CHAPTER 13

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL , AND RADIOLOGICALDEFENSE

As amember of theNavy, youneed agood workingknowledge of chemical, biological, and radiologicaldefense (CBR-D). CBR-D is defined asdefensivemeasures taken against the effects of a chemical, abiological, or a nuclear weapons attack. Training indefensive measures lets the command maintainoperational readiness and complete its mission.

Throughout history, countries and factions havedeveloped and used chemical, biological, andradiological (CBR) warfare. In WWI, chlorine gas wasused, which forced thedevelopment of the gasmask. InWWII , nuclear weapons were used for the first time.During WWII, many nations began developingchemical and biological agentsas a warfare tool. Morerecently, a nerve agent was used in Japan’s subwaysystem, and blister agents were used on the Kurdsduring the Iraq and Iran war. The use of CBR clearlydemonstrates the need for a positive defensive posturewithin our Navy.

United States national policy prohibits our beingthe first to use chemical agents against an attackingnation. The approval for our initial use of chemicalweapons must come from the President of the UnitedStates.

The United Stateswil l not usebiological agents,including toxins, regardless of source or manner ofproduction, or other methods of biological warfareunder any circumstances. The United States strictlylimits its biological and toxin research program todefensive measures, such as production of vaccines,antidotes, treatment, and protective equipment.

Anaggressivenationmight decideusing achemicalor biological (CB) weapon first is to its advantage,perhapsas asurpriseattack. Therefore, all membersof

the U.S. Navy must be highly trained in CBR-D.CBR-D training allows Navy units to survive CBRattacks and continue to fight and defend their ship orunit under CBR-contaminated conditions.

The need for training in CBR-D is never ending.The Navy has developed and continues to developdifferent countermeasures against many possible CBRapplications that an enemy might think of. Becausepossible enemies cont inual ly develop CBRapplications, training programs using informationabout the greatest CBR threats are developed to trainnaval personnel. These programs include disasterpreparedness drills and personnel qualificationstandards(PQS). Don’t takethistraining lightly; it maysave your life.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, ANDNUCLEAR WARFARE OPERATIONS

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter,you will be able to—

• Recognize chemical , b io logical , andradiological (CBR) attack methods.

• Recognize the need for CBR defense.

• Identify terms used with CBR.

The primary purpose of nuclear weapons is themassdestruction of targetsand personnel. Theprimarypurpose of biological and chemical attacks is the masscasualties of personnel, livestock, and/or crops. Theseweapons are calledweapons of mass destructionbecausetheydestroy largeareasor kil l anddisablelargesegments of the population.

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If we do not stem the proliferation of the world’s deadliest weapons, nodemocracy can feel secure... Oneof our most urgent prioritiesmust beattackingthe proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, whether they are nuclear,chemical or biological.

—President Bill Clinton1993

In chemical warfare (CW) operations, chemicalagents cankil l or disable personnel by affecting theirblood, nerves, eyes, skin, lungs, or stomach. Biologicalwarfare (BW) operat ion agents includemicroorganisms, fungi, toxins, and microtoxins tocausediseasesthat wil l kil l or produceother casualties.Nuclear weaponsproduce explosionsof great forceandheat and release nuclear radiation.

Many types of weapons and methods may be usedto deliver chemical and biological agents and nuclearbombs. The use of two or more different types ofweaponstodeliver theseagentsmay beusedat thesametime. Missiles having long-range attack capabilityprovide ameansof deliveringchemical, biological, andnuclear weapons that can be launched in almost anymanner by land, sea, and/or air units.

Chemical agents have been placed in projectilesand used effectively. A similar possibility exists withbiological agents; however, for technical reasons it

appearsthat themost probablemethod of delivery isbyaerosol.

CHEMICAL WARFARE

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter,you will be able to—

• Identify termsusedwithchemical warfare(CW).

• Identify types of CW.

• Identify the effects of CW agents.

• Identify self-aid and first-aid methods forcountering nerve, blister, and choking agents.

CW agents are used to produce death, injury,temporary incapacitation, or irritation effects. Broadlyspeaking, there are two types of antipersonnelagents—casualty and incapacitating. Someof thetypesof CW agents are described in table 13-1.

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Student Notes:

AgentName

AgentType

PhysicalProperties Physiological Effects

RelativeRate ofAction

Sarin Nerve Colorlessodorless,volatileliquid

Difficulty breathing, excessive contraction of the pupil of the eye(miosis), blurred vision, headache and nausea leading to respiratorydistress, convulsions, and eventually death.

Rapid(withinminutes)

VX Nerve Colorlessodorless,lowvolatility,oily liquid

Difficulty breathing, miosis, blurred vision, headache and nausealeading to respiratory distress, convulsions, and eventually death.

Relativelyrapid(within 30minutes)

Mustard Blister Garlic odor,mediumvolatility,oily liquid

Blisters or irritates skin, eyes, and lungs. Delayedonset (4-6hours)

Hydrogencyanide

Blood Almondodor, highlyvolatile gas

Prevents the normal transfer of oxygen from the blood to bodytissue resulting in respiratory paralysis.

Rapid(withinminutes)

Table 13-1.—Characteristics of Selected CW Agents

CASUALTY CW AGENTS

Casualty CW agents can cause death or severelyincapacitate personnel for long periods of time.Casualty agents can be either persistent ornonpersistent. They are classed as blood, choking,nerve, andblister agents, all of whichcan inflic t seriousinjury or death.

Some casualty agents have a cumulative effect,which means that successive doses add to the effect ofeach preceding dose. You might receive a nonlethaldose of a nerve agent, for example, followed within afew hours by another nonlethal dose. However, thecumulativeeffectsof thetwo exposurescouldkil l you.

INCA PACITATING CW AGENTS

Incapacitating CW agents temporarily disablepersonnel but do not createpermanent injury. Theycanproduce physiological and/or psychological effects.Theseeffectsmakeindividualsincapableof performingdutiesfor hoursor days evenafter exposurehasceased.

Some incapacitating agents have effects thattypically last for significant periods of time but do notseriously endanger life; for example, riot control agents.Riot control agents produce only temporarily irritatingor incapacitating effects when used in normal

concentrations. Complete recovery is usually expectedwithout medical treatment.

EFFECTS OF CW AGENTS

CW agents wil l make you a casualty when yourbody comes in contact with a bigger dose than it canwithstand. The limits of tolerance of the human bodyvary from short periods of exposure and lowconcentrationsof certain agents to extended periodsofexposure and high concentrations of certain otheragents. Furthermore, the limits of tolerance to specificagents vary with individuals. Your principal concern isrecognizing the symptoms and relieving the effects ofexposure before the limit of exposure is exceeded.

Nerve Agents

Poisoning by nerveagentsaffectsbodily functions.The disruption of nerve impulses produces differenteffectsondifferent body systems. It’s important for youto recognizeboth mild and severesignsand symptomsof nerveagent poisoning. Mil d symptomswil l becomesevere if personnel are repeatedly or continuallyexposed to low concentrations of a nerve agent. Highconcentrations of nerve agent poisoning will causerapid onset of severe symptoms, possibly without anymildsymptomsat all.Thesymptomsof nervepoisoningare shown in the following chart:

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Student Notes:

MILD SYMPTOM S SEVERE SYMPTOMS

• Unexplained runny nose

• Unexplained sudden headache

• Excessive sudden drooling

• Difficult y seeing (reduced vision or miosis)

• Tightness in chest, difficulty breathing

• Localizedsweatingandmuscular twitchingintheareaof contaminated skin

• Stomach cramps

• Nausea

• Strange or confused behavior

• Wheezing,difficult ,or laboredrespirationandcough

• Severely pinpointed pupils

• Red eyes with tearing

• Vomiting

• Severe muscular twitching and general weakness

• Involuntary urination and defecation

• Convulsions

• Unconsciousness

• Respiratory failure

NOTE

Some symptoms of heat stress are similar tosymptoms of nerve agent poisoning.

Therapidactionof nerveagentscallsfor immediateadministration of the antidotes atropine andpralidoximechloride(2-PAM C1). Atropineactsto dryupsecretionsin therespiratory tract andtostimulatethecentral respiratory functions, and 2-PAM C1simultaneously relieves muscle paralysis, especially inthe respiratory tract. Both antidotes are self-injectedinto the lateral thigh muscle by the use of automaticinjectors.

Blister Agents

Blister agentsact on the eyes, mucousmembranes,lungs, and skin. Blister agents include mustard vaporsand mustard liquids. Mustards burn and blister theskintheycontact, damagetherespiratory tract wheninhaled,and cause vomiting and diarrhea when absorbed. Thedegree of damage depends on the type andconcentration of the agent, the weather, the amount ofactivity of theindividual, and amount of exposuretime.Blister agentsareeffective even in small quantitiesandproduce both immediate and delayed injuries.

Mustard vapors burn any area of the skin; but, theburn is most severe in moist areas, such as the neck,genitals, groin, armpits, bends of knees, and elbows.Redness of the skin follows in 1/2 to 36 hours afterexposure. This condition may be accompanied byintenseitching, and blistersmay then appear. Stiffness,throbbing pain, and swelling may also occur.

A few hours after breathing the mustard vapor, avictim experiences irritation of the throat, hoarseness,

and coughing. After severe exposure, the lining of therespiratory system swellsand interfereswithbreathing.Frequently, pneumonia develops.

If thewholebody is exposed to mustard vapor, thebody goes into a state of shock. This reaction isaccompanied by nausea and vomiting.

Personnel who suspect contamination of their eyesor face must seek overhead shelter and flush the eyeswith potable (drinkable) water from a canteen orshower. Mild exposure to skin can be treated byapplying calamine lotion or topical steroid creams. Allblisters should be opened, drained, and cleansed withtap or saline water. Any exposure to mustards requiremedical care by a corpsman or medical personnel.

Blood Agents

Blood agents inhibit the action of an enzymeresponsible for transferring oxygen from the blood tothecellsof thebody. Thusthecellsbecomestarved foroxygen. Inhalation is theusual routeof entry for bloodagents.

Thesymptomsproducedby bloodagentsdependonthe concentration of the agent and the duration (lengthof time) of the exposure. Typically, either death occursrapidly or recovery takes place within a few minutesafter removal of the victim from the toxic atmosphere.High concentrations of blood agent cause laboredbreathing within a few seconds, violent convulsions,followed by cessation (stoppage) of breathingcompletely. Finally, the heart stops only a few minutesafter initial exposure. The symptoms of exposure toblood agents are shown in the following chart:

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Student Notes:

INITIAL SYMPTOM S ADVANCED SYMPTOMS

• Increased respiration

• Headache

• Giddiness

• Dizziness

• Increased pulse rate

• Red, flushed skin

• Convulsions

• Coma

• Death

If you’re exposedto abloodagent, immediately don(put on) a protective mask. Speed is essential! Bloodagentsact so rapidly that within seconds, theeffectsofexposurecan make it impossible for individuals to dontheir own mask. If this happens, the nearest personshould help those who can’t don their mask. Medicalpersonnel should administer medications.

Choking Agents

In low concentration, choking agents produce anaction on the respiratory system that results in theaccumulation of fluid in the lungs. Accumulation offluid in the lungscan causedeath. High concentrationsproduce death for the same reason, but the upperrespiratory tract may be involved as well. Exposure tochoking agents may produce immediatedryness of thethroat, coughing, choking, tightness across the chest,headache, nausea, and at times, irritated and wateryeyes. However, symptomsareusually delayed, and it’spossiblethat no immediatesymptomswil l appear whenexposed to a fatal dose.

Even a mild exposure to a choking agent that isaccompanied by immediatesymptomsmay causefluidto accumulate in the lungs within 2 to 24 hours after

exposure. Shallow and rapid breathing, a hacking andpainful cough, frothy saliva, and an ashen gray color ofthe skin indicate the presence of fluid in the lungs.

After exposure to ahigh dose of a choking agent,it’s important to begin medical treatment quickly toprevent accumulation of fluid in the lungs. It’simportant to keep the victim at rest and warm. Coughsuppressant and pain relievers can be given as long asthe doses don’t interfere with respiratory functions.

Riot Control Agents (RCAs)

RCAs are classified as either tear agents orvomiting agents and are characterized by very lowtoxicity and brief action. They are used to producetemporary misery and harassment. Most personnelexposed to RCAs don’t require medical attention andcasualtiesarerare. Tear agentsact rapidly onnerveendsin the cornea and mucous membranes of the eye.Vomiting agents cause local inflammation of therespiratory tract, sinuses, and eyes. The symptoms ofexposure to RCAs are shown in the following chart.

First aid for personnel exposed to tear agentsincludes providing a supply of fresh air as soon aspossible and changing exposed clothing. If symptoms

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Student Notes:

SYMPTOMS OF TEAR AGENT S SYMPTOMS OF VOMITING AGENTS

• Violent burning sensation of the eyes

• Reddening of the eyelids

• Uncontrollable winking

• Excessive tearing

• Intolerance to light

• Burningsensationof thethroat, withdevelopingpainand a sensation of choking

• Sneezing

• Nausea

• Diarrhea

• Headache

• Burning sensation of the skin

• Irritationof theeyes,mucousmembranesof themouthand nose

• Runny nose, sneezing, and coughing

• Headache

• Tightness and pain in the chest

• Nausea and vomiting

continue, the eyes, mouth, and skin should be flushedwith large amounts of water. Although the effects ofvomiting agentscan bedramatic, personnel can usuallyperform duties despite their effects. Personnel shouldcontinue to wear a face mask even though coughing,sneezing, salivating, and nausea occur. (The mask canbelifted from the facebriefly to allow for vomiting andto drain saliva from the face piece). Analgesics can begiven to relieve headache and general discomfort.

REVIEW 1 QUESTIONS

Q1. What term is used to describe weapons thatdestroy large areas or kill and disable largesegments of a population?

Q2. What is the most probable delivery method forchemical or biological weapons?

Q3. List the two types of antipersonnel agents.

a.

b.

Q4. Theuseof nerveagentsproducessymptomsthatare similar to what other, more commoncondition?

Q5. What part of thebody ismost affected by blisteragents?

Q6. If you are exposed to ablood agent, what actionshould you take first?

Q7. True or false. Cough suppressant and painrelievers can be given to a victim of a chokingagent.

BIOLOGICAL WARFARE

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter,you will be able to—

• Recall the terms used with biological warfare(BW).

• Identify the types of BW.

• Identify the effects of BW.

Biological warfare (BW) is the intentional use ofliving organisms, toxins, and microtoxins to disable orto destroy peopleand domestic animals, damagecrops,or deteriorate supplies. BW might be used on a largescale; therefore, biological immunizations of militaryforces and the development of detection equipment,such astheInterim Biological Agent Detection System(IBADS), are being used. Some of the types of BWagentsandtheir symptomsaredescribedintable13-2.

Do not underestimate BW as a weapon. BWagents can be produced on a scale not consideredpossible in the past. Even small nations with modern,adequateresearch facilitiescanproducelargequantitiesof BW toxins and microtoxins more cheaply than theycan produce other types of weapons. These toxins andmicrotoxins are hundreds to thousands times strongerthan today’s chemical weapons. The disadvantage ofBW agents is that many are rapidly degraded whenexposed to certain environmental conditions, such asultraviolet radiation, visible radiation, heat, dryness, orhumidity.

Animals, insects, and rodents can be used ascarriers to spread BW agents. Saboteurscan also infectlarge numbers of people by contaminating a watersupply. Infecting water, milk, and food supplies withmicroorganisms can spread diseases, such as anthrax,typhoid fever, cholera, and influenza.

In the early stages of any biological disease, thegeneral symptoms include fever, malaise, andinflammation.

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Student Notes:

The degree of fever varies with the individual,depending on the person’s resistance. However, feverdoesserveas arough guideto theseverity of infection.Often a violent chill precedes the fever. Whether thechill occurs or not, fever is usually one of the earliestsymptoms.

Malaise is a feeling of bodily discomfort andweakness. There may be nausea, dizziness, loss ofappetite, and general aches and pains.

Inflammation is caused by the reaction of bodytissuescombatingandsealingoff aninfection. Inalmostevery case there is pain, redness, and swelling. Sometypesof infection result in acharacteristic rash, makingit possible for a doctor to make an early diagnosis.

REVIEW 2 QUESTIONS

Q1. BBW is the intent ional use of

(a) ________________ to disable or

destroy (b) _________________.

Q2. What is the disadvantage an enemy has whenusing BW agents?

Q3. List the symptoms of biological disease in itsearly stages.

a.

b.

c.

NUCLEAR WARFARE

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter,you will be able—

• Recall the terms used with nuclear warfare.

• Identify the types of nuclear warfare and theeffects of nuclear weapons.

• Identify self-aid and first-aid methods forcountering the effects of nuclear radiation.

• Recall the difference between radiological andradiation contamination.

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Student Notes:

Disease(common name)

CausativeAgent

Physiological Effects Time toeffect

Anthrax Bacillusanthracis

Mild fever and fatigue, worsening to severe respiratorydisorders, high fever and excessively rapid pulse rate. Deathcan occur within 5-12 days of exposure if left untreated.Pulmonary anthrax is fatal more than 90% of the time.

1-5 days

Plague Yersiniapestis

Fever, headache, and rapid heart rate, followed by pneumoniaand hemorrhaging in the skin and mucous membranes.Untreated plague pneumonia fatalities approach 100%, butearly treatment can reduce mortality to as low as 5%.

2-3 days

Tularemia Francisellatularensis

Symptoms include fever, chills, headache and muscular pain.Untreated tularemia can result in 30-60% mortality; treated,the mortality rate is reduced to 1%.

3-5 days

Botulinum Toxin Clostridiumbotulinum

Initial symptoms include extreme weakness, nausea,headaches, and intestinal pain leading to respiratory paralysisthat may cause death.

2-26 hours

Table 13-2.—Characteristics for Selected BW Agents

In one way, nuclear weapons are no different fromordinary high-explosive bombs—both are designed tocausedestruction by blast and shock effects. Of course,nuclear weapons have a much greater destructioncapability than conventional high-explosive weapons,with the added effects of nuclear radiation.

Nuclear explosions are classed according to thepoint of detonation with relationship to the surface ofthe earth—a high altitude blast, an air blast, a surfaceblast, and a subsurface blast.

HIGH A LTITUDE BLAST

A high altitudeblast (fig. 13-1) isdefined as ablastthat takes place above100,000 feet. The major aim ofthis blast is to destroy or interrupt satellites andcommunication systems through the effect of anelectromagnetic pulse(EMP). Basically, theEMPisanintense electrical surge that affects electronic orelectrical equipment in a burnout that’s equivalent(equal) to that caused by a lightning strike.

AIR BLAST

Anair blast (fig. 13-2) isoneinwhich the fireball isbelow 100,000 feet and doesn’ t touch the earth’ssurface. The radiation effects from an air blast areminimal. The main reason for using an air blast is itsdestructive value produced in the expansion andcompression phases of weapon detonation. The blastcausesan over pressurization that crushes everything inits path. The front of the blast is called themock front.An air blast would be most effective to use against abattlegroupat seabecauseit wouldstructurally damageand/or sink many ships.

SURFACE BLAST

A surface blast (fig. 13-3) is one in which thefireball touchestheearth’s surface. Most of thedamagecaused by a surface blast is due to the shock (or blast)wavethat accompaniesthe explosion. Largeamountsofsurface materials are vaporized and taken into thefireball. As the fireball rises, more debris is sucked upby thestrong after winds. Much of thisdebrisreturnstoearth as radioactive fallout.

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-1.—A high altitude blast. Figure 13-2.—An air blast.

Theeffective rangeof blast damageislessthan thatfrom an air blast because much of the energy istransmittedintheformof agroundor water shock wave.Near ground zero, however, the severity of the shockwaveisgreater than that of theblast wave. Thedistanceat whichthermal radiation(heat) ishazardousisslightlyless than that from an air blast.

Nuclear radiation is of two types—initial andresidual.

Initial Radiation

Initial radiation occurswithin the first minuteafteran explosion; residual radiation occurs thereafter. Inmost instances, initial radiation isof littl econsequencebecausethelethal rangeof itseffects is lessthan that ofthe blast wave.

Residual Radiation

Residual radiation for a surface burst is dangerousbecausethelargeamount of surfacematerial drawn intothe cloud is heavy enough to fall while still highlyradioactive. Additionally, the fallout area of a surfaceblast is much larger than the area affected by heat andshock.

SUBSURFACE (UNDERWATER) BURST

In an underwater burst (fig. 13-4) a fireball isformed. However, it’s smaller than the fireball of an airburst and is not normal. The explosion creates alargebubble (cavity) that rises to the surface where it expelssteam, gases, and debris into theair. Water rushing intothe cavity is thrown upward in the form of a hollowcolumnthat may reach aheight of several thousandfeet.When the column collapses, a circular cloud of mist,called thebase surge, is formed around the base of the

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-3.—A surface blast.

column. The base surge billows upward to aheight ofseveral hundred feet and expands rapidly outward to adistance of several thousand yards. Then it graduallyrisesfromthesurfaceandmergeswiththecloudformedby the escaping fireball.

EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Detonationof thenuclear bombcreates ablast wavethat travels outward in all directions at an initial speedmuch greater than the speed of sound. When the wavestrikes the earth’s surface, another waveis formed byreflection. At some distance from ground zero(depending on theheight of theblast), theprimary andreflected waves combine to form a reinforced blastwave. Pressureat the wavefront, calledoverpressure, ismany times that of normal atmospheric pressureand iswhat causesmost of thephysical damage. Additionally,underwater bursts create large water waves, some ofwhich reach heights of over 90 feet within a fewhundred feet from the blast. The water waves traveloutward at high speed for a distance of several miles,gradually diminishing in size. The overpressure

decreasesasthedistancefrom theblast increases, but itcan cause damage many miles from the blast.

Nuclear weaponsproduce explosionsof great forceand heat and release nuclear radiation. Their primarypurpose is the mass destruction of property andpersonnel. Their effects are divided into threecategories—blast waves or shock waves, incendiary,and radiation.

Blast Waves or Shock Waves

Injuries caused by blast waves can be divided intoprimary (direct) injuries and secondary (indirect)injuries.

PRIMA RY BLAST INJURIES .—Primary blastinjuries result from the direct action of the air shockwaveonthehumanbody.Thegreater theweapon’s size,the greater the blast wave’s effective range, with asubsequent increase in casualties.

SECONDARY BLAST INJURIES .—Secondaryblast injuriesarecaused by strong blast windsreachinghundreds of miles per hour collapsing buildings andtimber and flingingdebrisabout. Personnel may alsobehurled against stationary objects or thrown to theground by high winds accompanying the explosion.

At sea, the shock wave accompanying anunderwater burst produces various secondary injuries.Causal i t ies resemble those caused by moreconventional underwater weapons, such as mines anddepth charges. Instead of being localized, thecasualtiesextend over the entire ship. Also, injuries result frompersonnel being thrown against fixed objects orstructures. Unsecured objects can act as missiles andcause many injuries.

Incendiary

Thereare two general ways firescan originate in anuclear explosion.

1. First, kindling fuels can be ignited as adirectresult of the absorption of thermal radiation.

2. Second, firescanbestarted fromelectrical shortcircuits, broken gas lines, or other interruptedheat sources as an indirect effect of the blastwave.

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-4.—A subsurface burst.

Interactionof theblast wave, fire,and extent of blastdamage are important factors in determiningfirespread.

Flash burnsare likely to occur on alargescaleasaresult of an air or surface blast of a nuclear weapon.Because thermal radiation travels in straight lines, itburns primarily on the side facing the explosion. Butunder hazy atmosphericconditions alargeproportionofthe thermal radiation may be scattered, resulting inburnsreceivedfromall direction.Dependingonthesizeof theweapons,second-degree burnsmay bereceivedatdistances of 25 miles or more.

The intense flash of light that accompanies anuclear blast may produce flash blindness, even at arange of several miles. Flash blindness is normallytemporary, though, the eyes can recover in about 15minutesin thedaytimeand inabout 45minutesat night.A greater danger liesin receiving permanent damagetoyour eyes caused by burns from thermal radiation,which may occur 40 miles or more from a large-yieldnuclear weapon.

Under someconditions, individual f irescreated bya nuclear explosion can come together into mass fireswith great potential for destruction. The mostsignificant types of mass fires are divided into twocategories—firestorms and conflagrations.

FIRESTORMS .—In a firestorm, many firesmergeto form asinglecolumnof hot gasthat risesfromthe burning area. Strong, fire-induced, radial windsareassociated with the column. Therefore, the fire front isessentially stationary and the outward spread of f ire isprevented by the in-rushing wind. Virtually everythingcombustible within the firestorm area is destroyed.

CONFLAGRATIONS .—Conflagrations havemoving fire fronts driven by the wind. Conflagrationscan spread as long as there is fuel. Unlike firestorms,conflagrations can develop from a single ignition.

Radiation

Nuclear radiation hazardsconsist of alphaand betaparticles, gamma rays, and neutrons.

AL FA PARTICLES .—Alpha particles havelittleskin-penetratingpower andmust betaken into thebodythrough ingestion or cuts to be injurious.

BETA PARTICLES .—Beta particles can presenta hazard to personnel if the emitters of these particles(carried in contaminated dust, dirt, or bomb residue)come into contact with the skin or get inside the body.Beta particles with enough intensity cause skin burns(radiation burns).

GAMM A RAYS.—Gamma rays are pure energyand not easily stopped. Theycan penetrate every regionof the body. In fact, many gamma rays wil l pass rightthrough abody without touching it. However, gammaraysthat do strikeatomsin thebody causetheatomstoionize. The ionization may result in any number ofpossiblechemical reactionsthat damagethecellsof thebody.

NEUTRONS.—Of all the nuclear radiationhazards, neutrons havethe greatest penetrating power.When the neutron is captured in the atoms of variouselements in the body, atmosphere, water, or soil, theelements become radioactive and release high-energygamma rays and beta particles.

Initial radiation contains both gamma and neutronradiation. Residual radiation, our greatest concern,contains both gamma and beta radiation.

EFFECTS ON SHIPS AND SHIPBOARDSYSTEMS

Ships close to a detonation point may sustainconsiderable material damage from air blast,underwater shock, water waves, and possibly thermalradiation. Therewil l be aship kil l zonearound groundzero. Outside ground zero, there wil l be amuch largerdamage-survival zone. Here, ships wil l receive severe,moderateor light topsidedamageaswell asoperationaland equipment damage.

Damage from an Air Blast

Depending on the weapon yield, the blast wavefrom nuclear detonations can cause damage to shipsmilesfromtheblast. Damagewil l beinflictedprimarilyon the superstructure and the hull abovethe waterline.Some examples of damage from an air blast mightinclude the warping or buckling of the flight deck; adistortion of airplane elevators, hull girders, deck

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Student Notes:

machinery and radar antennas; and the cracking ofseams above and below the waterline.

Damage from Underwater Shock

Thepressurepulsecreated in water by an explosiononor belowthesurfaceiscalledanunderwater shock. Ittravels much faster than an air blast and can inflictdamageto shipsat adistanceof several miles. Possibleeffects include damage to the hull, heavy machinery,gun mounts, and electronics systems.

Damage from Water Waves

An underwater nuclear burst may result in wavesover a hundred feet in height, but water waves areseldom theprimary sourceof ship damage. Theimpactof water waves may cause distort ion of thesuperstructure, carry away deck gear, or flood throughdamaged weather doors.

Damage to Ships Tactical Systems

Nuclear detonation can causeconsiderabledamageto tactical systems, including electrical and electronicsystems, sonar, radar and communications. Suchdamage can be a result of an electromagnetic pulse(EMP), transient radiation effects on electronics,blueout, or blackout.

ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE (EMP) .—Shipboarddamageoccurswhenmetal conductors, suchaselectrical cables, antennas, andsensors, absorbEMP.Computers and other equipment using solid-statecomponentsaremost vulnerableto EMP. Vacuum-tubeequipment is lesssusceptible. Personnel aren’t directlyinjured by EMP, but theymay suffer electrical shock ifthey are in contact with a large conductor of electricalenergy.

Preventive measures to protect orhardenequipment against damage by EMP include metalshielding, good grounding, use of surge arresters, andthe proper arrangement of electrical wiring.

TRANSIENT RADIATION EFFECTS ONELECTRONICS (TREE) .—TREE occurs inelectronicssystemsas aresult of exposureto gammaorneutron radiation. Theactual effectsaredetermined bythe characteristics of the circuits in the electronics

package, the components in the circuits, and theconstruction techniquesand materialsused to makethecomponents. In general, radios, radar, computers,cables and wiring, and inertial guidance systems aresusceptible to TREE. The response of such systems toradiation dependson thenatureof the radiation and onthe specific components and operating status of thesystems.

BLUEOUT .—Blueout is the prolongeddisturbanceof an underwater nuclear detonation and iscaused by ocean basin shock reverberations thatinterfere with passive sonar systems. The noiseresulting from the initial nuclear weapon detonation(theinteractionof steamand water andthepulsationsofthesteam bubble) masksout all other sound for ashortperiod of timemaking it impossiblefor sonar operatorsto listen for target data. The effects of blueout aretemporary.

BLACKOUT .—Blackout, caused by anatmospheric nuclear explosion, is the interference ofradio transmissions through ion fields formed in adetonation. In a tactical situation, straight-linecommunications (radar and radio transmissions)between ships on opposite sides of the fireball wil l belost. Following a high altitude detonation, satellitecommunications may be affected or lost. Blackoutalters or inhibits radar or radio waves and affects allfrequency bands.

Procedures to counteract the effects of blackoutinclude providing alternate paths for communications,shifting radio operating frequencies, changingtransmission modes, and waiting for blackout effectstodiminish.

REVIEW 3 QUESTIONS

Q1. List the four types of nuclear weapon explosionclassification.

a.

b.

c.

d.

13-12

Student Notes:

Q2. Describe why residual radiation is moredangerous than initial radiation.

Q3. Describe how a secondary blast can causeinjuries.

Q4. List the nuclear radiation hazards.

a.

b.

c.

d.

Q5. List themeasuresthat should betaken to protectelectronic equipment from the effects of EMP.

a.

b.

c.

d.

CONTAMI NATION, DETECTION, ANDIDENTIFIC ATION

Learning Objectives: When you finish this chapter,you will be able to—

• Identify the purpose of CBR monitoring anddecontamination teams.

• Identify the markers used to indicate CBRcontamination.

• Recall the purpose of the markers used toindicateCBR contamination.

For ashipor stationtoretain itsoffensivepower andcarry out its mission, immediate detection andidentificationof radiationandBW andCW agentsareofgreat importance. However, thenatureof radiation andBW and CW agents makes it diff icult to detect andidentify them. Here are some examples.

You know anuclear attack is taking place becauseyou can seeit, hear it, and feel it. But, you can’t seethenuclear radiation. Nuclear radiation is just as deadlyover aperiodof timeastheblast itself. A biological andchemical attack can be just as invisible. You might notknow about them until it’s too late. Because CBRattacks might be invisible, you need to recognizesymptomsof radiationandBW andCW contamination.

SURVEY TEAMS

After aCW, BW, or nuclear attack, surveyteamsgothrough theship to determinethe extent and location ofany contamination. Rapid detection and identificationarevital sothat effectivedefensemeasuresmay betakenimmediately. A survey team, or monitoring party,consists of a minimum of three people—a monitor, arecorder, and a messenger.

Themonitor is in chargeof theparty. Themonitorcarries high-range and low-range survey meters. Themonitor isresponsiblefor thesafety of theteam and fordeterminingintensitiesandlocationsof contamination.

The recorder maintains a record of intensityreadings (obtained by the monitor), time of thereadings, location of the hazardous areas, and specifichazards. Also, the recorder may act as amarker, usingline to rope off hazardous areas and chalk to mark onbulkheads and decks the intensities of contaminationfound during the survey.

The messengerreports to damage control central(DCC) the contaminated areas and the readingsobtained by the monitor. In DCC, personnel plot thereportsfromthe variousteamstoget ageneral outlineofcontaminated areas, to pinpoint hot spots (areas ofhigher-than-average intensities), and to establish staytimes for specific areas (fig. 13-5).

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Student Notes:

Two types of surveys are usually conducted—arapid, or gross, survey and a detailed survey.

Therapid survey is apreliminary reconnaissance.Limited numbers of readings are taken in a minimumamount of time. The purpose of the rapid survey is toobtain aquick estimate of radiation levels at specifiedlocations to determine the possibility of keepingstations manned.

A detailed survey is used to determine theeffectiveness of decontamination measures. Allaccessibleareasand equipment aresurveyed in aslow,methodical manner. Special attention is paid to areasthat tend to hold contamination (rust spots, caulking inwood decks, canvas, rope, and so on).

Each member of a monitoring team wears aprotective mask and clothing and isequipped with bothapocket dosimeter and ahigh-rangecasualty dosimeter.Nomember withanopencut or woundshouldenter anycontaminated area. Smoking, drinking, and eating areprohibited in contaminated areas.

CBR CONTAMI NATION MARKERS

A standard system is used to mark areascontaminated by CW, BW, or nuclear agents. Look atfigure13-6, which showsCBR contamination markers.The markers are triangular in shape, with a base ofapproximately 111/2inchesandsidesof about 8inches.Each type of contamination is readily identified by thecolor of themarker. Additionally, theyarelabeledGAS,BIO, or ATOM, asappropriate. Thefront of themarkerindicatesthesafelimitsof thecontaminatedarea.Nevergobeyond themarkerswithout permission.Thefrontof each marker also contains information about thecontaminated area, such as the date and time ofdetection and the type of agent.

NUCLEAR RADI ATION

When a ship is exposed to radiation or isradiologically contaminated (such asfrom abasesurgeor fallout), surveysaremadeto determinethedegreeofcontamination.

During surveys, two types of measurement aremade—intensity (dose rate) of the radiation field andthe total amount (dose) received. This information isused to calculate (find) the safe entry time (time afterexposurewhen an areamay beentered safely) and staytime (length of time aperson may remain in an areawithout exceeding permissible radiation exposurelevels). Doserateis expressed in roentgens(gammaraymeasurement only). The total dose is expressed in rads(any type of radiation).

One measurement instrument is the radiac meter(radiac stands for radioactivity detection, indication,and computation). Usually, only qualified damagecontrol (DC) personnel usetheradiac meter; therefore,only the personnel dosimeter is covered here.

Measurements are made using two basic types ofpersonnel dosimeters—self-reading and nonself-reading.

The self-reading pocket dosimeter (fig. 13-7) isabout thesizeand shapeof a fountain pen and comesinthe following ranges:

0 to 5 roentgens

0 to 200 roentgens

0 to 600 roentgens

0 to 200 milliroentgens

Self-reading instruments measure exposure toradiation over a period of time, not dose rates at anygiven time. Hold thedosimeter up to alight sourceand

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-5.—General outline of contaminated areas on weather decks.

13-15

Figure 13-6.—CBR contamination markers.

look through the eyepiece; the total radiation dosereceived isreaddirectly on thescale. After eachuse, thedosimeter isrechargedandtheindicator lineset tozero.

The nonself-reading category is a high-rangecasualty dosimeter (fig. 13-8). To determine the totalamount of gamma radiation the wearer has beenexposed to, i t ’s put in a special radiaccomputer-indicator. Its range is 0 to 600 roentgens.

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

No simple or rapid method can be used to detectBW contaminants. Theonly known method consistsoftwo phases—a sampling phase conducted by a CBRsurvey team and a laboratory stage conducted bymedical personnel.

Samples of material are taken from a wide area.Samples include air, surfaces of bulkheads and decks,clothing, equipment, water, food, or anything elsesuspected of being contaminated. Then thesamplesareshipped to amedical laboratory for identification of theagent.

CHEMICAL AGENTS

Warning of a CW attack based on detection by thephysical senses alone is not only dangerous but wouldprobably be too late. This is particularly true iffast-acting nerve agents were used. Special detectionequipment, such astheM256A1 vapor sampledetectorkit and theM8 and M9 liquid chemical agent papers, isused to detect CW agents. Also, draeger tubesareusedto detect thepresenceof phosgene gas. Other piecesof

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-7.—Self-reading pocket dosimeter.

Figure 13-8.—High-range casualty dosimeter, DT-60/PD.

CW detection equipment used by Navy personnelinclude the portable AN/KAS-1A chemical warfaredirectional detector (CWDD) and the permanentchemical agent point detector system(CAPDS).Noonepiece of equipment can detect all CW agents, which iswhy the Navy uses several different methods of CWdetection.

M256A1 detector kits are used to check areassuspected of being contaminated, to test an area afterdecontamination operations, and to indicate whenmasks might be removed. The kits are not designed toindicatewhenit isnecessary todon(put on) gasmasks.

REVIEW 4 QUESTIONS

Q1. A survey team consists of—

a.

b.

c.

Q2. What are the two types of surveys?

a.

b.

Q3. Biological markers are (a) what color with (b)what color inscription?

a.

b.

Q4. To calculate safe entry time and stay time in aradiologically contaminatedarea, youneedwhattwo measurements?

a.

b.

Q5. Describe the only known method for detectingBW contaminants.

Q6. Tocheck areassuspected of being contaminatedby CW agents, you should use what kit?

CBR DEFENSE PROTECTIVEMEASURES

LearningObjective: Whenyou finish thischapter, youwill be able to—

• Recognize the procedures to follow in case of aCBR attack.

For aship or shoreactivity to beableto continueitsmission after a CW, BW, or nuclear attack, personnelmust be protected. Protective measures include bothindividual andgroupactions. Individual protection isanimmediate concern. What you do in the first fewmomentsof a CW, BW, or nuclear attack may keep youalive!

WHAT TO DO IN A CBR ATTACK

In a nuclear attack, defensive measures are muchthe same as the general damage control precautionstakenagainst any explosion.Thesemeasuresareto keepthings squared away, maintain watertight integrity,make repairs as quickly as possible, protect yourselfwith your clothing and protective mask, be ready tofight fires ignited by the blast, and be ready toadminister first aid to shipmates who are injured orburned. What you learned about damage control andfirefighting inchapter 12alsoappliesto thedamageandfires caused by nuclear weapons.

General Precautions to Follow in a CBRAttack

As soon as the initial effects of the explosion areover, you should then take the following precautions:

1. Put on your mask immediately or cover yournose and mouth with a handkerchief or cloth.

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Student Notes:

2. Adjust your clothing to cover exposed skin(battle dress).

3. Slip on a protective cover, if you haveone, orcover yourself with anything at hand.

4. Keep upwind of the explosion, if possible.

5. Administer first aid to yourself and to others.

6. If you are not a casualty, report to your dutystation or to the designated area where you cantake a shower and get clean clothes.

7. Keep your hands away from your face,particularly your mouth.

8. Don’t eat, chew,drink, or smokeuntil the itemsare checked by a medical off icer.

9. Don’t stir up dust or step into puddles.

10. Don’t brush against or touch decks, bulkheads,structures, or objects in the contaminated area.

Breathing radioactive particles is dangerous. Takeshelter from dust clouds raised by wind, by aircraft, orby moving vehicles.Otherwise,use aprotectivemask ora handkerchief for protection.

Nuclear Attack

If there is warning of a nuclear attack, the word ispassed to take cover. When the word is passed, go toyour designated shelter as quickly as possible. At thesound of the alarm, get your protective mask ready. Ifyou are ordered to a shelter, remain there until theall-clear signal is given.

In general, the farther you arebelow themain deck(deep shelters), the better the protection from nuclearradiation. To reduce the contamination from the basesurgeand from fallout, securetheappropriateCircleWfittings. Al l topsideopeningswil l beclosed for as longas the ship is in the danger area.

BW or CW Attack

If you are in aBW or CW attack, avoid the spray,mist, or cloud if you can. Wear your mask, cover yourbody asmuchaspossible, andseek shelter. Assumethatall surfaces in the vicinity of the attack arecontaminated; leave the area quickly, and follow the

route to the closest decontamination area. Report anysicknesspromptly,anddonot eat,drink or smoke.SinceBW and CW agents can sometimes enter your bodythrough the skin, cover any cuts or scratches. As withnuclear warfare protective measures, if you have nomask with you, cover your nose and mouth with yourhandkerchief or cloth (such as a rag or shirt).

PROTECTIVE E QUIPMENT

The protective equipment described here includesthe MCU-2P mask, clothing, and antidotes for certainchemical agents.

• You should know how to use a MCU-2/Pprotective mask and how to apply antidotes.

• Two types of clothing are useful, to varyingdegrees, inCBRdefense—wet-weather clothingand ordinary work clothing

MCU-2/P Protective Mask

The protective mask, or gas mask, is your mostimportant piece of protective equipment against CBRagents. It protects your face, eyes, nose, throat, andlungs. Thereason it isso important isbecause inhalingCBR agentsismuch moredangerousthan getting themon theoutsideof your body. Without filtration of somekind, alargeamount of contamination could beinhaledin a short time.

The mask serves two functions:

1. It filters the air, removing particles of dust thatmay be radioactive or otherwise contaminated.

2. It purifies the air of many poisonous gases.

Themask doesnot produceoxygen.Therefore, itdoesn’t provide protection against smoke or againsttoxic gases, such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,and ammonia. Therefore, it may beused for emergencyescape only as a last resort. When entering acompartment containing such gases, you must use anoxygen breathing apparatus or an air hose mask.

Theoperation of themask issimple. On inhalation(breathing in), theair passesthrough a filter system thatfiltersand absorbstheCBR agents. Exhaled (breathingout) air is expelled through a one-way valve.

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Student Notes:

From the moment you hear the alarm or suspect aCBR attack, hold your breath until you can put on themask. Youshouldbeabletodon(put on) andadjust yourmask within 10 seconds. If your eyes or face becomescontaminated before you can get the mask on, thecontaminationshouldbetakencareof f irst,providedthenecessary materials are readily available. The mostimportant action is to don themask immediately; then,proceed with decontamination.

The MCU-2/P protective mask is designed toprovide full protection. It provides protection againsttactical concentrations of chemical and biologicalagents, toxins, and radiological fallout particles. TheMCU-2/P mask also accommodates the use of thetri-service/NATO canisters.

The MCU-2/P protective mask (fig. 13-9) is builtwith a silicone rubber facepiece. It has the followingfeatures:

• Two voice emitters

• A drinking tube

• A flexible lens that lets you use binoculars,gunsights, and other optical equipment; and theoption to put the filter canister on either side

The mask can be worn over approvedmask-compatible glasses. You can order compatibleglasses through your medical department. The largelenssizeprovidestheuser with agoodall-aroundview.

CBR Protective Clothing

Basically, any clothing or coverall that covers thebody can provide a degree of protection from CBRcontaminants. However, the type of clothing and itsproper wear determine the amount of protection.

C H E M I C A L - P R O T E C T I V EOVERGARMENT .—The chemical-protectiveovergarment consists of two pieces—a smock andtrousers (fig. 13-10). The smock has two layers ofmaterials: inner (antigas) andouter (monacrylic/nylon).Thesmock isgenerously cut toallowcompletefreedomof movement. It has alargefront flap pocket for gloves,and so forth, and a sleevepatch where you can placedetector paper for easy visibility. You can make quickand easy adjustments with hook-and-pile fasteners atthe wrist and waist. The trousers are made of the sametwo layersof material and havesuspender-type fittingslocated at the waist and across the shoulders.Hook-and-pile fastenersare located at thebaseof eachleg for adjustment. The chemical-protectiveovergarment is issued in a plastic envelope that is

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-9.—MCU-2/P protective mask.

pressure packed, air evacuated, and heat sealed. It isthen placed in apolyethylenebag and heat sealed. Theovergarment has ashelf lif eof 5 yearswhenunopened.

The protective overgarment protects against allCBR agents and is permeable to water vapor. Onceremoved from itsprotective envelope, it has ashelf lifeof 14daysin anonchemical environment. If it isopenedbut uncontaminated, keep it for trainingpurposes. Onceexposed to chemical contamination, the overgarmentprovides 6hoursof continuousprotection,after whichitshould be discarded.

CHEMICAL-PROTECTIVE FOOTWEARCOVERS.—The chemical-protective footwear covers(overboots) are worn over the standard work shoe andprovide protection to the feet against exposure to allknown concentrations of nerve and blister agents. Theoverbootsaremadeof loose-fitting, impermeable, butylsheet rubber and have a premolded, nonslip, butylrubber sole. The overboot is approximately 16 incheshighwith agrommet laceclosure, including five eyeletsto allow lacing around the foot. The overboots areavailable in two sizes and can be worn on either foot.Theyareissued in apolyethylenebag with two pairsoflacesand an instruction sheet. Upon contamination, the

overboots provide 6 hours of protection from agentpenetration.

CHEMICAL-PROTECTIVE GLOVESET.—The chemical-protective glove set is worn toprotect the hands against nerve and blister agents,liquids, and vapors. Theset consistsof anouter glovetoprovidechemical protectionandan inner glovetoassistin absorption of perspiration. The five-finger outergloveismadeof impermeable,unsupported,black butylrubber and is manufactured for both the right and lefthand. Thethin, whitecotton inner glovecanbe wornoneither hand. The glove set is issued in a clearpolyethylene bag with an instruction sheet.

The black outer glove protects against chemicalagent vapors, aerosols, and small droplets. Uponcontamination, the set provides at least 6 hours ofprotection from agent penetration. These gloves, ingood condition, can be decontaminated and reissued.

Wet-Weather Clothing

Wet-weather clothing (refer back to fig. 13-10) isoften described asimpermeableor rubberized clothing.Its value results from the fact that the previouslydescribed impregnated/protective clothing can be

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-10.—Types of chemical-protective overgarments.

partially penetrated by all but the smallest droplets ofliquid agents, especially in relatively high winds.Moreover, the impregnated/protective clothing is notequally eff icient in neutralizing all liquid CW agents.On the other hand, wet-weather clothing is resistant toall liquid CW agents for a limited amount of time,provided that the closures at the neck, wrists, andprotective mask are well adjusted or taped.

Wet-weather clothing provides a measure ofprotection against CBR contaminants when worn overordinary clothing; but it provides the most completeprotection when worn over impregnated or protectiveclothing. Gradual penetration of the synthetic rubberlayer of thewet-weather clothing wil l eventually occurunless CW agent contaminants are promptly removed.The contaminants are removed by frequent andthorough flushing of the surface with a seawaterwashdown or an equivalent, suchasjury-rigged topsideseawater showers, or by swabbing with liquidhypochlorite.

In warm weather or during periods of increasedphysical activity, wet-weather clothing has a majordisadvantage in that it can only be tolerated forrelatively short periods of time. Tolerance is limitedbecauseno air can passthrough theclothing to cool thewearer’s body by the evaporation of perspiration.

Perspiration is normally accumulated inside animpermeable suit. Underclothing, gloves, socks, andshoesmay becomesaturated. Sweating can bereducedandtolerancetimeslengthenedby reducingthe exerciserate, by using water-spray cooling, and by reducingexposure to direct sunlight.

Ordinary Work Clothing

Special protective clothing is not required for allpersonnel. Ordinarily, only thepersonnel of monitoringand decontamination teams who must work in or nearhazardous areas wear it. Al l other personnel workingnear these areas should wear two layers of ordinaryclothing, which provide partial protection againstagents and radioactive particles.

REVIEW 5 QUESTIONS

Q1. True or false. Eating food after a CBR attack isokay aslongasthefood wasin asealedcontainerbefore the attack.

Q2. Aboard ship, the safest place to be during a

nuclear attack is ____________________.

Q3. What are the two functions of an MCU-2/Pmask?

a.

b.

Q4. How longshould it takeyou todonandadjust anMCU-2/P mask?

Q5. List thetypesof clothing that areuseful for CBRdefense.

a.

b.

MISSION ORIENTED P ROTECTIVEPOSTURE (MOPP)

LearningObjective: Whenyou finish thischapter,you will be able to—

• Recall theproceduresfor protectionat each levelof mission oriented protective posture (MOPP).

Mission oriented protective posture (MOPP) is ameans of establishing levels of readiness. MOPP is aflexible system of protection against chemical agents

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Student Notes:

and is used in CW defense to help accomplish themission.

The MOPP doesn’t require that personnel wearprotective clothing all the time. Duty requirements,body heat buildup, and basic human needswil l preventyou from using full protective equipment for an infiniteperiod of time. TheMOPPdoes, however, give theCOtheoptionof noprotection to full protection, dependingon the threat to the ship.

All operations are conducted under the MOPPsystem, even when there is no threat. There are fourlevelsof MOPP—from Level-1, the least protection, toLevel-4, the most protection.

MOPP Level-1

1. Individual protective equipment and medicalsupply items are issued to shipboard personneland maintained at respective battle stations.Protective masks are fitted for immediate use.

2. Inventory stowed chemical/biological defenseequipment and supplies.

3. Set readiness Condition III and materialcondition YOKE, if not already set.

MOPP Level-2

1. For both chemical and biological threats,protective mask is in acarrier and worn on theperson.

2. Preposition decontamination supplies in deconstations and at repair lockers. Prepositionstowed detection and monitoring equipment,supplies, and empty canteensasspecified in theship’s CBR Defense Bill.

3. Set material condition ZEBRA (modified).

MOPP Level-3

1. Install new filter canisters on protective masks,maintain in acarrier and on theperson. Providewet-weather gear for donning over otherprotective clothing and equipment for weatherdeck activities. Don overgarment trousers andcoat with hood down. Don chemical-protectiveoverboots. Stow personnel decontamination kitin mask carrier. Stow chemical-protective gloveset and medical supply items in pocket on

overgarment coat. Initiate pyridostigminepretreatment regimen.

2. Go to general quarters (GQ) (readinessCondition I may be relaxed and readinessCondition II set at CO’s discretion); set materialcondition ZEBRA.

3. Fill prepositioned canteens with potable water.

4. Activate decontamination stations andcontamination control areas(CCAs) and assureoperability. Post detection and monitoringteams.

5. Post and monitor detection equipment andmaterials as designated by the ship’s CBRDefense Bill.

6. Activate countermeasures washdown systemintermittently.

MOPP Level-4

1. Don protective mask and securehood over headand around mask. Don chemical-protectiveglove set.

2. Direct ship to GQ (if not previously in effect).

3. Initiatecontinuousmonitoring and operation ofdetection equipment.

4. Set CIRCLE WILLIAM.

5. Activatecountermeasures washdown system tooperate continuously.

The setting of MOPP levels may be different atvarious locations around the ship. This depends on themission, work rate, and heat buildup in these battlestationareas(enginerooms,combat informationcenter,flight deck, and so on).

REVIEW 6 QUESTIONS

Q1. What does the acronym MOPP stand for?

Q2. There are how many levels of MOPP?

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Student Notes:

Q3. What MOPPlevel providesthemost protection?

Q4. At what MOPP level is material conditionZEBRA (modified) set?

DECONTAMI NATION

Learning Objectives: When you finish thischapter, youwill be able to—

• Recall the procedures for area decontaminationafloat.

• Identify the purpose of the decontaminationstation.

There are four levels of decontamination—emergency personnel decontamination, limitedoperational decontamination, operationally completedecontamination, and complete decontamination.

LEVELS OF DECONTAMI NATION

Level 1—Emergencypersonnel decontamina- tion.Emergency personnel decontaminat ion isdecontamination necessary to saveyour life. It is yourresponsibility. The primary purpose of emergencypersonnel decontamination is to safeguard you inprotective gear that includes the following items:

• Mask

• Protective overgarment

• Boots

• Gloves

However, if a chemical attack takes place beforeyou don all of theprotective gear, youneed to destroy,neutralize, or remove the chemical agents from insideyour protective gear and from exposed skin area.Personnel decontamination kits (M291) give you theabi l i ty to decontaminate skin surfaces. Thecleansing/decontamination stations used for entering

and leaving the ship’s interior provide soap, detergent,and shower facilities.

Level 2—Limited operational decontamination.L imited operat ional decontaminat ion isdecontamination necessary to let you, while inprotective clothing and/or masks, do your job with aminimum risk of contact, pickup, and transfer ofchemical agent contamination. Initial contamination ismost likely to be on the upper-outer surfaces ofstructures and equipment. Further contamination maybe picked up and/or transferred to noncontaminatedareas. The two types of contamination hazards are—

1. Pickup hazards. A chemical agent on asurfacethat is touched by an individual, contaminatinghimself/herself.

2. Transfer hazards. A chemical agent picked up,transferred, and then deposited on an otherwiseuncontaminated area.

The object ive of l imi ted operat ionaldecontamination is to destroy, neutralize, or removepersistent chemical agentsthat arelocatedonstructuresand/or equipment in places where they constitute acontact hazard.

Level 3—Operationally complete decontami-nation. Operationally complete decontamination (alsoknown asfull decontamination) is decontamination sothat the contamination of personnel, structures, andequipment is reduced to a level that results in asigni ficant operat ional benefi t . Level 3decontamination reduces contamination to the lowestlevel possible. However, it should only be conductedwhen there is a reasonable chance that work can beperformed without masksor glovesfor limited periods,and theship’s mission can becompleted without unduehazards to personnel.

One hundred percent decontamination can’t beaccomplished on each and every item suspected ofbeing contaminated. Level 3 decontamination isn’t afixed level of decontamination. It dependson theship’soperating schedule and the urgency of the assignedmission. Decontamination at seaor by ship’s personnelwill be of this type.

Level 4—Complete decontamination. Completedecontamination is adegreeof decontamination where

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Student Notes:

appropriate chemical tests fail to give a positiveresponsefor aresidual agent. Decontamination at navalshipyards, advancedbases, or by shore-basedpersonnelwil l normally beof the100%chemically completetype.This level isnot mission essential for shipboard units.

DECONTAMI NATION OF THE SHIP

The purpose of decontamination is to remove orreduceCBRcontaminationsothat theshipcancarry outits mission without danger to the lif e or health of itscrew. Each type of contamination requires differentdecontamination procedures. Radiological (nuclear)contamination may be removed by washing it over theside; CW agents may be neutralized; BW agents mustbe destroyed.

Nuclear Radiation Decontamination

Complete decontamination of a ship usuallyrequires the service of a shipyard. However, radiationlevels can be reduced by shipboard personnel to thepoint where radiation no longer presents a serioushazard to thecrew.Most of theradioactiveparticlescanberemoved by washing down theship. Two washdownmethods are used—mechanical and manual.

MECHANICAL METHOD .—The mechanicalmethod, called theship’s water washdown system,consists of a system of piping and nozzles that spraywater over all weather surfaces. Water issuppliedby thefire main.

NOTE

The washdown system actually is apreventivemeasure against fallout, rather than adecontaminationmethod,becausenormally thesystem is activated before the ship enters thefallout area.

The water spray carries away the radioactiveparticles as they fall on the ship. At the same time, theflowing water fill s in thecracksand crevicesso that theparticlesthat do get through thespray cannot settleintothe cracks and crevices.

MAN UAL METHOD .—If parts of the ship arecontaminatedbeforethe washdownsystemisturnedon,

water fromthesprinklersmay not effectively reducetheradioactivity because the slowly flowing water doesn’thaveenoughforceto wash away theparticles. Theareasof heavy contaminationmust behoseddownwith waterunder pressure. Hosing and scrubbing down theship isthe manual method.

Decontamination teams are formed to hose andscrub down the ship. A team usually consists of sixpeople—the monitor, who is in charge; two hosemen;and three other team members. The hosemen washdown the hot spots with fire hoses, moving from theareas of less contamination toward areas of greatercontamination, and working from top to bottom. Thentheareasarescrubbed by theremaining team memberswith soap or detergent and water and are rinsed byhosing (fig. 13-11). The hosing-scrubbing-hosingcontinuesuntil monitoring showsthat contamination isremoved or at least reduced to a safe level. Keep thecontaminated water away from vent systems,doors,andhatches, because washing away the particles does notdestroy them; they are simply being moved over theside.

BW and CW Decontamination

BW decontamination means eliminating thesources of infection. Using a chemical disinfectant isthe most effective way to decontaminate BW agents.The type of disinfectant depends on the agent, thematerial tobedecontaminated, andsometimesthearea.Other methods include burning, dry heat, and moistheat. Burning usually is unsatisfactory because itnaturally destroys surfacematerial. An exampleof dryheat is ahot air ovenset at 180�. Moist heat includeshotwater or steamunder pressure. Sunlight also iseffectivein reducing BW contamination. The ultraviolet rays ofthe sun kill most BW agents.

In CW decontamination, weather alone is thesimplest means. Bright sunlight is a decontaminant,even in cold weather. However, lack of time,unfavorableweather, or contamination of critical areasmay require a faster method. Enclosed spaces can besteamed. All spaces can be treated with liquiddetergents. Water alone is often satisfactory as aflushing agent; hot water or steam is better than coldwater.

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Student Notes:

PERSONNEL DECONTAMI NATION

Each ship has a special area designated as adecontamination (decon) station. Personnel exposed toCBRagentsareprocessedthroughthesedeconstations.Aboard ship, thedecon stationsareshower rooms, oneforward and one aft. Large ships havemore stations.Each decon station is divided into three parts—

1. A contaminated or an unclean area

2. A washing area

3. A clean area

Whenever practicable, the clean and uncleansections have separate access routes and entrances.Undressing is done in the unclean area, and containersare located there for the disposal of contaminatedclothing. A box containing amixtureof sandandbleachmay belocated at theentranceto theundressing area; ifso,scuff your feet inthebox beforeenteringthestation.

The following are some general decontaminationprocedures you should remember:

1. Enter the undressing area after scuff ing yourfeet in thebox. Then, sit on abenchwithbothfeet onthe

uncleanside.Removeyour shoes,swingyour legstotheclean sideof thebench, and removeyour outer clothingonly. In case of a BW or CW attack, keep yourprotectivemask on. (Removeyour protectivemask onlywhen told to do so.) Carefully removeyour clothing toprevent the possible rise of a secondary aerosol. Afterplacingyour outer clothing in thecontainers, proceedtoanother section, removeyour underwear andsocks, andplace them in the appropriate containers.

2. Proceed to the washing area. You should spendat least 5 minutessoaping, scrubbing, and rinsing. Givespecial attentiontothehair, nails, skincreases, andears,using abrush on the nails. You should rinse, soap, andscrub; then rinse again.

3. Proceed to the dressing area and dry off. (Ifnuclear contamination is involved, you will bemonitored and required to repeat the shower until youare freeof contamination.) Dress in clean clothing andproceed as directed.

Remember that showering doesn’t destroy nuclearagents or many of the BW agents—it merely washesthem away. Therefore, you should immediately reportany illness (however minor) to medical personnel.

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Student Notes:

Figure 13-11.—A decontamination team at work.

M291 Decontamination Kit . The purpose of theM291decontaminationkit istodecontaminateskinandselected personnel equipment contaminated withchemical agents. The kit contains six sealed foilpackets, enough for three complete skin applications.

Each packet contains afolded applicator pad with ahandle on one side. The pad is filled with the blackdecontaminating powder, which is a reactive andabsorbent resin that is not toxic but may be slightlyirritating to the skin or eyes.

New and/or improved CBR defense anddecontamination kits, clothing, and equipment arebeingintroducedrapidly.Check withyour supervisor tosee if any new or improved articles are available.

Atropine and oxime are used to counteract theeffects of and to relievethe symptoms of nerve agentsonly. At the appropriate level of readiness, each crewmember wil l be issued threeatropineautoinjectorsandtwo oxime autoinjectors. To use the injectors, removethesafety capsand press the injectorsagainst the thighor buttocks. The pressure on the end of the injectorcauses theautomatic injection of thecontents. Assoonas the symptoms of nerve agent poisoning are noticed,immediately inject one atropine autoinjector and oneoximeautoinjector. Wait 10 to15minutes; if symptomsare still present, inject another atropine and oximeautoinjector.

CAUTION

Use atropine and oxime only against nerveagents.

THE COLLECTIVE P ROTECTIONSYSTEM

LearningObjective: Whenyou finish thischapter, youwill be able to—

• Identify the purpose and use of the collectiveprotection system (CPS) decontaminationstation.

The collective protection system (CPS) protectsspecific areas of the ship from the effects of CBRcontamination by filtering the air supply and

maintaining an overpressure to prevent the penetrationof contaminants. The system is divided into twoprotection zones:

1. Thetotal protection(TP) zone,whichprovidesapressurized, toxic-free environment

2. The limited protection (LP) zone, which isn’tpressurized and doesn’t provide protectionagainst gaseous chemical agents

The extent of CPS coverage varies. Some shipshaveonly oneor two TPzonesand no LPzones. Otherships may havedifferent numbers of protection zones.The level of protection is determined by the ship’smission, operational requirements, and the overall costof installation. The following are the three levels ofprotection:

Level I—the shelter envelope. Level I providesprotection for messing, berthing, sanitary, and battledressing functions for 40% of the crew.

Level II—the minimum operational protectionenvelope. Level II providesat least thesameprotectionas level I, but also includes protection for keyoperational functions.

Level III—the maximum operational protectionenvelope. Level II I providessuff icient protection of theship for mission requirements, but does not includelaunching aircraft or troops.

REVIEW 7 QUESTIONS

Q1. Therearehowmanylevelsof decontamination?

Q2. Describe the primary purpose of level 1decontamination.

Q3. What are the two types of contaminationhazards?

a.

b.

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Student Notes:

Q4. What is the most effective way to removeradioactive particles from the ship?

Q5. What isthemost effective way to decontaminateareas exposed to BW agents?

Q6. Deconstationsaredividedintowhat threeareas?

a.

b.

c.

SUMMA RY

In this chapter, you have learned about CBRdefense. During a major conflict, an enemy who usesweaponsof massdestructionwil l f ind a way toget theseweaponsthroughour defenses.TheU.S.Navy hasspentmany years and a considerable amount of moneydeveloping protective systems, equipment, andmeasuring devices that are available to us today. Thesesystems give us theability to defend ourselves and ourunitsagainst CBRattacksandtheability tocontinueasacombat-capable force. These systems, devices, andequipment wil l work if used properly and at the righttime.Thecontinuedtrainingonprocedures, techniques,systems, and equipment will ensure the maximumprotection available.

REVIEW 1 ANSWERS

A1. Weaponsof massdestruction areweaponsthatcan be used to destroy large areas or kil l anddisable large segments of a population.

A2. Themost probabledelivery methodfor chemicalor biological weapons is byaerosol.

A3. The two types of antipersonnel agents are—

a. Casualty

b. Incapacitating

A4. Theuseof nerveagentsproducessymptomsthatare similar toheat stress, which is a morecommon condition.

A5. Moist areasof the body are most affected byblister agents.

A6. The first action you should take if exposed to ablood agent, is to don (put on) a protectivemask.

A7. True, cough suppressant and pain relieverscan be given to a victim of a choking agent.

REVIEW 2 ANSWERS

A1. BW is the intentional use of (a)l ivingorganisms, toxins, and microtoxins to disableor destroy (b) people, domestic animals, crops,or supplies.

A2. Thedisadvantagean enemy haswhen using BWagentsisthatBW agentsdegraderapidl y whenexposed to environmental conditions such asultr aviolet light , radiation, heat, dryness, orhumidity .

A3. The symptoms of biological disease in its earlystages include—

a. Fever

b. Malaise

c. Inflammation

REVIEW 3 ANSWERS

A1. The four types of nuclear weapon explosionclassification are—

a. High altitude blast

b. Air blast

c. Surface blast

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Student Notes:

d. Subsurface burst

A2. Residual radiation ismoredangerousthan initialradiation becauseresidual radiation is causedby large amounts of surface material drawnup into thecloud, which fallsback to earth asradioactive fallout and affects a large area.

A3. A secondary blast can cause injuries byitsstrong winds that collapse structures andtrees.

A4. Nuclear radiation hazards include—

a. Alpha particles

b. Beta particles

c. Gamma rays

d. Neutrons

A5. The measures that should be taken to protectelectronic equipment from the effects of EMPare—

a. Metal shielding

b. Good grounding

c. Surge arresters

d. Proper arrangement of electrical wiring

REVIEW 4 ANSWERS

A1. A survey team consists of a—

a. Monitor , a

b. Recorder, and a

c. Messenger

A2. The two types of surveys include—

a. Rapid and

b. Detailed

A3. Biological markers are (a) blue and have (b) a

red inscription.

A4. To calculate safe entry time and stay time in aradiologically contaminated area, you need toknow the—

a. Dose rate

b. Dose

A5. The only known method for detecting BWcontaminants is to gather samples and shipthem to a laboratory.

A6. Tocheck areassuspected of being contaminatedby CW agents, you should use anM256A1 kit .

REVIEW 5 ANSWERS

A1. False,eatingfoodafter aCBRattack isnot okay.

A2. Aboard ship, the safest place to be during anuclear attack isbelow the main deck.

A3. Thetwofunctionsof anMCU-2/Pmask areto—

a. Filter air

b. Purify

A4. It should takeyou10 secondsto don and adjust

an MCU-2/P mask.

A5. The types of clothing that are useful for CBRdefense are—

a. Wet-weather clothes

b. Ordinary work clothes

REVIEW 6 ANSWERS

A1. The acronym MOPP stands forMissionOriented Protective Posture.

A2. There arefour MOPP levels.

A3. MOPP level 4provides the most protection.

A4. At MOPP level 2 material condition ZEBRA

(modified) is set.

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REVIEW 7 ANSWERS

A1. There arefour levelsof decontamination.

A2. Theprimary purposeof level 1 decontaminationis to safeguard you in protective gear thatincludes mask, overgarment, boots, andgloves.

A3. The two types of contamination hazards are—

a. Pick up hazards

b. Transfer hazards

A4. Washdown is themost effective way to removeradioactive particles from the ship.

A5. Chemical disinfectantis themost effective wayto decontaminate areas exposed to BWagents.

A6. Decon stations are divided into an—

a. Unclean area, a

b. Washing area, and a

c. Clean area

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