **** …………………………………… g

3 1 **** 3 **** **** **** …………………………………… g

4 1 **** 6 **** **** **** …………………………………… g

5 6 **** **** 1 **** …………………………………… g

6 9 **** **** 1 **** …………………………………… g

7 3 **** 1 **** **** …………………………………… g

8 3 **** 2 **** **** …………………………………… g

9 1 **** **** **** 1 …………………………………… g

10 3 **** **** **** 2 …………………………………… g

Experiment – 2

AIM : To study the setting of mixtures of cement with sand, lime and fly-ash with respect to time

and strength.

Requirements

Beakers, glass rod, weights, small wooden boxes or empty match boxes. Lime, pit sand, river sand,

cement, fly-ash, rice husk.

Procedure

1. Prepare mixtures of the various compositions as given in the following observation table.

2. Take each of the mixtures in different beakers and prepare their pastes by adding minimum

quantity of water.

3. Take 9 empty match-box inner cases and mark them from 1 to 9.

4. Fill three cases with paste of each composition.

1. Spray water from time to time over the pastes so that they remain moist all the time.

2. After three days take out one slab of each composition and test for their strength by

the method described in previous experiment.

3. Similarly, take out a set of three slabs after 7 days and then after 30 days and test for

their strengths.

Observations :-

S.NO Composition of mixture Minimum weight required to break the slab

after

3 Days 7 Days 30 Days

A Cement : River sand ……………. gm …………. gm ……………. gm

1:03

2 V Cement: River sand: Fly-ash ……………. gm #………….. gm ……………. gm

V 2:09:01

3 Cement: River sand: Lime ……………. gm …………. gm ……………. gm

1:03:01

Conclusions

The strength of the slab increases with increase in the setting time allowed…!

DEDICATION:-

I DEDICATE THIS PROJECT WORK TO THE LOTUS FEET OF

MY FATHER

MR. VINOD GUPTA

&

MY MOTHER

MRS. SUNITA GUPTA

BIBILOGRAPHY :-

1. PRACTICAL MANUAL

1. 2. WIKIPEDIA.COM

2. www.icbse.com

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Sterilization of Water using Bleaching Powder

Chemistry Project on Sterilization of Water using Bleaching Powder

STERILIZATION OF WATER USING BLEACHING POWDER


http://whos.amung.us/stats/o7vzhgys3357/



A CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROGECT

ANSHUL KUMAR PANDEY XII B

PTHIS PROJECT LOOKS AT THE TECHNIQUE CALLED STERILIZATION OF WATER USING

BLEACHING POWDER WHICH IS USED TO PURIFY WATER AND MAKES IT FIT FOR

DRINKING.]

INDEX

1. Certificate of Authenticity

2. Acknowledgement

3. Introduction

-Need of Water

-Purification of Water

-Need for a stable purification technique

4. Theory

-History of Water purification

-Bleaching powder and its preparation

-Use of Bleaching powder in Sterilization of water

5. Experiment

-Aim

-Pre-Requisite Knowledge

-Requirements

-Procedure

1. Result

2. Bibliography

CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICITY

This is to certify that Anshul Kumar Pandey, a student of class XII has successfully completed the

research project on the topic “Sterilization of Water by using Bleaching Powder” under the

guidance of Mrs. Mohini Belani (Subject Teacher).

This project is absolutely genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind.

The references taken in making this project have been declared at the end of this report.

Signature ( Subject Teacher) Signature ( Examiner)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I feel proud to present my Investigatory project in Chemistry on the topic “Sterilization of Water using

Bleaching powder” which aims at using Bleaching powder as a disinfectant and purifier to make water

fit for drinking.

This project wouldn’t have been feasible without the proper and rigorous guidance of my Chemistry

teacher Mrs. Mohini Belani who guided me throughout this project in every possible way. An

investigatory project involves various difficult lab experiments which have to be carried out by the

student to obtain the observations and conclude the report on a meaningful note. These experiments

are very critical and in the case of failure, may result in disastrous consequences. Thereby, I would like

to thank both Mrs.Belani and Lab Asst.Mr.Rajkumar for guiding me on a step by step basis and

ensuring that I completed all my experiments with ease.

Rigorous hard work has been put in this project to ensure that it proves to be the best. I hope that this

project will prove to be a breeding ground for the next generation of students and will guide them in

every possible way.

Need of water

Water is an important and essential ingredient in our quest

for survival on this planet. It is very essential for carrying out various metabolic processes in our body

and also to carry out Hemoglobin throughout the body.

A daily average of 1 gallon per man is sufficient for drinking and cooking purposes. A horse, bullock, or

mule drinks about 11 gallons at a time. standing up, an average allowance of 5 gallons should be given

for a man, and 10 gallons for a horse or a camel. An elephant drinks 25 gallons, each mule or ox drinks

6 to 8 gallons, each sheep or pig 6 to 8 pints. These are minimum quantities.

One cubic foot of water = 6 gallons (a gallon = 10 lbs.).

In order to fulfill such a huge demand of water, it needs to be purified and supplied in a orderly and

systematic way.

But with the increasing world population, the demand for drinking water has also increased

dramatically and therefore it is very essential to identify resources of water from which we can use

water for drinking purposes. Many available resources of water do not have it in drinkable form. Either

the water contains excess of Calcium or Magnesium salts or any other organic impurity or it simply

contains foreign particles which make it unfit and unsafe for Drinking.

Purification of Water

There are many methods for the purification of water. Some of them are

1. Boiling

2. Filtration

3. Bleaching powder treatment

4. SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) And the list goes on….

Boiling is perhaps the most commonly used water purification technique in use today. While in normal

households it is an efficient technique; it cannot be used for industrial and large scale purposes. It is

because in normal households, the water to be purified is very small in quantity and hence the water

loss due to evaporation is almost negligible. But in Industrial or large scale purification of water the

water loss due to evaporation will be quite high and the amount of purified water obtained will be very

less.

Filtration is also used for removing foreign particles from water. One major drawback of this

purification process is that it cannot be used for removing foreign chemicals and impurities that are

miscible with water.

SODIS or Solar Water Disinfection is recommended by the United Nations for disinfection of

water using soft drink bottles, sunlight, and a black surface– at least in hot nations with

regularly intense sunlight.

Water-filled transparent bottles placed in a horizontal position atop a flat surface in strong sunlight for

around five hours will kill microbes in the water. The process is made even more safe and effective if

the bottom half of the bottle or the surface it’s lying on is blackened, and/or the flat surface is made of

plastic or metal. It’s the combination of heat and ultraviolet light which kills the organisms.

The major drawback of this purification technique is that it cannot be used in countries with cold

weather. Also, the time consumed for Purification process is more and it also needs a ‘blackened’

surface, much like solar cookers.

Need for a stable purification technique

Therefore we need a purification technique which can be used anytime and anywhere, does not

require the use of any third party content and which is also economically feasible on both normal scale

and large scale.

Hence we look at the method of purification of water using the technique of treatment by bleaching

powder commonly known as “Chlorination”.

THEORY

History of water purification in different parts of the world.

In 1854 it was discovered that a cholera epidemic spread through water. The outbreak seemed less

severe in areas where sand filters were installed. British scientist John Snow found that the direct

cause of the outbreak was water pump contamination by sewage water. He applied chlorine to purify

the water, and this paved the way for water disinfection. Since the water in the pump had tasted and

smelled normal, the conclusion was finally drawn that good taste and smell alone do not guarantee

safe drinking water. This discovery led to governments starting to install municipal water filters (sand

filters and chlorination), and hence the first government regulation of public water.

In the 1890s America started building large sand filters to protect public health. These turned out to be

a success. Instead of slow sand filtration, rapid sand filtration was now applied. Filter capacity was

improved by cleaning it with powerful jet steam. Subsequently, Dr. Fuller found that rapid sand

filtration worked much better when it was preceded by coagulation and sedimentation techniques.

Meanwhile, such waterborne illnesses as cholera and typhoid became less and less common as water

chlorination won terrain throughout the world.

But the victory obtained by the invention of chlorination did not last long. After some time the negative

effects of this element were discovered. Chlorine vaporizes much faster than water, and it was linked

to the aggravation and cause of respiratory disease. Water experts started looking for alternative

water disinfectants. In 1902 calcium hypo chlorite and ferric chloride were mixed in a drinking water

supply in Belgium, resulting in both coagulation and disinfection.

The treatment and distribution of water for safe use is one of the greatest achievements of the

twentieth century. Before cities began routinely treating drinking water with chlorine (starting with

Chicago and Jersey City in US in 1908), cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery and hepatitis A killed

thousands of U.S. residents annually. Drinking water chlorination and filtration have helped to virtually

eliminate these diseases in the U.S. and other developed countries. Meeting the goal of clean, safe

drinking water requires a multi-barrier approach that includes: protecting source water from

contamination, appropriately treating raw water, and ensuring safe distribution of treated water to

consumers’ taps. During the treatment process, chlorine is added to drinking water as elemental

chlorine (chlorine gas),

sodium hypochlorite solution or dry calcium hypochlorite. When applied to water, each

of these forms “free chlorine,” which destroys pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms.

Almost all systems that disinfect their water use some type of chlorine-based process,

either alone or in combination with other disinfectants. In addition to

controlling disease-causing organisms, chlorination offers a number of benefits

including:

Reduces many disagreeable tastes and odors;

Eliminates slime bacteria, molds and algae that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on

the walls of water mains and in storage tanks;

Removes chemical compounds that have unpleasant tastes and hinder disinfection; and

Helps remove iron and manganese from raw water.

As importantly, only chlorine-based chemicals provide “residual disinfectant” levels that prevent

microbial re-growth and help protect treated water throughout the distribution system.

For more than a century, the safety of drinking water supplies has been greatly improved by the

addition of bleaching powder. Disinfecting our drinking water ensures it is free of the microorganisms

that can cause serious and life-threatening diseases, such as cholera and typhoid fever. To this day,

bleaching powder remains the most commonly used drinking water disinfectant, and the disinfectant

for which we have the

most scientific information. Bleaching powder is added as part of the drinking water treatment

process. However, bleaching powder also reacts with the organic matter, naturally present in water,

such as decaying leaves. This chemical reaction forms a group of chemicals known as disinfection by-

products. Current scientific data shows that the benefits of bleaching our drinking water (less disease)

are much greater than any health risks from THMs and other by-products. Although other disinfectants

are available, bleaching powder remains the choice of water treatment experts. When used with

modern water filtration methods, chlorine is effective against virtually all microorganisms. Bleaching

powder is easy to apply and small amounts of the chemical remain in the water as it travels in the

distribution system from the treatment plant to the consumer’s tap, this level of effectiveness ensures

that microorganisms cannot recontaminate the water after it leaves the treatment.

But what is bleaching powder and how is it prepared?

Bleaching powder or Calcium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with formula Ca(ClO) 2. It is widely

used for water treatment and as a bleaching agent bleaching powder). This chemical is considered to

be relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite (liquid bleach).

It is prepared by either calcium process or sodium process. Calcium Process

2 Ca(OH)2 + 2 Cl2 Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O Sodium Process

2 Ca(OH)2 + 3 Cl2 + 2 NaOH Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O + 2 NaCl

But how can this chemical be used to sterilize water?

This chemical can be used for sterilizing water by Using 5 drops of bleach per each half gallon of water

to be purified, and allowing it to sit undisturbed for half an hour to make it safe for drinking. Letting it

sit several hours more will help reduce the chlorine taste, as the chlorine will slowly evaporate out. A

different reference advises when using household bleach for purification; add a single drop of bleach

per quart of water which is visibly clear, or three drops per quart of water where the water is NOT

visibly clear. Then allow the water to sit undisturbed for half an hour.

What are the actual processes involved in disinfecting and purifying water?

The combination of following processes is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide:

1. Pre-chlorination – for algae control and arresting any biological growth

2. Aeration – along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese

3. Coagulation – for flocculation

4. Coagulant aids also known as polyelectrolyte’s – to improve coagulation and for thicker floc

formation

5. Sedimentation – for solids separation, that is, removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc

6. Filtration – for removal of carried over floc

7. Disinfection – for killing bacteria

Out of these processes, the role of Bleaching powder is only in the last step i.e. for Disinfection of

water.

EXPERIMENT

Aim: To Determine the dosage of bleaching powder required for sterilization or disinfection

of different samples of water.

Requirements: Burette, titration flask, 100ml graduated cylinder, 250ml measuring flask, weight box,

glazed tile, glass wool.

Bleaching Powder, Glass wool, 0.1 N Na2S2O3 solution, 10% KI solution, different samples of water,

starch solution.

Pre-Requisite Knowledge:

1. A known mass of the given sample of bleaching powder is dissolved in water to

prepare a solution of known concentration. This solution contains dissolved chlorine,

liberated by the action of bleaching powder with water.

CaOCl2+H20 I >> Ca(OH)2+Cl2

2. The amount of Chlorine present in the above solution is determined by treating a

known volume of the above solution with excess of 10% potassium iodide solution,

when equivalent amount of Iodine is liberated. The Iodine, thus liberated is then

estimated by titrating it against a standard solution of Sodium thiosulphate, using

starch solution as indicator.

Cl2+2KI i > 2KCl+I2

I2+2Na2S2O3 i > Na2S4O6+2NaI

1. A known Volume of one of the given samples of water is treated with a known volume of

bleaching powder solution. The amount of residual chlorine is determined by adding excess

potassium iodide solution and then titrating against standard sodium thiosulphate solution.

2. From the readings in 2 and 3, the amount of chlorine and hence bleaching powder required for

the disinfection of a given volume of the given sample of water can be calculated.

Procedure:

1. Preparation of bleaching powder solution. Weigh accurately 2.5g of the given sample of

bleaching powder and transfer it to a 250ml conical flask. Add about 100-150ml of distilled

water. Stopper the flask and shake it vigorously. The suspension thus obtained is filtered

through glass wool and the filtrate is diluted with water (in a measuring flask) to make the

volume 250ml. The solution obtained is 1% bleaching powder solution.

2. Take 20ml of bleaching powder solution in a stoppered conical flask and add it to 20ml of 10%

KI solution. Stopper the flask and shake it vigorously. Titrate this solution against 0.1N Na2S2O3

solution taken in the burette. When the solution in the conical flask becomes light yellow in

color, add about 2ml starch solution. The solution now becomes blue in color. Continue

titrating till the blue color just disappears. Repeat the titration to get a set of three concordant

readings.

3. Take 100ml of the water sample in a 250ml stoppered conical flask and add it to 10ml of

bleching powder solution. Then add 20ml of KI solution and stopper the flask. Shake vigorously

and titrate against 0.1N Na2S2O3 solution using starch solution as indicator as described in step

2.

4. Repeat the step 3 with other samples of water and record the observations.

RESULT

Amount of the given sample of bleaching powder required to disinfect one litre of water

Sample I =……….. g

Sample II=……….. g

Sample III=……….. g

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.The Medical front-”Water Supply” http://www.vlib.us/medical/sancamp/water.htm

2. “Chemistry Projects” http://www.icbse.com

3.How to live on Very,Very Little-”Clean drinking water: How to develop low cost sources of drinking

water just about anywhere”

http://www.jmooneyham.com/watp.html

4.Calcium Hypochloride http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_powder

5.Water Treatment http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment

6.Bleach

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleach 7.Drinking Water Treatment:Continuous Chlorination

http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=358

8.Chlorination of Drinking Water http://www.water-research.net/watertreatment/chlorination.htm

9.Chlorination Of Drinking Water (2) www.edstrom.com/doclib/mi4174.pdf

10.Wagenet, L, K. Mancl, and M. Sailus, 1995. “Home Water Treatment,”

Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, N.Y.

11.”Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies: Chlorination,” North Dakota State University

Extension Service

12.”Water Treatment Notes: Chlorination of Drinking Water,” Cornell Cooperative Extension, New York

State College of Human Ecology,USA

13.”Drinking Water Standards,” www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html

14.”Understanding the New Consumer Confidence Report,”

www.awwa.org/Advocacy/bluethumb98/consumer.cfm

15.”Testing for Drinking Water Quality,” NebGuide G89-907 Cooperative Extension,

Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,USA

16.DISINFECTING YOUR WELL WATER: SHOCK CHLORINATION http://www.fcs.uga.edu/pubs/PDF/HACE-

858-4.pdf

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1.

dilip kumar

September 7th, 2010 at 10:29 | #1

Reply | Quote

i want to put all the information to copy

2.

adith

October 5th, 2010 at 16:29 | #2

Reply | Quote

nice!! but i think it’s too long..

3.

naveen

October 7th, 2010 at 09:54 | #3

Reply | Quote

it is so nice

4.

senthil

October 8th, 2010 at 10:21 | #4

Reply | Quote

ok yaa but we neet some more points!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

5.

senthil

October 8th, 2010 at 10:22 | #5

Reply | Quote

ok yaa !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!111 very nice for school level projects

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Study the Quantity of Caesin in Milk

Chemistry Project to Study the Quantity of Caesin in Milk





STUDY OF QUANTITY OF CAESIN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT

SAMPLES OF MILK

A FILE REPORT SUBMITTED TO

INTERNAL

EXAMINER

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT ADITYA BIRLA PUBLIC SCHOOL KOVAYA, GUJARAT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this dissertation titled “STUDY OF QUANTITY OF CAESIN PRESENT IN

DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF MILK” submitted by

BHARAT JAIN to Chemistry department of THE ADITYA BIRLA PUBLIC SCHOOL, KOVAYA, was

carried under guidance and supervision during the academic year 2009-2010.

Principal Mr..

B.D.Kotwani Aditya Birla public School (Head of chemistry dept.)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to the Principal, Raji Jayaprasad,

Aditya Birla public school, Kovaya for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she

provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into

her fold for which I shall remain indebted to her. I extend my hearty thanks to Mr.

B.D.Kotwani, chemistry teacher, who guided me to the successful completion of this

project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for his invaluable

guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude and

immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work.

I can’t forget to offer my sincere thanks to Mr. Pankaj Bajpayee & also to my classmates

who helped me to carry out this project work successfully & for their valuable advice &

support, which I received from them time to time.

BHARAT JAIN

B……………………………………………………………………………….. AS

DEDICATION


MY FATHER

Mr. SATISH JAIN

&

MY MOTHER Mrs. MADHU JAIN

DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that this project work has been originally carried under

the guidance and supervision of Mr.

B.D.KOTWANI, head of chemistry

department, Aditya Birla Public

School, kovaya.

BHARAT JAIN

INDEX

1. 1. Introduction………………… 1

2. 2. Aim……………………………………… 3

3. 3. Requirements……………………. 4

4. 4. Theory……………………………….. 5

5. 5. Procedure………………………….. 7

6. 6. Observations…………………. 8

7. 7. Conclusions …………………….. 9

8. 8. References …………………….. 15

Introduction

Milk is a complete diet as it contains in its Minerals, Vitamins Proteins, Carbohydrates,

Fats And Water. Average composition of milk from different sources is given below:

Source Water Mineral Protei Fats Carbohydra

of milk (%) s (%) ns(%) (%) tes (%)

Cow 87.1 0.7 3.4 3.9 4.9

Human 87.4 0.2 1.4 4.0 4.9

Goat 87.0 0.7 3.3 4.2 4.8

Sheep 82.6 0.9 5.5 6.5 4.5

Caesin is a major protein constituent in milk & is a mixed phosphor-protein. Casein has

isoelectric pH of about 4.7 and can be easily separated around this isoelectric pH. It readily

dissolves in dilute acids and alkalies. Casein is present in milk as calcium caseinate in the

form of micelles. These micelles have negative charge and on adding acid to milk the

negative charges are neutralized.

Ca2+-Caesinate +

2CH3COOH(aq)^Caesin+(CH3COO)2Ca

AIM

To study the quantity of Casein in different samples of milk.

REQUIREMENTS

> Beakers (250 ml)

> Filter-paper

> Glass rod

> Weight box

> Filtration flask

> Buchner funnel

> Test tubes

> Porcelain dish

> Different samples of milk

> 1 % acetic acid solution

> Ammonium sulphate solution

Theory

Natural milk is an opaque white

fluid

Secreted by the mammary glands of

Female mammal . The main constituents of natural milk are Protein, Carbohydrate, Mineral

Vitamins,Fats and Water and is a complete balanced diet . Fresh milk is sweetish in taste.

However , when it is kept for long time at a temperature of 5 degree it become sour

because of bacteria present in air . These bacteria convert lactose of milk into lactic acid

which is sour in taste. In acidic

condition casein of milk starts separating out as a precipitate. When the acidity in milk is

sufficient and temperature is around 36 degree, it forms semi-solid mass, called curd.

PROCEDURE

Urn-

1. A clean dry beaker has been taken, followed by putting 20 ml of cow’s milk into it and

adding 20 ml of saturated ammonium sulphate solution slowly and with stirring. Fat along

with Caesin was precipitate out.

2. The solution was filtered and transferred the precipitates in another beaker. Added

about 30 ml of water to the precipitate. Only Caesin dissolves in water forming milky

solution leaving fat undissolved.

3. The milky solution was heated to about 40oC and add 1% acetic acid solution drop-wise,

when casein got precipitated.

1. 4. Filtered the precipitate, washed with water and the precipitate was

allowed to dry.

2. 5. Weighed the dry solid mass in a previously weighed watch glass.

3. 6. The experiment was repeated with other samples of milk.

Visit www.icbse.com for more projects

OBSERVATIONS

CONCLUSION

Different samples of milk contain different percentage of Caesin.

REFERENCES

>Comprehensive Practical Chemistry; Laxmi Publications.

WEBSITES:

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1.

Vishal Chouksey

August 12th, 2010 at 12:08 | #1

Reply | Quote

gooood project ;;;;;;;;;;;;; But should be more ebalorated :::::::::::

2.

Vishal Chouksey

August 12th, 2010 at 12:09 | #2

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@Vishal Chouksey it should be atleast of 10 pages :::::::::::

3.

M.N.Fathimath Aashina

September 1st, 2010 at 03:34 | #3

Reply | Quote

GOOD PROJECT

4.

priya

September 12th, 2010 at 07:36 | #4

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very nice project………………bt observation table is not completed.but still very nice project.

5.

Jibin Vasudev Kuzhimattathilj

September 12th, 2010 at 15:57 | #5

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a gud project. realy nice. and thankzzz

6.

sarah

September 17th, 2010 at 15:36 | #6

Reply | Quote

can u pls tell me observation abt this i.e; weight of caesin which u hd taken nd wat is the total % of caesin present in cow’s milkrply as soon as possible

7.

NADA ALI

September 23rd, 2010 at 13:05 | #7

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LILLE ORE ELABORATED

8.

jins

October 6th, 2010 at 14:47 | #8

Reply | Quote

nice project but i want to know how much percent of caesin you got for different samplescan you please say

9.

Shardool

October 7th, 2010 at 08:11 | #9

Reply | Quote

Thanx dude ur gr8….

10.

senthil

October 8th, 2010 at 10:24 | #10

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good project !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 for school levels

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Study the Adulterants in Food

Chemistry Project to Study the Adulterants in Food

Adulterants in Food

Name: Taher Shabbir Hussain Class: XII-B

School: Indian Public School Year: 2009-2010

Certified to be the bonafide work done by

Mr. / Miss TAHER SHABBIR HUSSAIN of class______________ XII – B____________

in the________ CHEMISTRY LAB_____________ during the year 2009-2010

Date____________________________________ P.G.T. in CHEMISTRY

INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL Salmiya-Kuwait

Submitted for ALL INDIA SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PRACTICAL

Examination held in CHEMISTRY LAB___________________ at INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL

Salmiya , Kuwait.

Examiner

Date__________________

Seal

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor M.rs._Shjrjejy Zachanah, for

her vital support, guidance and encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth.



I would also like to express my gratitude to the lab assistant Mrs..Julje_Sa.m for her support during

the making of this project.

S.No. Contents II Page No.

I. Objective 6

II. Introduction 8

III. Theory

IV. Experiment 1 10

V. Experiment 2 11

VI. Experiment 3 12

VII. Result 13

VIII. Conclusion 14

IX. Bibliography 15

The Objective of this project is to study some of the c.ommon…food..a.dult.erants present in different

food stuffs.

Adulteration in food is normally present in its most crude form; prohibited substances are either added

or partly or wholly substituted. Normally the contamination/adulteration in food is done either for

financial gain or due to carelessness and lack in proper hygienic condition of processing, storing,

transportation and marketing. This ultimately results that the consumer is either cheated or often

become victim of diseases. Such types of adulteration are quite common in developing countries or

backward countries. It is equally important for the consumer to know the common adulterants and

their effect on health.

TfflDRy

The increasing number of food producers and the outstanding amount of import foodstuffs enables the

producers to mislead and cheat consumers. To differentiate those who take advantage of legal rules

from the ones who commit food adulteration is very difficult. The consciousness of consumers would

be crucial. Ignorance and unfair market behavior may endanger consumer health and misleading can

lead to poisoning. So we need simple screening, tests for their detection.

In the past few decades, adulteration of food has become one of the serious problems. Consumption of

adulterated food causes serious diseases like cancer, .diarrhoea., , .asthma., .ulcers., etc. Majority of

fats, oils and butter are paraffin wax, castor oil and hydrocarbons. Red chilli powder is mixed with brick

powder and pepper is mixed with dried papaya seeds. These adulterants can be easily identified by

simple chemical tests.

Several agencies .have been set up by the Government of India to remove adulterants from food

stuffs.

AGMARK – acronym for agricultural marketing….this organization certifies food products for their

quality. Its objective is to promote the Grading and Standardization of agricultural and allied

commodities.

To detect the presence of adulterants in fat, oil and butter. REQUIREMENTS

Test-tube, acetic anhydride, conc. H2SO4, acetic acid, conc. HNO3. PROCEDURE

Common adulterants present in ghee and oil are paraffin wax, hydrocarbons, dyes and argemone oil.

These are detected as follows :

(i) Adulteration of paraffin wax and hydrocarbon in vegetable ghee

Heat small amount of vegetable ghee with acetic anhydride. Droplets

of oil floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicates the

presence of wax or hydrocarbons.

(ii) Adulteration of dyes in fat

Heat 1mL of fat with a mixture of 1mL of conc. sulphuric acid and 4mL of acetic acid. Appearance of

pink or red colour indicates presence of dye in fat.

(iii) Adulteration of argemone oil in edible oils

To small amount of oil in a test-tube, add few drops of conc. HNO3 and shake. Appearance of red colour

in the acid layer indicates presence of argemone oil.

To detect the presence of adulterants in sugar REQUIREMENTS

Test-tubes, dil. HCl.

PROCEDURE

Sugar is usually contaminated with washing soda and other insoluble substances which are detected

as follows :

(i) Adulteration of various insoluble substances in sugar

Take small amount of sugar in a test-tube and shake it with little water. Pure sugar dissolves in water

but insoluble impurities do not dissolve.

(ii) Adulteration of chalk powder, washing soda in sugar

To small amount of sugar in a test-tube, add few drops of dil. HCl. Brisk effervescence of CO2 shows

the presence of chalk powder or washing soda in the given sample of sugar.

To detect the presence of adulterants in samples of chilli powder, turmeric powder and pepper

REQUIREMENTS

Test-tubes, conc. HCl, dil. HNO3, KI solution PROCEDURE

Common adulterants present in chilli powder, turmeric powder and pepper are red coloured lead salts,

yellow lead salts and dried papaya seeds respectively. They are detected as follows :

(i) Adulteration of red lead salts in chilli powder

To a sample of chilli powder, add dil. HNO3. Filter the solution and add 2 drops of potassium iodide

solution to the filtrate. Yellow ppt. indicates the presence of lead salts in chilli powder.

(ii) Adulteration of yellow lead salts to turmeric powder

To a sample of turmeric powder add conc. HCl. Appearance of magenta colour shows the presence of

yellow oxides of lead in turmeric powder.

(iii) Adulteration of brick powder in red chilli powder

Add small amount of given red chilli powder in beaker containing water. Brick powder settles at the

bottom while pure chilli powder floats over water.

(iv) Adulteration of dried papaya seeds in pepper

Add small amount of sample of pepper to a beaker containing water and stir with a glass rod. Dried

papaya seeds being lighter float over water while pure pepper settles at the bottom.

EXPERIMENT

II PROCEDURE OBSERVATION

Adulteration of Heat small amount of Appearance of oil

paraffin wax and vegetable ghee with floating on the

acetic

hydrocarbon in anhydride. Droplets of oil surface.

vegetable ghee floating on the surface of

unused acetic anhydride

indicate the presence of wax

or hydrocarbon.

Adulteration of dyes Heat 1mL of fat with a Appearance of pink

in fat mixture of 1mL of conc. colour.

H2SO4 and 4mL of acetic acid.

Adulteration of To small amount of oil in a

No red colour

argemone oil in edible

test tube, add few drops of

observed

oils conc. HNO3 & shake.

Adulteration of Take small amount of sugar

Pure sugar

various insoluble in a test tube and shake it dissolves in water

substances in sugar with little water. but insoluble

impurities do not

dissolve.

Adulteration of chalk

To small amount of sugar in a

No brisk

powder, washing soda

test tube, add a few drops of

effervescence

in sugar dil. HCl. observed.

Adeulteration of To sample of turmeric Appearance of

yellow lead salts to powder, add conc. HCl. magenta colour

turmeric powder

Adulteration of red To a sample of chilli powder,

No yellow ppt.

lead salts in chilli add dil. HNO3. Filter the

powder solution and add 2 drops of

KI solution to the filtrate.

Adulteration of brick Add small amount of given

Brick powder settles

powder in chilli red chilli powder in a beaker

at the bottom while

powder containing water. pure chilli powder

floats over water.

Adulteration of dried

Add small amount of sample

Dried papaya seeds

papaya seeds in of pepper to beaker being lighter float

pepper containing water and stir over water while

with a glass rod. pure pepper settles

at the bottom.

Selection of wholesome and non-adulterated food is essential for daily life to make sure that such

foods do not cause any health hazard. It is not possible to ensure wholesome food only on visual

examination when the toxic contaminants are present in ppm level. However, visual examination of

the food before purchase makes sure to ensure absence of insects, visual fungus, foreign matters, etc.

Therefore, due care taken by the consumer at the time of purchase of food after thoroughly examining

can be of great help. Secondly, label declaration on packed food is very important for knowing the

ingredients and nutritional value. It also helps in checking the freshness of the food and the period of

best before use. The consumer should avoid taking food from an unhygienic place and food being

prepared under unhygienic conditions. Such types of food may cause various diseases. Consumption of

cut fruits being sold in unhygienic conditions should be avoided. It is always better to buy certified food

from reputed shop.

a ENCARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2009

a www.wikipedia.com

a www.answers.com

a www.icbse.com

a www.google.com

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1.

rajul ratnawat

August 5th, 2010 at 07:27 | #1

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i read this project as i am in need of such project , this is very good….

2.

Vishal

September 6th, 2010 at 16:49 | #2

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This experiment is kind of messed up. Recheck it..

3.

kishore

October 4th, 2010 at 16:12 | #3

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thx a lot frnd!!! this project literally saved my life!!

4.

Jaina

October 5th, 2010 at 17:39 | #4

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This is a good attempt,I appreciate it!! :) :)

5.

deepika singh

October 6th, 2010 at 12:31 | #5

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HEY ITS GREAT…..

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables

Chemistry Project on Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables

Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables

Toc H (RESIDENTIAL) PUBLIC

SCHOOL

PUNALUR

CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT

2009-2010

STUDY THE PRESENCE OF INSECTICIDES

AND PESTICIDES IB FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Name :

Class :

Reg. No :

Examiner Teacher-in charge.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project was done by



…………………………… Reg. No ………………..

Is in partial fulfillment of Chemistry Practical Examinations

AISSCE 2008. I certify that this project is done by him/ her with his/her

own effort with guidance of the teacher.

Teacher in charge Head of the institute

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I place my sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher SUSAN JACOB for her guidance and

advices to complete my work successfully. I also thank our principal Mr. GEORGE.

P .GEORGE for providing me all the facilities to finish the project on time.

I also take this opportunity to place on record my deep gratitude to LORD ALMIGHTY for

the countless blessings showered on me while doing the work and to complete it.

Last but not least I thank my parents for their encouragement and support in my humble

venture.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION …………………………………

2. AIM ………………………………………….

3. MATERIALS REQUIRED………………….

4. PRECEDURE………………………………..

5. OBSERVATIONS……………………………

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………

INTRODUCTION

In the past decade there has been a tremendous increase in the yields of

various crops to meet the demand of overgrowing population, achieved by

using pesticides and insecticides. These are chemicals that are sprayed over

crop to protect it from pests. For example, DDT, BHC, zinc phosphide,

Mercuric chloride, dinitrophenol, etc. All pesticides are poisonous chemicals

and are used in small quantities with care. Pesticides are proven to be

effective against variety of insects, weeds and fungi and are respectively

called insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Most of the pesticides are

non-biodegradable and remain penetrated as such into plants, fruits and

vegetables . From plants they transfer to animals , birds and human beings

who eat these polluted fruits and vegetables. Inside the body they get

accumulated and cause serious health problems. These days preference is

given to biodegradable insecticides like malathion. The presence of

Insecticides residues in even raw samples of wheat, fish, meat , butter etc.

have aroused the concern of agricultural administrators, scientists and

health officials all over the world to put a check over the use of insecticides

and to search for non insecticidal means of pest control.

AIM

To study the presence of insecticides or pesticides (nitrogen containing) in various fruits and

vegetables.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Mortar and pestle , beakers, funnel , glass rod , filter paper china dish , water bath, tripod stand, fusion

tube, knife, test tube.

Samples of various fruits and vegetables, alcohol, sodium metal, ferric chloride, ferrous sulphate

crystals, distilled water and dil. Sulphuric acid.

PROCEDURE

Take different types of fruits and vegetables and cut them into small pieces

separately. Transfer the cut pieces of various fruits and vegetables into it

separately and crush them . Take different kinds for each kind of fruits and

vegetables and place the crushed fruits and vegetables in these beakers and

add 100 ml of alcohol to each of these . Stir well and filter. Collect the

filtrate in separate china dishes, Evaporate the alcohol by heating the china

dishes one by one over a water bath and let the residue dry in the oven . Heat

a small piece of sodium in a fusion tube , till it melts. Then add one of the

above residues from the china dish to this fusion tube and heat it till red hot.

Drop the hot fusion tube in a china dish containing about 10 ml of distilled

water. Break the tube and boil the contents of the china dish for about 5

minutes . Cool and filter the solution. Collect the filtrate . To the filtrate add

1 ml of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution and warm the contents.

Then add 2-3 drops of ferric chloride solution and acidify with dilute HCl.

If a blue or green ppt. or colouration is obtained it indicates the presence of

nitrogen containing insecticides. Repeat the test of nitrogen for residues

obtained from other fruits and vegetables and record the observation.

OBSERVATIONS

S.no

Name of the fruit or

vegetable

Test for the presence

Of nitrogen

(positive or negative)

Presence of insecticide

Or pesticide residues

1. Apple positive yes

2. Grapes positive yes

3. Brinjal positive yes

4. tomato positive yes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Modern’s abc of practical chemistry-XII

1. Comprehensive practical chemistry – XII

1. NCERT chemistry -XII

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1.

nancy gill

September 25th, 2010 at 13:25 | #1

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this website is complete in all respects.

2.

Simi

September 30th, 2010 at 09:22 | #2

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thanks for your kind help

3.

piyush

September 30th, 2010 at 10:13 | #3

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this is the best to get any of the project of science or maths

4.

arpit

October 6th, 2010 at 16:38 | #4

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good help in making project in science.

5.

harsheen

October 7th, 2010 at 17:16 | #5

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umm..!!this is a nice project..!!bt 2 short,,..!!i want a lennghty project on this topic

6.

parikshit

October 9th, 2010 at 07:24 | #6

Reply | Quote

@Simi thanks simmi to get ur project from here. i want my every frnd to get their project frm here.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Preparation of Soyabean Milk

Chemistry Project on Preparation of Soyabean Milk

Project on preparation soyabean milk and its comparison with the natural milk

This is to certify that Master Hiren P Patel ,A student of class XII of the Atomic Energy Central School,

Roll No.: 07 session 2009-2010, has satisfactorily completed the required chemistry project work as

per the syllabus of Standard XII in the laboratory of the school.

Date: Chemistry Teacher

(Mr.R K Sawhney)

Principal’s Signature External examiner’s Signature

I selected this project as a part of my studies, titled “PREAPARATION OF SOYABEAN MILK AND ITS

COMPARISION WITH NATURAL MILK”.




As a gratitude, I convey my sincere thanks to Mr.R K Sawhney and Lab. Assistant Smt. Raksha Pandya

who was the constant guide during the period of study and without whose help it would not have been

possible for us to complete this project.

HIREN P PATEL

XII-B (SCIENCE)

2009-2010

Project 55:

Aim:

Preparation of soya bean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd formation,

effect of temperature and taste.

Theory:

Natural milk is an opaque white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammal.

The main constituents of natural milk are proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, fats and

water and are a complete balanced diet.

Fresh milk is sweetish in taste.

o However, when it is kept for a long time at a temperature of 35 ± 50C it becomes sour

because of bacteria present in air.

o These bacteria convert lactose of milk starts separating out as a precipitate.

When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 360C, it forms

semi-solid mass, called curd.

Soya bean milk is made from soya beans.

It resembles natural milk.

The main constituents of soya bean milk are proteins, carbohydrates,

fats, minerals and vitamins.

It is prepared by keeping soya beans dipped in water for sometime.

The swollen soya beans are then crushed to a paste which is

then mixed with water.

The solution is filtered and filtrate is soya bean milk.

Materials required:

Beakers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinder, glass-rod, tripod-stand, thermometer, muslin cloth,

burner.

Soya beans, buffalo milk, fresh curd, distilled water.

Procedure:

Soak about 100 g of soya beans in sufficient amount of water for 24 hours.

o Take out swollen soya beans and grind them to a very fine paste with a pestle-mortar.

o Add about 250 ml of water to this paste and filter it through a muslin cloth.

o Clear white filtrate is soya bean milk.

o Compare its taste with buffalo milk.

Take 50 ml of buffalo milk in three beakers and heat the beakers to 300, 400

and 500 C respectively.

Add spoonful curd to each of the beakers and leave the beakers undisturbed

for 8 hours and curd is ready.

Similarly, take 50 ml of soya bean milk in three other beakers and heat the

beakers to 300,400 and 500 C respectively.

Add 1 spoonful curd to each of these beakers. Leave the beakers

4 undisturbed for 8 hours and curd is formed.

Type of milk Beaker no Temperature Quality of curd Taste of curd

Buffalo milk 1 300C

2 400C

3 500C

4 300C

Soya bean milk

5 400C

6 500C

Result: For buffalo milk, the best temperature for the formation of good quality and tasty curd is… oC

and for soya bean milk, it is …. oC.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed

Chemistry Project on Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed

Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed (Saunf)

Bal Bharati Public School

Ntpc-jhanor

CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY





PROJECT

TOPIC:- Extraction of Essential

Oil from Aniseed (Saunf).

NAME:- Siontan Ghosh

Roll no:-

CLASS:- XII

SESSION:- 2009-2010

Faculty:- MR. Ashish pagare

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Siontan Ghosh a bonafide student of Class XII has successfully completed the project on “ Extraction of Essential oil from aniseed (Saunf)” in the academic year 2009-2010 .

Principal

(Mr. K.T.Johnson)

Incharge Teacher External Examiner

(Mr. Ashish Pagare)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I hereby express my gratitude to my Principal Sri K. T. Johnson and Sri Ashish Pagare for

their guidance throughout my studies. I also thank my parents who supported me in all my

endeavors. I also thank my classmates who have equally worked hard to make my project a

success. I also thank my partner Ayushi Vyas for helping me during the project. And last

but not the least I thank the almighty for whatever I have achieved till now.

INDEX

S.No Topic Page Number

1. Certificate 2

2. Acknowledgement 3

3. Index 4

4. Aim 5

5. Introduction 6

6. Aniseed Essential Oil 8

7. Uses of Aniseed Essential Oil 10

8. Requirements & Procedure 11

9. Observations 13

10. Experimental Setup 15

11. Project Pictures 16

12. Bibliography 17

AIM:-

To extract essential oil present in Saunf (aniseed).

INTRODUCTION

We are all familiar with the pleasant odours coming out from flowers, spices and many

trees. The essence or aromas of plants are due to volatile oils present in them. These

smelling volatile oils present in plants are called essential oils. Cinnamon, clove, cumin,

eucalyptus, garlic, jasmine, peppermint, rose, sandalwood, spearmint, thyme, wintergreen

are a few familiar examples of valuable essential oils. The term “essential oils” literally

means “oils derived from the essence” of plants.

Essential oils are mainly used for their pleasant odours and flavors in perfumes and as

flavoring agents in foods. Some are used in medicines (e.g., camphor, wintergreen,

eucalyptus) others as insect repellants (e.g., citronella). Chemically essential oils are

composed of complex mixtures of ester, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones and

hydrocarbons. They are essentially non-polar compounds and are thus soluble in non-polar

solvents such as petroleum ether, benzene etc. Essential oils may occur in all parts of the

plant, but they are often concentrated in the seeds or flowers. They are obtained from the

plants by the process of steam distillation and extraction. The technique of steam

distillation permits the separation of volatile components from non-volatile materials

without raising the temperature of the distillation above 100° C.

Thus steam distillation reduces the risk of decomposition of essential oils.

ANISEED ESSENTIAL OIL

Aniseed Plant

v Aniseed, on steam distillation, yields an essential oil, known as `Oil of Aniseed`, which has now

replaced the fruits for medicinal and flavoring purposes. Aniseed oil is a colorless or pale-yellow liquid

having the characteristic odor and taste of the fruit.

The yield of oil generally varies from 1.9 to 3.1 per cent. Higher values up to 6 per cent have been

reported from Syrian aniseed. Crushing of fruits prior to distillation gives better yields of oil. The

material should be distilled soon after the crushing to prevent any loss of oil due to evaporation.

Aniseed oil is a highly refractive liquid, which solidifies on cooling. The congealing point depends much

on the anethole content and is a valuable criterion for evaluating the oil. Exposure of the oil to air

causes polymerization, and some oxidation also takes place with the formation of anisaldehyde and

anisic acid.

v The chief constituent of aniseed oil is anethole, which is present to the extent of 80 to 90 per cent

and is mainly responsible for the characteristic flavor of the oil. The oil also contains methyl chavicol,

p-methoxyphenyl acetone, and small amount of terpenes and sulfur containing compounds of

disagreeable odour.

Aniseed Essential Oil

vCommon Method of Extraction:- Steam Distillation

vColor:- Clear

vBotanical Name:- Pimpinella anisum

vAromatic Description:- Distinctive scent of licorice. Rich and sweet.

vConstituents:- a-pinene, camphene, B-pinene, linalool, cis-anethole, trans-anethole,

safrole, anisaldehyde, acetoanisole.

Uses of Aniseed Oil:-

Ø In aromatherapy, aniseed essential oil is used to treat colds and flu.

Ø Aniseed oil can be made into a liquid scent and is used for both hunting and

fishing. It is put on fishing lures to attract fish.

Ø Anethole, the principal component of anise oil, is a precursor that can eventually

produce 2,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde which is can be used in the clandestine

synthesis of psychedelic drugs such as 2C-B, 2C-I and DOB.

Ø Oil of aniseed is also reported to be used as an aromatic carminative to relieve

flatulence, and as an ingredient of cough lozenges in combination with liquorice.

Ø Essential oil is also used externally as an insecticide against small insects such as

head lice, mites and vermin. It also has fungicidal properties.

REQUIREMENTS:-

Steam generator (Copper Vessel), round bottom flask (500 ml), conical flask, condenser, glass tubes,

iron stand, sand bath, separatory funnel, tripod stands, burners, Ajwain(Carum), Petroleum ether(60-

80°C),Saunf(Aniseed) .

PROCEDURE:-

1. Set the apparatus as shown in the picture of Experimental Setup. The apparatus consists of a

steam generator connected to the round bottom flask through a glass inlet tube. The flask is

connected to a water condenser through a glass outlet tube. Condenser is further attached to

a receiver through an adaptor.

2. Take about 750 ml of water in the steam generator and start heating to produce steam.

3. In the round bottom flask take about 75 gm of crushed saunf.

4. A vigorous current of steam from steam generator is passed through the round bottom flask.

5. A part of the steam condenses in the round bottom flask. As more and more steam is passed,

the steam volatile components of saunf pass through the condenser along with steam. These

contents on condensation are collected in the receiver.

6. The contents in the round bottom flask may be heated by a bunsen burner to prevent

excessive condensation of steam.

7. The process of steam distillation is continued for about half an hour.

8. Transfer the distillate to a separating funnel and extract with 20 ml portions of petroleum ether

3 times.

1. Combine the petroleum ether extracts in a 250 ml conical flask and dry it with the help of

anhydrous sodium sulphate.

2. Remove the solvent from the dried filtrate by careful distillation in a water bath. The essential

oil is left behind in the distillation flask.

3. Find the weight of the extracted essential oil. Note the colour, odour and weight of the

essential oil.

OBSERVATIONS:-

1.) Saunf (Aniseed):-

Weight of Saunf taken = 100 gm

Initial Weight of the bottle = 10gm(x)

Weight of bottle + essential oil = 11.25 gm(y)

Weight of essential oil extracted =(y-x) =1.25 gm

Percentage of essential oil = (y/100)*100=1.25 %

Colour of the oil = Colourless

Odour of the oil = Saunf like smell.

2.) Ajwain (Carum):-

Weight of Saunf taken = 75 gm

Initial Weight of the bottle = 10 gm(x)

Weight of bottle + essential oil = 11 gm(y)

Weight of essential oil extracted =(y-x) =1 gm

Percentage of essential oil = (y/75)*100=1.33%

Colour of the oil = Colourless

Odour of the oil = Ajwain like smell.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ø Comprehensive Chemistry Practical Class-XII.

Ø http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anise

Ø http://www.essentialoils.co.za/essential-oils/aniseed.htm

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Antacids

Chemistry Project on Antacids

Commercial Antacids

It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my Chemistry teacher MRS. GAURI

MASHRU under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her who has

been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at different

stages to make this project.




I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant who made available the various apparatus

and chemicals needed for the experiments, else it would have been a difficult task to perform this

project successfully.

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (i)

v ANTACIDS 1

v ACTION MECHANISM 1

v INDICATIONS 1

v SIDE EFFECTS 1 – 2

v SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS 2 – 3

v HYPERACIDITY 3 – 4

v SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS 4 – 5

v DRUG NAMES 5

v SOME COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS 6

ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE 6 -7

MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE 8 – 9

CALCIUM CARBONATE 10 – 13

SODIUM BICARBONATE 14 – 16

BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE 17 –18

v INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT 19 – 21

v BIBLOGRAPHY (ii)

ANTACIDS

An Antacid is any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acidity. They

are used to relieve acid indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn.

ACTION MECHANISM

Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity

in the stomach. When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa, they

signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves are exposed, as in peptic

ulcers. The gastric acid may also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum.

Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting smooth muscle cell

contraction and delaying gastric emptying.

INDICATIONS

Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastro esophageal reflux

disease, or acid indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor

symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors.

The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the combination of magnesium and

aluminium salts may prevent alteration of bowel habits.

SIDE EFFECTS

Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk-alkali

syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the “Sippy

regimen” of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10

days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease.

Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and

hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the

regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome

declined in men after effective treatments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past

15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range

of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by

dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent

excessive intake.

The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who arrived in the

emergency department vomiting and altered mental status, writhing in pain. She had consumed large

quantities of chewable antacid tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually recovered.[1]

Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine, which might be

associated with kidney stones.[2] Calcium salts may cause constipation.

Other adverse effects from antacids include:

1. 1. Carbonate : Regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result in altered

excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. A chemical reaction between the carbonate and

hydrochloric acid may produce carbon dioxide gas. This causes gastric distension which may

not be well tolerated. Carbon dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased

muscle flexibility.

2. 2. Aluminum hydroxide : May lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-phosphate-

complexes, with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a low

gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of renal insufficiency.

Aluminium-containing drugs may cause constipation.

3. 3. Magnesium hydroxide : Has laxative properties. Magnesium may accumulate in patients

with renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with cardiovascular and neurological

complications. See Milk of magnesia.

4. 4. Sodium : Increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial hypertension, heart

failure and many renal diseases.

SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS

Fortunately, because acid reflux is such a common problem, antacids are among the medicines

available and free of side effects for most people. Side effects from antacids vary depending on

individual and other medications they may be taking at the time. Those who experience side effects

most commonly suffer from changes in bowel functions, such as diarrhea, constipation, or flatulence.

Although reactions to any drug may vary from person to person, generally those medications that

contain aluminum or calcium are the likeliest to cause constipation, those that contain magnesium are

the likeliest to cause diarrhea. Some products combine these ingredients, which essentially cancels

them out, to forestall unpleasant side effects.

In general, people with kidney problems should probably not take antacids as this can sometimes

cause a condition known as alkalosis. In other people, side effects may occur if substances such as

salt, sugar, or aspirin, are added to a particular medication. As with all medications, always carefully

read the product label on the package and check with your doctor or pharmacist if you have any

question about potential drug interactions or side effects.

Some side effects, such as constipation and diarrhea, are fairly obvious. Other more serious side

effects, such as stomach or intestinal; bleeding, can be more difficult to recognize. In general, any sign

of blood in the stool or the presence of vomiting is a danger sign and should be brought to the

immediate attention of a physician.

If your symptoms persist for more than 10 days to two weeks while you are using the medication, you

should stop taking it and consult your doctor. Persistent symptoms may indicate that you have more a

serious problem than occasional acid reflux. Pregnant or nursing baby should always consult your

doctor before taking this medication. Generally, you should not give these medications to children

under the age of 12 unless under the advice and supervision of your doctor or the package label has

indicated that the product is safe for young children. Constant use of antacids leads to a condition

called acid rebound where the stomach begins to over secrete acid in order to make up for the

quantity that is being neutralized.

HYPERACIDITY, CAUSE FOR INTAKE OF ANTACIDS

Hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia simply means increase of acidity in the stomach. The human stomach

secretes hydrochloric acid which is necessary for the digestion of food. When the stomach contains an

excessive amount of hydrochloric acid, then the condition is called as hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia.

Sometimes, hyperacidity is confused for a simple bellyache. This is because people with hyperacidity

usually generally get pains in their stomachs with similar symptoms as bellyaches. This confusion is

more rampant in children who cannot differentiate between different kinds of stomach ailments.

However, hyperacidity can be found out with the sour belching and aftertaste of the already eaten

food in the mouth.

The prime medical factors of hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia are as follows : (i) Stomach

Ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach are one of the prime causes of

hyperacidity. Once this is diagnosed, the treatment will be done by the surgical removal of the

stomach ulcers.

(ii) Acid Reflux Disease: Some people have a gastric disorder called as the acid reflux disease. In this

condition, the acids of the stomach, i.e. gastric acids or hydrochloric acid, get refluxed up to the food

pipe, which is biologically called as the esophagus. When this happens, it builds up the level of acidity

in the stomach.

(iii) Stomach Cancers: Stomach cancers can also cause hyperacidity as one of their symptoms. This

is a very rare case, but the mortality rate is quite high. Hence, a hyperacidity that lasts more than two

weeks must be immediately shown to the doctor and got checked for any cancer. A timely diagnosis

can enable complete treatment of the disease.

SYMPTOMS OF HYPERACIDITY

Hyperacidity symptoms are observed a couple of hours after eating, when the food has been digested

and still excess acids are left within the stomach. At this stage, the following symptoms are seen:-

1. 1. A typical feeling of restlessness

2. 2. Feeling of nausea (wanting to throw up) and actual vomiting

3. 3. Sour belching with an aftertaste of the already-eaten food

4. 4. Stiffness in the stomach, which is called as atonic dyspepsia

5. 5. Lack of desire for any other type of food

6. 6. Indigestion

7. 7. Constipation

INTERACTIONS

Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as tetracycline.

Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected.

PROBLEMS WITH REDUCED STOMACH ACIDITY

Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such

as iron and the B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested bacteria, antacids

increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For

example, the bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low acid

content).

SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS

1. 1. Alka-Seltzer – NaHCO3 and/or KHCO3

2. 2. Equate – Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2

3. 3. Gaviscon – Al(OH)3

4. 4. Maalox (liquid) – Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2

5. 5. Maalox (tablet) – CaCO3

6. 6. Milk of Magnesia – Mg(OH)2

7. 7. Pepto-Bismol – HOC6H4COO

8. 8. Pepto-Bismol Children’s – CaCO3

9. 9. Rolaids – CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2

10. Tums – CaCO3

11. Mylanta

DRUG NAMES

Some drugs used as antacids are :

1. 1. Aluminium hydroxide

2. 2. Magnesium hydroxide

3. 3. Calcium carbonate

4. 4. Sodium bicarbonate

5. 5. Bismuth subsalicylate

6. 6. Histamine

7. 7. Cimetidine

8. 8. Ranitidine

9. 9. Omeprazole

10. Lansoprazole

SOME IMPORTANT COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS

1.ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE

Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, Alum, is the most stable form of aluminium in normal conditions. It is

found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three, much more rare,

polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and nordstrandite. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide,

AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide, Al2O3, differing only by loss of water. These compounds together are

the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms

gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel

crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be dehydrated (e.g., with the utility of water-

miscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder,

which is readily soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium hydroxide powder is known as activated

alumina and is used in gas purification, as a catalyst support and an abrasive.

PRODUCTION

Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150–200 °C through which

aluminium is dissolved as aluminate (Bayer process). After separation of ferruginous residue (red mud)

by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled and seeded with fine grained

aluminium hydroxide. The aluminium hydroxide is further calcined to give alumina, which may be

smelted in the Hall-Héroult process in order to produce aluminium.

CHEMISTRY

Gibbsite has a typical metal hydroxide structure with hydrogen bonds. It is built up of double layers of

hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupying two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two

layers.

Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. It dissolves in acid, forming Al(H2O)63+ (hexaaquaaluminate) or its

hydrolysis products. It also dissolves in strong alkali, forming Al(OH)4- (tetrahydroxoaluminate).

PHARMACOLOGY

Pharmacologically, this compound is used as an antacid under names such as Alu-Cap, Aludrox or

Pepsamar. The hydroxide reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing its acidity. This decrease of

acidity of the contents of the stomach may in turn help to relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or

dyspepsia. It can also cause constipation and is therefore often used with magnesium hydroxide or

magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects. This compound is also used to

control phosphate (phosphorus) levels in the blood of people suffering from kidney failure.

Aluminium hydroxide, alum, is included as an adjuvant in some vaccines (e.g., Alhydrogel, Anthrax

Vaccine), since it appears to contribute to induction of a good antibody (Th2) response. Its

pharmacological action is not known. However, it has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune

responses, important for protection against many pathogens.

Because the brain lesions found in Alzheimer’s disease sometimes contain traces of aluminium, there

is concern that consumption of excess aluminium compounds may cause or contribute to the

development of this and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, multiple epidemiological studies

have found no connection between exposure to aluminium and neurological disorders.

In addition, elevated aluminium levels in blood, resulting from kidney dialysis with well water

containing high aluminium, may result in dementia that is similar to but probably different from that of

Alzheimer’s disease. However, this hypothesis is controversial.

In 2007, tests with mice of the anthrax vaccine using aluminium hydroxide adjuvant were reported as

resulting in adverse neuropathy symptoms.

USE AS A FIRE RETARDANT

Aluminium hydroxide also finds use as a fire retardant filler for polymer applications in a similar way to

magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite. It decomposes at about 180 °C giving off water vapour.

2.MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE

Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. As a

suspension in water, it is often called milk of magnesia because of its milk-like appearance. The solid

mineral form of magnesium hydroxide is known as brucite.

Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives; it interferes with the

absorption of folic acid and iron. Magnesium hydroxide has low solubility in water, with a Ksp of

1.5×10−11; all of magnesium hydroxide that does dissolve does dissociate. Since the dissociation of this

small amount of dissolved magnesium hydroxide is complete, magnesium hydroxide is considered a

strong base.

HISTORY

In 1829, Sir James Murray used a fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to treat the Lord

Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey. This was so successful (advertised in Australia and

approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to

Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenants, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was

patented two years after his death in 1873.

The term milk of magnesia was first used for a white-colored, aqueous, mildly alkaline suspension of

magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v by Charles Henry Phillips in 1880 and sold under the

brand name Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia for medicinal usage.

Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO registrations

show “Milk of Magnesia” to be registered to Bayer, and “Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia” to Sterling Drug. In

the UK, the non-brand (generic) name of “Milk of Magnesia” and “Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia” is “Cream

of Magnesia” (Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture, BP).

PREPARATION

Magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated by the metathesis reaction between magnesium salts and

sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide:

Mg2+ (aq.) + 2 OH− (aq.) → Mg(OH)2 (s)

USES

Suspensions of magnesium hydroxide in water (milk of magnesia) are used as an antacid to neutralize

stomach acid, and a laxative. The diarrhea caused by magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the

body’s supply of potassium, and failure to take extra potassium may lead to muscle cramps.

Magnesium hydroxide is also used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant. Milk of magnesia is useful

against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically.

Milk of magnesia is sold for medical use as chewable tablets, capsules, and as liquids having various

added flavors. It is used as an antacid, though more modern formulations combine the antimotility

effects of equal concentrations of aluminum hydroxide to avoid unwanted laxative effects.

Magnesium hydroxide powder is used industrially as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic

wastewaters. It also takes part in the Biorock method of building artificial reefs.

Solid magnesium hydroxide has also smoke suppressing and fire retarding properties. This is due to

the endothermic decomposition it undergoes at 332 °C (630 °F) :

Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O

BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM

When the patient drinks the milk of magnesia, the suspension enters the stomach. Depending on how

much was taken, one of two possible outcomes will occur.

As an antacid, milk of magnesia is dosed at approximately 0.5–1.5g in adults and works by simple

neutralization, where the hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH)2 combine with acidic H+ ions produced in the

form of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach to produce water.

Only a small amount of the magnesium from milk of magnesia is usually absorbed from a person’s

intestine (unless the person is deficient in magnesium). However, magnesium is mainly excreted by

the kidneys so longterm, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from renal

failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia.

3.CALCIUM CARBONATE

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO3. It is a common

substance found in rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine

organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime,

and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium

supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. Notably:

it reacts with strong acids, releasing carbon dioxide:

CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

it releases carbon dioxide on heating (to above 840 °C in the case of CaCO3), to form calcium

oxide, commonly called quicklime, with reaction enthalpy 178 kJ / mole:

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble

calcium bicarbonate.

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2

This reaction is important in the erosion of carbonate rocks, forming caverns, and leads to hard water

in many regions.

PREPARATION

The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure

calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source

(usually marble).

Alternatively, calcium oxide is prepared by calcining crude calcium carbonate. Water is added to give

calcium hydroxide, and carbon dioxide is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired

calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC):

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

GEOLOGY

Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings. It is found as a polymorph. A polymorph is a mineral

with the same chemical formula but different chemical structure. Aragonite, calcite, limestone, chalk,

marble, travertine, tufa, and others all have CaCO3 as their formula but each has a slightly different

chemical structure. Calcite, as calcium carbonate is commonly referred to in geology is commonly

talked about in marine settings. Calcite is typically found around the warm tropic environments. This is

due to its chemistry and properties. Calcite is able to precipitate in warmer shallow environments than

it does under colder environments because warmer environments do not favour the dissolution of CO2.

This is analogous to CO2 being dissolved in soda. When you take the cap off of a soda bottle, the CO2

rushes out. As the soda warms up, carbon dioxide is released. This same principle can be applied to

calcite in the ocean. Cold water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth

rate.

In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Consequently, you will see many more coral in this

environment than you would towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate

contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms are typically found in shallow water

environments because as filter feeders they require sunlight to produce calcium carbonate.

USES

Industrial applications

The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material in its

own right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement or as the

starting material for the preparation of builder’s lime by burning in a kiln.

Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Calcium

carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present,

and separates from the purified iron.

Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints, in particular matte emulsion paint where

typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble.

Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics. Some typical examples include around 15

to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of

stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at

loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile

strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are

often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high

use temperatures. It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding

compounds) and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of

compression molded “clay” Poker chips.

Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used in babies’

diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles

during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching.

Calcium carbonate is known as whiting in ceramics/glazing applications, where it is used as a common

ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in

a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in the glaze.

It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity “buffer” to offset the acidic

properties of the disinfectant agent.

It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. Modern

manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4·2H2O.

HEALTH AND DIETARY APPLICATIONS

Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement or

antacid. It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in

patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for

tablets and other pharmaceuticals.

Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and is also used in homeopathy as one of

the constitutional remedies. Also, it has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer,

when used in or with products such as organic apples or food.

Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the “milk alkali

syndrome,” which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the “Sippy

regimen” of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal,

for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer

disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and

hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the

regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome

declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease.

A form of food additive is designated as E170. It is used in some soy milk products as a source of

dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in

cow’s milk.

4.SODIUM BICARBONATE

Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the formula

NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It

can be used to experiment and is not very dangerous. It has a slight alkaline taste resembling that of

washing soda (sodium carbonate). It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in

many mineral springs. The natural mineral form is known as nahcolite. It is found in its dissolved form

in bile, where it serves to neutralize the acidity of the hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach, and

is excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the bile duct. It is also produced artificially.

Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking

soda, bread soda, cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda. Colloquially, its name is shortened to

sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, or simply bicarb. The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning

“aerated salt”, was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium

bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common usage.

HISTORY

The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixture consisting mostly of sodium

carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a cleansing agent like soap.

In 1791, a French chemist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium bicarbonate as we know it today. In 1846

two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory to develop baking

soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.

PRODUCTION

NaHCO3 is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of calcium carbonate, sodium

chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 ton/year

(as of 2001).[2]

NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium

hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbonate:

CO2 + 2 NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O

Further addition of carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate, which at sufficiently high

concentration will precipitate out of solution:

Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3

Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the

form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate

precipitates as a solid from this method:

Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3

CHEMISTRY

Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound. Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the

formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion:

HCO−3 + H2O → H2CO3 + OH−

Sodium bicarbonate can be used as a wash to remove any acidic impurities from a “crude” liquid,

producing a purer sample. Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid to give a salt and carbonic acid,

which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water:

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2CO3

H2CO3 → H2O + CO2 (g)

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (CH3COOH) to form sodium acetate:

NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 (g)

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates:

NaHCO3 + NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk effervescence from the

formation of CO2. This reaction is used to test for the presence of carboxylic groups in protein.

APPLICATIONS

Sodium bicarbonate is primarily used in cooking (baking) where it reacts with other components to

release carbon dioxide, that helps dough “rise”. The acidic compounds that induce this reaction

include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vinegar, etc. Sodium

bicarbonate can be substituted for baking powder provided sufficient acid reagent is also added to the

recipe.[3] Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with one or more acidic

phosphates (especially good) or cream of tartar. It can also be used for softening peas (⅛ tsp. per pint

of water and bring to boil for one hour)

Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodium bicarbonate powder within easy reach, because sodium

bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases. Furthermore, as it is relatively innocuous in

most situations, there is no harm in using excess sodium bicarbonate. Lastly, sodium bicarbonate

powder may be used to smother a small fire.

Sodium bicarbonate is used in an aqueous solution as an antacid taken orally to treat acid indigestion

and heartburn. It may also be used in an oral form to treat chronic forms of metabolic acidosis such as

chronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis. Sodium bicarbonate may also be useful in urinary

alkalinization for the treatment of aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones.

Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being poured or

dumped over the fire. However, it should not be poured or dumped onto fires in deep fryers as it may

cause the grease to splatter. Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an

alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkali nature of

sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large

scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens. Because it can act as an alkali, the

agent has a mild saponification effect on hot grease, which forms a smothering soapy foam. Dry

chemicals have since fallen out of favor for kitchen fires as they have no cooling effect compared to

the extremely effective wet chemical agents specifically designed for such hazards.

5.BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE

Bismuth subsalicylate, with a chemical formula C7H5BiO4, is a drug used to treat nausea, heartburn,

indigestion, upset stomach, diarrhea, and other temporary discomforts of the stomach and

gastrointestinal tract. Commonly known as pink bismuth, it is the active ingredient in popular

medications such as Pepto-Bismol and modern (since 2003) Kaopectate.

PHARMACOLOGY

As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth salicylate displays anti-inflammatory action and also acts as

an antacid.

ADVERSE EFFECTS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools in some users of the

drug, when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract. This

discoloration is temporary and harmless.

Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use of bismuth subsalicylate.

Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from influenza or

chicken pox, as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of salicylate-

containing medications during certain viral infections and the onset of Reye’s syndrome. For the same

reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth

subsalicylate (such as Pepto-Bismol) because small amounts of the medication are excreted in breast

milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reye’s syndrome to nursing children.

RADIOACTIVITY

While bismuth is technically radioactive, its half life is so long, on the order of hundreds of billions of

years, that its radioactivity presents absolutely no threat under all medical and other ordinary

purposes.

DECOMPOSITION

Bismuth subsalicyclate is the only active ingredient in an over the counter medication that will actually

leave a shiny metal slag behind.

INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVE :

To analyse the given samples of commercial antacids by determining the amount of hydrochloric acid

they can neutralize.

REQUIREMENTS :

Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, beakers, weight box, fractional weights, sodium

hydroxide, sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein.

PROCEDURE :

1. Prepare 1 litre of approximately HCl solution by diluting 10 ml of the concentrated acid for one litre.

2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approximately NaOH solution by dissolving4.0g of NaOH to prepare one

litre of solution.

3. Prepare Na2CO3 solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate and then

dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25 litres (250 ml) of solution.

4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na2CO3 solution using methyl

orange as indicator.

5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized HCl solution using

phenolphthalein as indicator.

6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each.

7. Add a specific volume of standardised HCl to each of the weighed sample is taken in conical flasks.

The acid should be in slight excess, so that it can neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet.

8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and warm the flask till most of powder dissolves. Filter off the

insoluble material.

1. 9. Titrate this solution against the standardised NaOH solution, till a permanent pinkish tinge is

obtained. Repeat this experiment with different antacids.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :

Standardisation of HCl solution :

Volume of Na2CO3 solution taken = 20.0 ml

Concordant volume = 15.0 ml

Applying normality equation,

N1V1 = N2V2

N1 * 15.0 = * 20

Normality of HCl, N1 = = 0.133 N

Standardisation of NaOH solution :

Volume of the given NaOH solution taken = 20.0 ml

Concordant volume = 26.6 ml

Applying normality equation,

11 = 22

0.133 * 26.6 = 2 * 20

Normality of NaOH, 2 = = 0.176 N

Analysis of antacid tablet :

Weight of antacid tablet powder = 1.0 g

Volume of HCl solution added = 20.0 ml

S No. of obs.

Burette readings Initial Final

Volume of acid used

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

0 ml 15.0 ml

0 ml 15.1 ml

0 ml 15.0 ml

0 ml 15.0 ml

0 ml 15.0ml

15.0 ml

15.1 ml

15.0 ml

15.0 ml

15.0 ml

S No. of obs.

Burette readings Initial Final

Volume of acid used

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

0 ml 26.5 ml

0 ml 26.8 ml

0 ml 26.6 ml

0 ml 26.6 ml

0 ml 26.6ml

26.5 ml

26.8 ml

26.6 ml

26.6 ml

26.6 ml

CONCLUSION :

The antacid which has

maximum volume of HCl

is used for neutralizing

i.e. OCID 20 is more

effective.

THIS PROJECT IS MADE

WITH THE HELP OF

FOLLOWING LINKS :

1. 1. WEBSITES :

www.wikipedia.org

www.google.com

www.yahoo.com

www.pharmaceutical-drugmanufacturers.com

2. BOOKS :

Comprehensive Practical Manual for class XII

Pradeep’s New Course Chemistry

NCERT Class XII Part II

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1.

L

August 1st, 2010 at 18:52 | #1

Reply | Quote

Antacid Vol. Of NaOH soln. Used to neutralise unused HCl

Vol. Of HCl soln. Used to neutralise 1.0 g of antacid matter

1. Gelusil

2. Digene

3. Aludrox

4. Logas

5. Ranitidine

6. Ocid 20

12.1 ml

16.0 ml

19.3 ml

24.3 ml

21.4 ml

22.7 ml

12.0 ml

16.2 ml

18.9 ml

24.4 ml

21.7 ml

21.9 ml

thanks a lot u helped me complete my project thanks!!!

2.

saurabh

September 13th, 2010 at 11:44 | #2

Reply | Quote

thanks!!! it helped me alot to complete my project work.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Preparation of Potash Alum


Preparation of Potash Alum

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT

DIST: AMRELI

GUJARAT

BY:-ANURAG AGARWAL

ROLL NO:

XII SCI.

2009-2010

PRINCIPAL INTERNALEXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

CERTIFICATE

Certificate

This is to certify that this project work is submitted by ANURAG AGARWAL to the Chemistry

department, Aditya Birla Public School, Kovaya was carried out by him under the guidance &

supervision during academic year 2008-2009.

Principal Teacher



Mrs. Raji Jayaprasad Mr. B.D.KOTWANI

Aditya Birla public School (Head of chemistry dept.)

Kovaya

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to Principal, Mrs. Raji Jayaprasad, Aditya Birla

public school, kovaya for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she provided for this project

work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall remain

indebted to her.

I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. B.D.KOTWANI, chemistry HOD, who guided me to the successful

completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for his

invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude and

immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work. I am also

thankful to Mr. Pankaj Bajpai who has helped in each step of my project work.

I can’t forget to offer my sincere thanks to my classmates who helped me to carry out this project work

successfully & for their valuable advice & support, which I received from them time to time.

ANURAG AGARWAL.

DECLARATION

Declaration


supervision of Mr. B.D. KOTWANI, head of chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public School, Kovaya.

ANURAG AGARWAL.

Roll NO.

INDEX

Index

1) Certificate (ii)

2) Acknowledgement (iii)

3) Declaration (iv)

4) Dedication (vi)

5) Introduction 07

6) Aim 10

7) Requirements 10

8) Theory 11

9) Reactions 12

10) Procedure 13

11) Observations 15

12) Result 15

13) Bibliography 16

DEDICATION

Dedication


MY FATHER

MR.K.M.AGARWAL

&

MY MOTHER

MRS. RAMA AGARWAL

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Aluminium because of its low density, high tensile strength and resistance to corrosion is widely used

for the manufacture of aeroplanes, automobiles lawn furniture as well as for aluminium cans. Being

good conductor of electricity it is used for transmission of electricity. Aluminium is also used for

making utensils. The recycling of aluminium cans and other aluminium products is a very positive

contribution to saving our natural resources. Most of the recycled aluminium is melted and recast into

other aluminium metal products or used in the production of various aluminium compounds, the most

common of which are the alums. Alums are double sulphates having general formula

X2SO4.M2(SO4)3.24H2O

X = Monovalent cation; M = Trivalent cation

Some important alum and their names are given below:

K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O – Potash Alum

Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O - Soda Alum

Introduction

K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O – Chrome Alum

(NH)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O - Ferric Alum

Potash alum is used in papermaking, in fire extinguishers, in food stuffs and in purification of water

soda alum used in baking powders and chrome alum is used in tanning leather and water proofing

fabrics.

In addition to these primary uses, alum is also used as

1. An astringent a substance or preparation that draws together or constricts body tissues and

is effective in stopping the flow of blood or other secretions. Alum has also been used by

conventional hairdressers for treating shaving cuts,

1. A mordant substances used in dyeing to fix certain dyes on cloth. Either the mordant (if it is

colloidal) or a colloid produced by the mordant adheres to the fiber, attracting and fixing the

colloidal mordant dye. The insoluble, colored precipitate that is formed is called a lake. Alum is

a basic mordant used for fixing acid dyes.

Introduction

1. For the removal of phosphate from natural and waste waters the aluminium ions of

alum combine with the orthophosphate around pH 6 to form the solid aluminum

hydroxyphosphate which is precipitated and

1. For fireproofing fabrics The major uses of alums are based on two important properties,

namely precipitation of Al(OH)3 and those related to the acidity created by the production of

hydrogen ions.

Al(H2O)6+3 → Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3H2O + 3H+

The H+ ions generated are used foe reacting with sodium bicarbonate to release CO2. This property is

made use of in baking powder and CO2 fire extinguishers.

AIM

Aim

To prepare potash alum from aluminium scrap

REQUIREMENT

Requirement

v 250 ml flask

v Funnel

v Beaker

v Scrap aluminium or cola can

v Potassium hydroxide solution (KOH)

v 6 M Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

v Water Bath

v Ethanol

THEORY

Theory

Aluminum metal is treated with hot aqueous KOH solution. Aluminium dissolves as potassium

aluminate, KAl(OH)4, salt.

2Al(s) + 2KOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) ¾® 2KAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3H2

Potassium aluminate solution on treatment with dil. Sulphuric acid first gives precipitate Al(OH)3, which

dissolves on addition of small excess of H2SO4 and heating.

2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ¾® 2Al(OH)3 (s) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3 H2SO4(aq) ¾® Al2(SO4)3(aq) +6H2O(l)

The resulting solution is concentrated to near saturation and cooled. On cooling crystals of potash

alum crystallize out.

K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l) ¾® K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O(s)

REACTIONS

Reactions

2Al(s) + 2KOH (aq) + 6H2O (l) ¾® 2KAl (OH)4 (aq) + 3H2

K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l) ¾® K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.

24H2O(s)

2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3 H2SO4(aq) ¾® Al2(SO4)3(aq) +6H2O(l)

2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ¾® 2Al(OH)3 (s) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l) ¾® K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.

24H2O(s)

PROCEDURE

Procedure

§Clean a small piece of scrap aluminium with steel wool and cut it into very small pieces.

Aluminium foil may be taken instead of scrap aluminium.

§Put the small pieces of scrap aluminium or aluminium foil (about 1.00g) into a conical flask

and add about 50 ml of 4 M KOH solution to dissolve the aluminium.

§The flask may be heated gently in order to facilitate dissolution. Since during this step

hydrogen gas is evolved this step must be done in a well ventilated area.

§Continue heating until all of the aluminium reacts.

§Filter the solution to remove any insoluble impurities and reduce the volume to about 25 ml

by heating.

§Allow the filtrate to cool. Now add slowly 6 M H2SO4 until insoluble Al(OH)3 just forms in the

solution.

Procedure

§Gently heat the mixture until the Al(OH)3 precipitate dissolves.

§ Cool the resulting solution in an ice-bath for about 30 minutes whereby alum crystals should

separate out. For better results the solution may be left overnight for crystallization to

continue.

§ In case crystals do not form the solution may be further concentrated and cooled again.

§ Filter the crystals from the solution using vacuum pump, wash the crystals with 50/50

ethanol-water mixture.

§ Continue applying the vacuum until the crystals appear dry.

§ Determine the mass of alum crystals.

OBSERVATION

Observation

Mass of aluminium metal =…………….g

Mass of potash alum =…………….g

Theoretical yield of potash alum =……………g

Percent yield =……………%

RESULT

Result

Potash alum of % yield was prepared from aluminium scrap.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography

v iCBSE.com

v Wikipedia,

v Chemicalland.com

v books.google.co.in

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Study the Constituents of an Alloy

Chemistry Project to Study the Constituents of an Alloy

Study Of Constituents Of An Alloy

CHEMISTRY PROJECT

AIM- Study Of Constituents Of An Alloy

N3m0 —Souradip Sen

Board roll no- 5664184

Contents

PAGE NO

1. Acknowledgement 3/13

2. Introduction 4/13

3. Aim of the experiment 5/13

a- General objective b- Specific objective

1. Materials Required 6/13

2. Theory 7/13

1. Details of procedure and 9/13 Observations

2. Conclusion 12/13

3. Bibliography 13/13

4. Signature 13/13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT



I, Souradip Sen of class XLL -C express my gratitude to my school authorities for allowing me to

undertake the project titled

Alloy Analysis I naturally could not have done justice to my delicate assignment, had I not been

privileged to get the animate guidance from Mr.T.N.Dey, Chemistry teacher of Deepika E.M School.

I also express sincere thanks to my family who extended helping hand in completing this project.

Souradip Sen

fitudent Internal External

Examiner Examiner

Introduction

An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non-metal.

They are generally harder than their components with reduced malleability and ductility.

Alloys are prepared to enhance certain characteristics of the constituent metals, as per

requirement.

In this project, we shall qualitatively anayze the chemical composition of two alloys:

J$rass and J$ronze

Aim of the Experiment

General objective:

This project is being carried out with a view to increase the appreciation of alloy-analysis as an

important branch of chemistry. The hands-on laboratory experience gained is highly beneficial in

understanding the general procedure of qualitative analysis of an unknown sample.

Specific objective:

In this project, we shall be analyzing the constituents of Brass and Bronze.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

1) BRASS AND BRONZE PIECES

2) china dishes

3)) FILTRATION APPARATUS

4) NITRIC ACID

5) HYDROGEN SULPHIDE GAS

7)) AMMONIUM CHLORIDE

8)) POTASSIUM FERROCYANIIDE

9) AMMONIUM SULPHIDE

10) DIL HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Theory

Brass

Brass contains Cu and Zn . Both dissolve in nitric acid.

4Zn+ 10 HNO3= 4Zn{NO)i + N2O + 5HO 3Cu + 8 HNO3= 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4HO+2NO

Further analysis is carried out for respective ions.

Cu dissolves in H2S to give black ppt. of CuS. It is filtered to get the soln of Zinc Sulphide. It

precipitates out in the form of ZnCl2 in an ammoniacal soln. of Ammonium chloride. The precipitate is

dissolved in dilute HCl and then treated with Potassium ferrocyanide to get a bluish-white ppt. of

Zn2[Fe(CN)6].

Bronze

Bronze contains Cu and Sn. Their nitrates are obtained by dissolving the sample in conc. Nitric acid.

The nitrates are precipitated as sulphides by passing H2S through their solution in dil. HCl.

The CuS is insoluble in yellow ammonium sulphide, while SnS is soluble. The ppt. is separated by

filtration.

The ppt. is dissolved in cone HNO3 and then Ammonium hydroxide solution is passed through it.Blue

colouration confirms the presense of Cu.

The filtrate is treated with conc. HCl followed by Zinc dust to obtain SnCl2 . Then HgCl2 solution is

added. Formation of slate-coloured ppt. indicates the presence of Sn.

SnS2 +HCl(conc)= SnCh + H2S

SnCl4 +Fe= SnCh+FeCh

SnCl2 + HgCl2 = Hg2Cl2 + SnCh

Detail of Procedure/Observations Brass,:

1. 1. A small piece of brass was placed in a china dish and dissolved in minimum quantity of

50%conc.1¥UOs.

2. 2. The soln. was heated to obtain a dry residue. The residue was dissolved in Dilute H(?l.

gas was passed and a black.ppt. was (observed. The soln. was filtered and the ppt. was dissolved in

NH4OH soln. A blue coloration observed indicates the presence of Cu. 4. The filtrate was tested for

presence of Zn.

Ammonium hydroxide and chloride solutions were added and then H2S gas was passed. A dull grey

ppt. was separated and dissolved in dil. H(£l followed by addition of Potassium

ferrocyanide. A bluish white ppt. confirms the presense of Zn.

Bronfe:

1. 1. The sample was dissolved in 50% HNO3 and then heated to obtain nitrates.

2. 2. The nitrates were dissolved in dil. H(£l and then precipitated as sulphides by passing H2S

gas.

1. 3. The precipitates were treated with yellow amm.sulphide when a part of it dissolves. The

soln. was filtered.

2. 4. The ppt. was tested for Cu as in the case of

brass.

5. The filtrate was treated with conc.

HCl followed

by Fe dust.

6. Then HgCl2 soln. was added. Formation of a

slate-coloured ppt. confirmed the presence of

Sn.

Conclusion

Brass contains Copper and

Bronze contains Copper and Tin.

Bibliography

1. 1. Comprehensive practical Chemistry- Class 12.

2. Inorganic Chemistry by

3. www.niton.com

1. 4. VMw.alloyanalyzer.niit.edu

Signatures:

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Prepare Rayon Threads From Filter Paper


Prepare cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper

2009-2010

Chemistry Investigatory Project

Ravindra Singh XllScB

Army public School, Jaipur

This is to certify that Ravindra Singh, student of class xu B, Army

Public School has completed the project titled To prepare a sample of cuprammonium

rayon threads from filter paper during the academic year 2009-2010 towards partial

fulfillment of credit for the chemistry practical evaluation of Aissc$ 2010, and submitted

satisfactory report, as compiled in the following pages, under my supervision.

This proj’ect is absolutely genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The

references taken in making this proj’ect have been declared at the end of this report.




Mr. Brajesh Pandit

(ead of Department chemistry

Army Public School,jaipur

“There are tinges when silence speaks so much more loudly than words of praise to onlyy

as good as belittle a person, whose words do not express, but onlyy put a veneer over true

feelings, which are of gratitude at this point of time.”

\ would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry men-tor Mr. Brajesh Pandit,

for his vital support, guidance and encouragement -without which this project would not

have come forth. ( would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Department

of chemistry at Army Public School for their support during the making of this project.

Aim

To prepare a sample of cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper

Apparatus Required

a) Conical flask (preferably 250 ml)

b) Funnel

c) Glass rod

d) Beaker (preferably 250 ml)

e) Water bath

f) Filter paper (Whatman paper or ordinary filter paper sheets. Preferably, Whatman)

Chemicals Required

a) CuSO4

b) NaOH solution

c) Liquor ammonia solution

d) Dilute H2SO4

e) Whatman Paper

f) Distilled H2O

Background

Rayon is a synthetic fiber produced from cellulose. Developed in an attempt to produce silk chemically,

it was originally called artificial silk or wood silk. Rayon is a regenerated fiber, because cellulose is

converted to a liquid compound and then back to cellulose in the form of fiber. For example,

cuprammonium rayon is made by dissolving cellulose in an ammoniacal copper sulphate solution.

The characteristics of rayon fibers are:

s They are highly absorbent,

s Soft and comfortable,

s Easy to dye &

s Drape well.

Introduction

Cellulose is nature’s own giant molecule. It is the fibrous material that every plant from seaweed to the

sequoia makes by baking glucose molecules in long chains; the chains are bound together in the fibers

that give plants their shape and strength. Wood has now become the main source of cellulose. Since it

contains only 40% to 50% cellulose, the substance must be extracted by ‘pulping’. The logs are flaked,

and then simmered in chemicals that dissolve the tarry lignin, resins and minerals. The remaining pulp,

about 93% cellulose, is dried and rolled into sheets-raw material for paper, rayon and other products.

It can be obtained in 2 ways:

1. Viscose Process : Cellulose is soaked in 30% caustic soda solution for about 3 hrs. The alkali

solution is removed and the product is treated with CSi. This gives cellulose xanthate, which is

dissolved in NaOH solution to give viscous solution. This is filtered and forced through a

spinneret into a dilute H2SO4 solution, both of which harden the gumlike thread into rayon

fibers. The process of making viscose was discovered by C.F.Cross and EJ.Bevan in 1891.

2. Cuprammonium Rayon : Cuprammonium rayon is obtained by dissolving pieces of filter

paper in a deep blue solution containing tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. The latter is obtained

from a solution of copper sulphate. To it, NH)OH solution is added to precipitate cupric

hydroxide, which is then dissolved in excess of NH/.

Reactions:

CUSO4+ 2NH4OH — Cu(OH)2+ (NH4)2S04

Pale blue ppt

Cu(OH) 2 + 4NH4OH — [Cu(NH3) 4](0H) 2 + 4H2O

[Cu(NH3) 4](0H) 2 + pieces of filter paper left for 10-15 days give a viscous solution called VISCOSE.

Procedure

A. Preparation of Schweitzer’s Solution:

a) Way20gofCuSO).5H20.

b) Transfer this to a beaker having 100ml distilled water and add 15ml of dilute H2SO4 to prevent

hydrolysis of CuSO).

c) Stir it with a glass rod till a clear solution is obtained. Add 11ml of liquor ammonia drop by drop with

slow stirring. The precipitate of cupric hydroxide is separated out.

d) Filter the solution containing cupric hydroxide through a funnel with filter paper.

e) Wash the precipitate of cupric hydroxide with water until the filtrate fails to give a positive test for

sulphate ions with barium chloride solution.

f) Transfer the precipitate to a beaker that contains 50ml of liquor ammonia or wash it down the

funnel. The precipitate when dissolved in liquor ammonia gives a deep blue solution of tetra-ammine

cupric hydroxide. This is known as SCHWEITZER’S SOLUTION.

B. Preparation of Cellulose material

a) After weighing 2g of filter paper divide it into very fine pieces and then transfer these pieces to the

tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide solution in the beaker.

b) Seal the flask and keep for 10 to 15 days, during this period the filter paper is dissolved completely.

C. Formation of Ravon Thread

a) Take 50ml of distilled water in a glass container. To this add 20ml of conc H2SO4 drop by drop. Cool

the solution under tap water. In a big glass container pour some of the solution.

b) Fill the syringe with cellulose solution prepared before.

c) Place the big glass container containing H2SO4 solution produced before in ice (the reaction being

spontaneous results in excess release of energy in the form of heat which makes the fibers weak and

breaks them).

d) Immerse the tip of the syringe in the solution and press gently. Notice the fibers getting formed in

the acid bath. Continue to move your hand and keep pressing the syringe to extrude more fibers into

the bath.

e) Leave the fibers in solution till they decolorize and become strong enough.

f) Filter and wash with distilled water.

Precautions

a) Addition of excess NH/ should be avoided.

b) Before taking the viscose in the syringe make sure that it does not contain any particles of paper,

otherwise, it would clog the needle of the syringe.

c) Addition of NH/ should be done in a fume cupboard and with extreme care. The fumes if inhaled may

cause giddiness.

d) Use a thick needle otherwise the fibers won’t come out.

Bibliography

Chemistry (Part I) - Textbook for Class XII; National Council of

Educational Research and Training Together With Lab Manual Chemistry XII; Bharti Bhawan (Publishers

&

Distributors) Comprehensive Chemistry Lab Manual XII ” Chemistry Projects

“Wikipedia The free encyclopedia” “Rayon Fiber”

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Preparation of Soyabean Milk


Project on preparation soyabean milk and its comparison with the natural milk

This is to certify that Master Hiren P Patel ,A student of class XII of the Atomic Energy Central School,

Roll No.: 07 session 2009-2010, has satisfactorily completed the required chemistry project work as

per the syllabus of Standard XII in the laboratory of the school.

Date: Chemistry Teacher

(Mr.R K Sawhney)

Principal’s Signature External examiner’s Signature

I selected this project as a part of my studies, titled “PREAPARATION OF SOYABEAN MILK AND ITS

COMPARISION WITH NATURAL MILK”.

As a gratitude, I convey my sincere thanks to Mr.R K Sawhney and Lab. Assistant Smt. Raksha Pandya

who was the constant guide during the period of study and without whose help it would not have been

possible for us to complete this project.




HIREN P PATEL

XII-B (SCIENCE)

2009-2010

Project 55:

Aim:

Preparation of soya bean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd formation,

effect of temperature and taste.

Theory:

Natural milk is an opaque white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammal.

The main constituents of natural milk are proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, fats and

water and are a complete balanced diet.

Fresh milk is sweetish in taste.

o However, when it is kept for a long time at a temperature of 35 ± 50C it becomes sour

because of bacteria present in air.

o These bacteria convert lactose of milk starts separating out as a precipitate.

When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 360C, it forms

semi-solid mass, called curd.

Soya bean milk is made from soya beans.

It resembles natural milk.

The main constituents of soya bean milk are proteins, carbohydrates,

fats, minerals and vitamins.

It is prepared by keeping soya beans dipped in water for sometime.

The swollen soya beans are then crushed to a paste which is

then mixed with water.

The solution is filtered and filtrate is soya bean milk.

Materials required:

Beakers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinder, glass-rod, tripod-stand, thermometer, muslin cloth,

burner.

Soya beans, buffalo milk, fresh curd, distilled water.

Procedure:

Soak about 100 g of soya beans in sufficient amount of water for 24 hours.

o Take out swollen soya beans and grind them to a very fine paste with a pestle-mortar.

o Add about 250 ml of water to this paste and filter it through a muslin cloth.

o Clear white filtrate is soya bean milk.

o Compare its taste with buffalo milk.

Take 50 ml of buffalo milk in three beakers and heat the beakers to 300, 400

and 500 C respectively.

Add spoonful curd to each of the beakers and leave the beakers undisturbed

for 8 hours and curd is ready.

Similarly, take 50 ml of soya bean milk in three other beakers and heat the

beakers to 300,400 and 500 C respectively.

Add 1 spoonful curd to each of these beakers. Leave the beakers

4 undisturbed for 8 hours and curd is formed.

Type of milk Beaker no Temperature Quality of curd Taste of curd

Buffalo milk 1 300C

2 400C

3 500C

4 300C

Soya bean milk

5 400C

6 500C

Result: For buffalo milk, the best temperature for the formation of good quality and tasty curd is… oC

and for soya bean milk, it is …. oC.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Study of Rate of Fermentation of Juices

Chemistry Project on Study of Rate of Fermentation of Juices

Study the rates of fermentation of fruit or vegetable juices

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor Mrs. Harsh Kumar Mishra, for

his vital support, guidance and encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth.




BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified to be the bonafide work done by

Mr. / Miss ______________________ of class________ in the _______________ during the year _____________

Date __________.

Prabhat Public School

K-Block Sarvodaya nagar

Kanpur

Submitted for ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY EXAMINATION held in ___________________at Prabhat

Public Senior Secondary School, Kanpur.

Examiner

DATE-________________

INDEX

S.No. CONTENTS Page No.

1. Objective 4

2. Introduction 5

3. Theory 6

4. Experiment 1 8

5. Experiment 2 9

6. Observation 11

7. Result 12

8. Bibliography 13

OBJECTIVE

The Objective of this project is to study the rates of fermentation of the following fruit or vegetable

juices.

1. i. Apple juice

2. ii. Carrot juice

(1)

INTRODUCTION

Fermentation is the slow decomposition of complex organic compound into simpler compounds by

the action of enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic compounds, generally proteins. Examples of

fermentation are: souring of milk or curd, bread making, wine making and brewing.

The word Fermentation has been derived from Latin (Ferver which means to ‘boil’).As during

fermentation there is lot of frothing of the liquid due to the evolution of carbon dioxide, it gives the

appearance as if it is boiling.

Sugars like glucose and sucrose when fermented in the presence of yeast cells are converted to ethyl

alcohol. During fermentation of starch, starch is first hydrolysed to maltose by the action of enzyme

diastase. The enzyme diastase is obtained from germinated barley seeds.

Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of 4–16 °C (40–60 °F). This is low for most kinds of

fermentation, but is beneficial for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate

aromas. Apple based juices with cranberry also make fine ciders; and many other fruit purées or

flavorings can be used, such as grape, cherry, and raspberry. The cider is ready to drink after a three

month fermentation period, though more often it is matured in the vats for up to two or three years.

THEORY

Louis Pasteur in 1860 demonstrated that fermentation is a purely physiological process carried out by

living micro-organism like yeast. This view was abandoned in 1897 when Buchner demonstrated that

yeast extract could bring about alcoholic fermentation in the absence of any yeast cells. He proposed

that fermenting activity of yeast is due to active catalysts of biochemical origin. These biochemical

catalyst are called enzymes. Enzymes are highly specific. A given enzyme acts on a specific compound

or a closely related group of compounds.

Fermentation has been utilized for many years in the preparation of beverages. Materials from

Egyptian tombs demonstrate the procedures used in making beer and leavened bread. The history of

fermentation, whereby sugar is converted to ethanol by action of yeast, is also a history of chemistry.

Van Helmont coined the word iogaslt in 1610 to describe the bubbles produced in fermentation.

Leeuwenhoek observed and described the cells of yeast with his newly invented microscope in 1680.

The fruit and vegetable juices contain sugar such as sucrose, glucose and fructose. These sugars on

fermentation in the presence of the enzymes invertase and zymase give with the evolution of carbon

dioxide. Maltose is converted to glucose by enzyme maltose. Glucose is converted to ethanol by

another enzyme zymase

Invertase

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

Zymase

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Glucose Fructose Ethanol

Diastase

2(C6H1005)n + nH20 nC12H22O11

Starch Maltose

Maltose

C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6

Maltose Glucose

Zymase

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Glucose Ethyl alcohol

Glucose is a reducing sugar and gives red coloured precipitates with Fehling’s solution, when warmed.

When the fermentation is complete, the reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or precipitate

with Fehling solution.

EXPERIMENT-1

REQUIREMENTS

Conical flasks (250 ml), test tubes and water bath, Apple juice and Fehling’s solution.

PROCEDURE

1. Take 5.0 ml of apple juice in a clean 250 ml conical flask and dilute it with 50 ml of distilled water.

2. Add 2.0 gram of Baker’s yeast and 5.0 ml of solution of Pasteur’s salts to the above conical flask.

3. Shake well the contents of the flask and maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture between

35-40°C.

4. After 10minutes take 5 drops of the reaction mixture from the flask and add to a test tube

containing 2 ml of Fehling reagent. Place the test tube in the boiling water bath for about 2 minutes

and note the colour of the solution or precipitate.

5. Repeat the step 4 after every 10 minutes when the reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or

precipitate.

6. Note the time taken for completion of fermentation

EXPERIMENT-2

REQUIREMENTS

Conical flasks (250 ml), test tubes and water bath, Carrot juice and Fehling’s solution.

PROCEDURE

1. Take 5.0 ml of carrot juice in a clean 250 ml conical flask and dilute it with 50 ml of distilled water.

2. Add 2.0 gram of Baker’s yeast and 5.0 ml of solution of Pasteur’s salts to the above conical flask.

3. Shake well the contents of the flask and maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture between

35-40°C.

4. After 10minutes take 5 drops of the reaction mixture from the flask and add to a test tube

containing 2 ml of Fehling reagent. Place the test tube in the boiling water bath for about 2 minutes

and note the colour of the solution or precipitate.

5. Repeat the step 4 after every 10 minutes when the reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or

precipitate.

6. Note the time taken for completion of fermentation.

Pasteur’s Salt Solution – Pasteur salt solution is prepared by dissolving ammonium tartrate 10.0g;

potassium phosphate 2.0 g; calcium phosphate 0.2g, and magnesium sulphate 0.2 g dissolved in

860ml of water

OBSERVATION

Volume of fruit juice taken = 5.0 ml

Volume of distilled water added = 50.0 ml

Weight of Baker’s yeast added = 2.0 g

Volume of solution of Pasteur’s salts = 5.0 ml

Time

(in minutes)

Colour of reaction mixture on reaction with Fehling Solution in case of

10

20

30

40

60

RESULTS

The rate of fermentation of apple juice is ………… than the rate of fermentation of carrot juice.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Compare Rate of Fermentation


TO COMPARE RATE OF FERMENTATION OF GIVEN SAMPLE

OF WHEAT FLOUR,GRAM FLOUR,RICE FLOUR AND POTATO

CHEMISTRY




PROJECT

:AIM:

TO COMPARE RATE OF FERMENTATION OF GIVEN SAMPLE OF

WHEAT FLOUR,GRAM FLOUR,RICE FLOUR AND POTATO.

SUBMITTED BY :-

NAME: Tanuja naik

CLASS:XII A

ROLL NO: 10

INDEX

# AIM

# CERTIFICATE

# ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

# DECLARATION

# OBJECTIVE

# INTRODUCTION

# MATERIALS REQUIRED

# PROCEDURE

# OBSERVATIONS

# BIBLIOGRAPHY

:AIM:

To compare the rate of fermentation of given sample of wheat

flour,gram flour,rice flour and potato using yeast.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project is submitted by TANUJA NAIK to the chemistry department,DEEPIKA

ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,ROURKElA was carried out by her under the guidance and supervision of

MS. SMRUTI BEHERA during academic session 2009-2010.

Date:

MS. SMRUTI BEHERA

(Chemistry teacher)

External Examiner:-

Internal Examiner:-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to

MS. MANJULA ROY,DEEPIKA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,ROURKELA for her encouragement and for all

the facilities that she provided for this project work.I sincerely appreciate this magnanemityby taking

me into her fold for which i shall remain indebted to her.

I extend my hearty thanks to MS. SMRUTI BEHERA,Chemistry Teacher who guided me to do this project

successful completion of thus project.I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for

her invalueable guidance,constant encouragement,constructive comments,sympathetic attitude and

immense motivationb which has sustainedmy effort at all stages of this project work.

TANUJA NAIK

DECLARATION


supervision of

MS. SMRUTI BEHERA,DEEPIKA ENGLISH MEDIUM

SCHOOL,ROURKELA.

TANUJA NAIK

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the experiment is – to compare the rate of fermentation ofthe given

samples of wheat flour,gram flour, rice flour and potatoes.

I became interested in this idea when i saw some experiments on fermentation and wanted to find out

some scientific facts about fermentation.The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion of

sugars and other carbohydrates,e.g., converting juice into wine, grains into beer, carbohydrates into

carbon dioxide to leaven bread, and sugars in vegetables into preservative organic acids.

INTRODUCTION

Fermentation typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic

acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. A more restricted

definition of fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The science of

fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is

desirable, and the process is used to produce alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider.

Fermentation is also employed in preservation techniques to create lactic acid in sour foods such as

sauerkraut, dry sausages, kimchi and yoghurt, or vinegar for use in pickling foods.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon

dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. A

more restricted definition of fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The

science of fermentation is known as zymology.

Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desirable, and the process is used to

produce alcoholic beverages such as wine , beer, and cider. Fermentation is also employed in

preservation techniques to create lactic acid in sour foods such as sauerkraut , dry sausages, kimchi

and yogurt, or vinegar (acetic acid) for use in pickling foods.

History

Since fruits ferment naturally, fermentation precedes human history. Since ancient times, however,

humans have been controlling the fermentation process. The earliest evidence of winemaking dates

from eight thousand

Years ago in Georgia, in the Caucasus area. Seven thousand years ago jars containing the remains of

wine have been excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran, which are now on display at the University

of Pennsylvania.There is strong evidence that people were fermenting beverages in Babylon circa

5000 BC, ancient Egypt circa 3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico circa 2000 BC,and Sudan circa 1500

BC.There is also evidence of leavened bread in ancient Egypt circa1500 BC and of milk fermentation in

Babylon circa 3000 BC.French chemist Louis Pasteur was the first known zymologist, when in 1854 he

connected yeast to fermentation. Pasteur originally defined fermentation as “respiration without air”.

Contributions to biochemistry

When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by

yeastLouis Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was

catalyzed by a vital force, called “ferments,” within the

yeast cells.The “ferments” were thought to function only

within living organisms. “Alcoholic fermentation is an act

correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells,

not with the death or putrefaction of the cells,”he

wrote.Nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts

ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells.

While studying thisprocess in 1897, Eduard Buchner of

Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany, found that sugar

was fermented even when there were no living yeast cells

in the mixture , by a yeast secretion that he termed

zymase. In 1907 hereceived the Nobel Prize in Chemistry

for his research and discovery of “cell-free

fermentation.”One year prior, in 1906, ethanol

fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+.

Uses

Food fermentation has been said to serve five main purposes:

# Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food

substrates

# Preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid and alkaline

fermentations

# Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids,

and vitamins

# Elimination of ant nutrients.

# A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements

Risks of consuming fermented foods

Food that is improperly fermented has a notable

risk of exposing the eater to botulism.

Alaska has witnessed a steady increase of cases

of botulism since 1985. Despite its small population, it

has more cases of botulism than any other

state in the United States of America.This

is caused by the traditional Eskimo practice of

allowing animal products such as whole fish, fish

heads, walrus, sea lion and whale flippers, beaver

tails, seal oil, birds, etc., to ferment for an extended

period of time before being consumed. The risk is exacerbated when a plastic container is used for this

purpose instead of the old-fashioned method,

grass-lined hole, as the botulinum bacteria thrive

in the anaerobic conditions created by the air-tight

enclosure in plastic.

Safety of Fermented Foods

Fermented foods generally have a very good safety record

even in the developing world where the foods are

manufactured by people without training in microbiology

or chemistry in unhygienic,contaminated environments. They are consumed by hundreds of millions of

people every day in both the developed and the developing world. And they have an excellent safety

record.What is there about fermented foods that contributes to safety?While fermented foods are

themselves generally safe, it should be noted that fermented foods by themselves do not solve the

problems of contaminated drinking water, environments heavily contaminated with human waste,

improper personal hygiene in food handlers, flies carrying disease organisms, unfermented foods

carrying food poisoning or human pathogens and unfermented foods, even when cooked if handled or

stored improperly.Also improperly fermented foods can be unsafe. However, application of the

principles that lead to the safety of fermented foods could lead to an improvement in the overall

quality and the nutritional value of the food supply, reduction of nutritional diseases and greater

resistance to intestinal and other diseases in infants.

Theory

Wheat flour,gram flour,rice flour and potatoes contains starch as the major constituent.Starch present

in these food

materials is first brought into solution.in the presence of

enzyme diastase,starch undergo fermentation to give maltose.

Starch gives blue-violet colour with iodine whereas product

of fermentation starch donot give any characteristic colour.

When the fermentation is complete the reaction mixture stops giving blue-violet colour with iodine

solution.

By comparing the time required for completion of fermentation of equal amounts of different

substances containing starch the rates of fermentation can be compared.The enzyme diastase is

obtained by germination of moist barley seeds in dark at 15 degree celsius.When the germination is

complete the temperature is raised to 60 degree celsius to stop further growth.The seeds are crushed

into water and filtered.The filtrate contains enzyme diastase and is called malt extract.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

# Conical flask

# Test tube

# Funnel

# Filter paper

# Water bath

# 1 % Iodine solution

# Yeast

# Wheat flour

# Gram flour

# Rice flour

# Potato

# Aqueuos NaCl solution

PROCEDURE

# Take 5 gms of wheat flour in 100 ml conical flask and

add 30 ml of distilled water.

# Boil the contents of the flask for about 5 minutes

# Filter the above contents after cooloing, the filtrate

obtained is wheat flour extract.

# To the wheat flour extract. taken in a conical flask.

Add 5 ml of 1% aq. NaCl solution.

# Keep this flask in a water bath maintained at a

temperature of 50-60 degree celsius.Add 2 ml

of malt extract.

# After 2 minutes take 2 drops of the reaction mixture

and add to diluted iodine solution.

# Repeat step 6 after every 2 minutes.When no bluish

colour is produced the fermentation is complete.

# Record the total time taken for completion of

fermentation.

# Repeat the experiment with gram flour extract,rice

flour extract, potato extract and record the observations

OBSERVATIONS

Time required for the fermentation—-

# Wheat flour — 10 hours

# Gram flour – 12.5 hours

# Rice flour — 15 hours

# Potato — 13 hours

CONCLUSION

Rice flour takes maximum time for fermentation and

wheat flour takes the minimum time for fermentation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

]

# Wikipedia-the free enclyclopedia

# Chemistry manual

# Website:- www.icbse.com

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