charles bettelheim-the transition to socialist economy

8/22/2019 Charles Bettelheim-The Transition to Socialist Economy

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Charles Bettelheim

The Transition toSocialist Economy

[ Part 1 -- Preface, Forward, Chs.1 and 2 ]

Translated from the French y

Brian Pearce

The !ar"ester Press #imited

$ 1%&'

First published in France asLa transition vers l'conomie socialiste

by Franois Maspero, 1968

Prepared for the Internet by David J. Romagnolo,[email protected] (August 2002)

Contents

[ - Part 1 - ]

Prefaceto the ngli!h dition 9

"or#ard 11

hapter !ne The (rolematic of the economy of transition 1"# $resent state o% theory& 1'
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#####

$roposals on terinology&A %undaental %eature o% the transition period&

192'

hapter *o The socio-economic framewor) and the or*anisation of social (lannin*

"1

#

##

####++

A general surey o% the ode o% organisation o% present-dayplanned econoies&.oe passages %ro Mar/ and ngels&he nature o% the probles to be studied&he diersity o% %ors o% property in the eans o% production&he coodity categories *ithin the state sector&

"1"2"""'"

12"'

he coodity character o% part o% the production o% the statesector&he reuireents o% calculation&he conditions %or the disappearance o% coodity categories,according to .talin3sconomic Problem! . . .4iscussion o% the preceding theses&

""8

"9'0

+#

.tatisation, socialisation and ta5ing oer o% the eans o%production by society& '2

12"

he social iplications o% state o*nership&.tatisation, socialisation, doination o% the productie %orces

by society&Adaptation o% property %ors to the leel o% deelopent andthe character o% the productie %orces&

'"

''

'(a)(b)

he ore or less social nature o% the productie %orces&he degree o% socialisation o% the productie %orces and theleels and %ors o% o*nership o% the eans o% production&

'8

0'

he production-relations *ithin the state sector o% the socialisteconoy& (a) $lanned obligations to buy and sell& 6

(a*e +

(b)(c)

entralised econoic anageent o% certain branches o%production&+ertical integration o% econoic actiities&

606

conoic sub7ect and 7uridical sub7ect& 1(a) 4eterining the econoic sub7ects& 2

(1)(2)(")

#nternal structuring o% econoic sub7ects and *or5inggroups&conoic hierarchy and adinistratie or politicalsubordination&conoic sub7ects, planning authorities and adini-

stratie orders&

6

82

8"(b) ontractual relations& 86(1)(2)(")(')

ontracts %or buying and selling&abour contracts&redit contracts&o-operation contracts&

868888

(c)(d)

he nature o% the decisions to be ta5en by the di%%erenteconoic sub7ects and social authorities&he di%%erent types o% hierarchy&

88

6

.oe probles o% planning connected *ith the e/istence o% eco-noic sub7ects 9'(a)

he role played by econoic sub7ects in the dra*ing up o%plans& 9'

(1)(2)

$rocedures %or consultation and participation&.oe %actors in%luencing the content o% the dra%t plan

9
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prepared by an enterprise& 9(b)

.oe contradictions or *ea5nesses in the present practiceo% business accounting and planning at enterprise leel& 98

(c)

he degree o% e/actness and the ore or less obligatorycharacter o% enterprise plans& 101(1)

(2)(")

#nestents *ithout security&

he annual character o% the plans&he uantitatie indices&

101

10"10"(d)

Methods used by the planning organs to lay do*n produc-tion targets& 10'

(e) Methods o% crrying out the plans& 10onclusion 10

(a*e blan5:

(a*e %

Preface to the En*lish Edition

# hae already entioned, in the pre%ace to the French edition o% this boo5,that the reader *ill %ind in it %orulations *hich re%lect stages in the eolutiono% y ideas about the probles dealt *ith in the %ollo*ing pages& # re%erred atthe sae tie to y intention to carry through a critical analysis o% soe o%the concepts eployed here&

he reader o% this nglish ersion o% y boo5 should be in%ored thatduring the last %e* years # hae tried to %ul%il this plan, but that the results haenot ta5en the %or # originally intended to gie the&

#n %act # sought, on the one hand, to de%ine ore precisely the nature o%

econoic calculation, so as to bring out ore clearly the point that *hat isusually eant by this ter is in reality only a onetary calculation, o% liitedsigni%icance; and, on the other, to elucidate the nature o% the social relations*hich a5e possible a onetary calculation o% this sort&1:At the sae tie, ina discussion *ith $aul .*ee& has e/perienced since the

reolution o% 191,":*ith a ie* to de%ining the liitations o% these changesand the nature o% the odi%ications undergone by the changes theseles in
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the course o% tie, as a result o% class struggles& hereby # hae sought toidenti%y ore e/actly the social %oundations o% present-day .oiet policy andits increasing subordination to the interests o% a priileged inority *hich hasde factocontrol o% the eans o% production& Furtherore, the e/perience o%the hinese >eolution, and especially the lessons o% the ultural >eolution

has led e to gie greater ephasis to changes in the superstructure o% societyas a condition %or progress to*ards socialis, and to stress that only a certaintype o% deelopent o% the productie %orces can ensure genuinely socialist

planning&':hese di%%erent concrete analyses hae conseuently caused e tode%ine ore precisely and correct a nuber o% y theoretical concepts& #nie* o% all this, the %ollo*ing pages need to be read today not *ithout ta5ingaccount o% the critical deelopents that # hae entioned&

C!#ES BETTE#!E/0

$aris, February, 19'&

(a*e 1

3TES T3 PEFCE1 %& harles ?ettelhei, $alc%l &conomi'%e et forme! de propri&t&, $aris, Maspero, 190&o be published in =&@& by >outledge and @egan $aul and in the =&.&A& by Monthly >eie*$ress& (ran!criber)! *ote .eeconomic $alc%lation and "orm! of Property& -- DJR:2 %& $aul .*eeeie* $ress, 191 (122 pp&)&" his inestigation has resulted in the publication o% a *or5 entitled-e! -%tte! de $la!!e! enR.he %irst olue, coering the period 191-2", *as published 7ointly, in 19', byMaspero and ditions du .euil& (ran!criber)! *ote .ee $la!! tr%ggle! in the R, "ir!t

Period/ 01030124and then$la!! tr%ggle! in the R, econd Period/ 012430145& -- DJR:' %& harles ?ettelhei,R&vol%tion c%lt%relle et organi!ation ind%!trielle en $hine, $aris,Maspero, #9"&

TS#T34S 3TE

.ince this boo5 *as translated and set in type ready %or press, soe boo5s*hich are re%erred to in the original French editions hae appeared in nglish&hese areharles ?ettelhei, $%lt%ral Revol%tion and Ind%!trial +rgani!ation in$hina, ondon, 19'&

& Althusser, & ?alibar, >& stablet,Reading3$apital 3, ondon, 190&B& #& ?u5harin, (he conomy of the (ran!ition Period, Be* Cor5, 191&@& Mar/, $ontrib%tion to the $riti'%e of Political conomy, ondon, 191&& Althusser,"or 6arx, ondon, 190&@& Mar/, 7r%ndri!!e, ondon, #9"&
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(a*e 11

Foreword

his *or5 is deoted to a group o% theoretical and practical uestions theiportance o% *hich increases %ro year to year but studies o% *hich areneertheless e/treely rare& Dhat is published here is, in essentials, asynthesis o% lectures gien at the Ecole $ratiue des autes Etudes(.orbonne), a nuber o% articles, and thoughts %orulated in the course o% theseinar %or *hich # a responsible at the Ecole Borale .upGrieure&

he probles e/ained are aong those *hich are at the heart o% the osttopical concerns o% the day in econoic, social and political atters& hetheoretical analyses to *hich these probles can gie rise ust there%orenecessarily be enriched and diersi%ied as a result o% the real development!onthe basis o% *hich these analyses can be *or5ed out& his e/plains the

evol%tionin certain %orulations *hich the reader *ill be able to obsere inthese papers, the *riting o% *hich has been spread oer a period o% about %ouryears&

Dhat gies unity to the chapters that %ollo* is that they %or the beginningo% a %resh critical consideration o% the probles *hich are currently spo5en o%as those o% Hthe transition to socialisH& #t *ill be seen that this e/pression is%ar %ro adeuate as a description o% the reality it is supposed to describe& #tsuggests a H%or*ard archH at the end o% *hich there is in soe senseguaranteed to be socialis& o*eer, *hat in %act is so described is anhistorical period that can ore properly be called that o% Htransition bet*een

capitalis and socialisH& .uch a period does not lead in single-line %ashion tosocialis; it ay lead to that, but it ay also lead to rene*ed %ors o%capitalis, in particular to state capitalis&

hat this possibility is a real one eerges *ith increasing clarity in thecourse o% the %ollo*ing chapters, though it is not e/plicitly %orulated untilhapter 6 (see especially page 22"), so that the terinology # hae used stillre%lects only to a liited e/tent the conclusion that # eentually reach&

he coent # hae 7ust ade has a general bearing& #t relates also to othere/pressions *hich suggest a certain Hsingle-line deelopent o% historyH& o

adit this is, o% course, as # hae already said, to becoe dra*n into a %reshcritical consideration (*hich is barely outlined in these pages) that ust %ocus


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upon a nuber o% notions in current use such as Hsocialist econoyH, HsocialistplanningH, Hsocialist propertyH, and so on& .oe results o% such an analysis*ill be presented in another *or5, no* being

(a*e 12

prepared, dealing *ith Hthe structures o% transitional econoiesH (this tide isprobably not de%initie)&1:

#t is *orth stressing at the outset that the critical analyses deanded by therealities described belo*, and the concepts by eans o% *hich # haeendeaoured to grasp these realities, cannot be restricted erely to theeconoic plane o% the arious social %orations, but ust also deal *ith the

political and ideological planes and *ith the relations bet*een these t*o andbet*een the both and the econoy& A *ay o% proceeding such as this ust,

oreoer, lead to critical analysis o% certain generalisations that hae beenade at certain oents, on the basis o% soe aspect or other o% .oieteconoic reality or .oiet econoic policy; %or instance, soe generalisationso% the arguents put %or*ard by enin in %aour o% the Be* conoic $olicy&

Dhat *ill be %ound here is thus erely the beginning o% such an approach&/cept in hapter 6, the reader *ill %ind here no analyses dealing *itheconoic calculation, and ore especially *ith econoic calculation on thescale o% society& hese analyses *ill not be ade public until a%ter criticalconsideration o% the structures o% econoies in transition bet*een capitalisand socialis& Bor *ill any analyses dealing *ith the $eople3s >epublic o%

hina be %ound here; such an analysis has already been o%%ered in another*or5 -- a boo5 containing contributions by other econoists *ho also ta5e

part in the *or5 o% the $entre d)8t%de! de Planification ociali!te(entre %or.tudy o% .ocialist $lanning) and *hich appeared in theconomie etociali!meseries&2:

hese papers thus constitute only a %irst collection o% thoughts aroused bythe progress and di%%iculties o% planning, and the political and ideologicaldeelopents e/perienced by the socialist countries& hese thoughts are put%or*ard %or discussion, *hich is indispensable i% research and analysis are to

be use%ully carried on, so that, by an e/aination o% the current phases o%deelopent, theoretical lessons and practical results ay be dra*n %rothe&

C!#ES BETTE#!E/0

(August 196)

3TES T3 F3E5361 Bo* published as-e! -%tte! de $la!!e! en R, +ol& #, 191-2", $aris, .enilIMaspero,19'&2 h& ?ettelhei, J& harriKre, & Marchisio,-a $on!tr%ction d% !ociali!me en $hine

(?uilding .ocialis in hina), seriesconomie et ociali!me, $aris, Maspero, 196& >eissuedin thePetite $ollection 6a!pero, March 1968&
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(a*e 17

/8 The (rolematic of the

economy of transition

he basic purpose o% this chapter is to study the econoies o% transition, andthereby the probles posed by their structure and eolution&

My ai is to arrie, i% possible, at the scienti%ic establishent o% a certainnuber o% concepts essential to 5no*ledge o% the econoies o% transition ando% the la*s o% deelopent to *hich they are sub7ect& #t is clearly ipossibleto say *hether this ai can be realised, since, %or the oent, *e possess, inthis %ield, ainly descriptions and Hpractical conceptsH& ?y HpracticalconceptsH # ean, li5e ouis Althusser, concepts *hich still derie, in the *aythey are %orulated, %ro a preious *ay o% seeing the probles, a *ay that it

is our ery tas5 to replace, because it is still uncertain o% itsel%, being uncertain*hat its scienti%ic ob7ect actually consists o%&


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.uch practical concepts point out to us *here the probles are that *e haeto sole, *ithin the old *ays o% seeing the probles and on the plane o%theoretical practice& #% *e do not ta5e care, these practical concepts can seeto be solutions o% probles *hich in %act they erely describe&

he ob7ects described by the ter Heconoy o% transitionH are obiouslyaong those a scienti%ic a*areness o% *hich is essential to the understandingo% our epoch, since this appears to us precisely as an age of tran!ition.

pirically, this transition, or rather these transitions, appear to us in t*o%ors&

!ne is a %or o% radical transition transition %ro the capitalist ode o%production to the socialist ode o% production, that is, a country3s passage%ro one period o% the history o% an5ind to another, through an upheaal in

production-relations and class relations and the replaceent o% one state

achine by another *ith a di%%erent class nature& here is another, oreliited, %or o% transition, *ith a uch ore uncertain content, naely, thato% the econoies and societies that *ere %orerly under colonial doinationand hae no* entered a post-colonial period& his second type o% transitionitsel% thro*s up the probles described by those other practical concepts, theters Hneo-iperialisH, Hneo-colonialisH and Hspeci%ic %or o% socialisH&he last-entioned e/pression is coonly used both %or certain socialrealities and %or the ideological concepts that describe the, such as, %orinstance, H#slaic socialisH or H?uddhistH socialisH, etc& Dhere this %or o%transition is concerned it is essential to underta5e an analysis

(a*e 19

*hich is not con%ined to the ideological sphere but *hich reeals the nature o%the trans%orations that are actually ta5ing place in class relations and

production-relations& his also brings up the uestion o% the class nature o% thestate&

/ Present state of theory

!ur 7oint tas5 *ill be, %irst, to set to *or5 the practical concepts *e possessin order to uestion *ith their aid a certain nuber o% the realities o% today,*ith the ai o% getting to 5no* these realities better and thereby trans%oringthese concepts o% ours into scienti%ic concepts& ?y this # ean concepts *hichconnect together into a theory *hich enables us to grasp the interconne/ionso% the social realities on *hich our researches are %ocused& !ur %irst duty isthus to ascertain *hat the theoretical situation is that *e are at present in, asregards the probles # hae 7ust re%erred to&

#n order to do this *e ust e/aine the state o% the Mar/ist probleatic& #ny ie*, it is than5s to Mar/3s theory that the transition can be the ob7ect o% a

scienti%ic analysis& #t is by applying the conceptual tools and scienti%ic


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ethods that Mar/ *or5ed out that the probles o% transition can be%orulated and can be soled correctly&

At this point # ust, o% course, reply directly to the ob7ection that says thatMar/ did not erely %orulate the probles o% transition and proide the

conceptual tools by eans o% *hich the transition can be thought about, butthat he also soled theoretically all this group o% probles and thus hasalready supplied us *ith the scienti%ic theory o% the transition&

he best *ay o% deterining the scienti%ic state o% our probles *ill be totry to ans*er this ob7ection&

#n doing this, # shall start %ro a te/t *hich relates directly to our probles,naely, ouis Althusser3s %r laHmoyenne id&ale H et le! forme! de tran!ition(!n the Hideal aerageH and the %ors o% transition)&1:ere Althusser%orulates soe propositions *hich are o% the greatest iportance %or our

sub7ect& # *ill set the out in the order that sees to e to be signi%icant %rothe point o% ie* o% the proble *ith *hich *e are concerned, an order *hichis a little di%%erent %ro that in *hich Althusser presents the

"ir!t propo!ition

Althusser recalls that, in $apital, Mar/ sets hisel% the tas5 o% studying theHconcept o% the speci%ic di%%erence o% the capitalist ode o% productionH andthat he is able to do this only Hon condition that he studies at the sae tie theother mode! of prod%ction, as types o% speci%ic unity o% 9erbind%ng(i&e& o%cobination, &?&) bet*een the %actors o% production, and also the relation!bet#een the different mode! of prod%ctionin the process o% constituting odeso% production&H2:

econd propo!ition

Althusser %urther stresses that Mar/3s passages on priitie accuulation o%capital %or at least the aterials, i% not already the outline, o% the theory o%the process *hereby the capitalist ode o% production is consti-

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tuted, that is to say, o% the %ors o% transition %ro the %eudal ode o%production to the capitalist ode o% production& his proposition eidentlyeans, aong other things, that these passages in Mar/ (together *ith thosedealing *ith pre-capitalist odes o% production) gie us the o%tline of a theory(of tran!ition ), but not yet -- since this *as not the ain purpose o% Mar/3sscienti%ic *or5 -- the theory itsel%&

his situation o% the theory is illuinated by tienne ?alibar3s contributionto the sae olue&":

(hird propo!ition
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his third proposition is closely lin5ed *ith the %irst t*o&

Mar/3s theoretical ob7ect is the capitalist ode o% production in its:ernge!talt(i&e&, in its Hnuclear structureH or Hinner structureH, &?&) and thedeterinations o% this:ernge!talt.his eans that *hat Mar/ is studying is

not, %or e/aple, capitalist ngland, *hich he o%ten ta5es as an ill%!tration,but an ideal object, de%ined in ters o% cognition, in the abstraction o% aconcept& his is *hat Mar/ is saying *hen he *rites that the Hspeci%iccharacterH o% the capitalist syste His reealed in all its inner essenceH&':

#t is this speci%ic di%%erence that is Mar/3s theoretical ob7ect& his is *hy thecapitalist ode o% production he studies is a ode o% production *ith t*oclasses, di%%ering %ro *hat *e see in the nglish HillustrationH, or any othersuch HillustrationH *e ight %ind, in *hich there are actually a uch largernuber o% classes& he speci%ic di%%erence studied by Mar/ is thus not anepirical aerage but the concept o% the capitalist ode o% production, *hich

constitutes that *hich is essential to it&

"o%rth propo!ition

here is thus a HgapH bet*een the capitalist ode o% production in thereality o% its concept and the actual econoic syste o% ?ritish capitalis, %ore/aple& his HgapH constitutes *hat Althusser calls a Hreal residueH,:anHipurityH6:or, as he also says, *hat one ay Hproisionally call a surialHin the idst o% the capitalist ode o% production *hich is doinant in Lreat?ritain&6:

"ifth propo!ition

his %i%th proposition is ery directly concerned *ith our sub7ect o% study&

Hhis alleged 3ipurity3 is an ob7ect belonging to the sphere o% the theory o%odes o% production in particular, the theory o% the transition %ro one odeo% production to another, *hich erges *ith the theory o% the process *herebya certain ode o% production is %ored& & & &H6:

# should no* li5e to o%%er soe obserations concerning the content o% the

%ourth and %i%th o% these propositions

(1) Dhile it sees to e correct to say that the alleged HipuritiesH,HsurialsH, etc&, %or an ob7ect belonging to the sphere o% the theory o% odeso% production, # do not thin5 that they can be the !pecific objecto% the theoryo% the transition %ro one ode o% production to another& #n %act, theseHipuritiesH are al*ays present in reality& hey there%ore cannot be consideredas the pec%liarity of a !tage of tran!ition, or other*ise *e should hae to saythat the real econoic *orld is al*ays ade up o% econoies in

(a*e 1+
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transition, and conseuently the concept o% Heconoy o% transitionH *ould bedepried o% any speci%ic eaning&

#% *e *ish to gie the ter Heconoy o% transitionH a speci%ic eaning --and this sees to e to be essential -- *e ust as5 ourseles *hat these

HresiduesH are that *e %ind so di%%icult to describe, since *e re%er to the byeans o% all sorts o% metaphor!, li5e HipuritiesH, HsurialsH, and so on,*hich is a sign that there is as yet no scienti%ic concept *ith *hich to thin5these ob7ects& Aboe all, *e ust, in particular, as5 ourseles the %ollo*inguestion is it not rather a speci%ic %or o% coe/istence, or siultaneous

presence and interaction o% seeral odes o% production, that characterises aneconoy o% transition And this leads to another uestion do not thesespeci%ic %ors o% coe/istence and interaction o% seeral odes o% productionconstitute speci%ic odes o% production

#t is not necessary to *or5 out %orth*ith the scienti%ic concepts deanded

by this *ay o% seeing the proble, but only to o%%er soe considerations*hich ay perhaps help us to %ind a road that *ill lead to the establishent o%these concepts& his leads e to a5e a second obseration&

(2) Dhat *e *ill %or the oent call HsurialsH (an e/pression *hicha5es one thin5 o% soe legacy %ro a past *hich history has not had thetie to *ipe out) represent, in %act, theprod%ct!o% the structures in *hichthese alleged HipuritiesH are not HsurialsH, because they are not alien to thereal structures in *hich they e/ist& !n the contrary, they are the result o% thetotality o% the relations *hich a5e up these structures, that is to say, o% the

particular leel o% deelopent o% the productie %orces, o% the uneennesseso% deelopent *hich characterise these %orces, and o%, the relations o%

production lin5ed *ith these uneennesses o% deelopent& #% *e thin5 o%these HipuritiesH as being HsurialsH this is because *e hae not graspedthoroughly enough the interconne/ions o% the structures that produce the&

Dhen, indeed, *e set about studying an actual econoy -- independently o%the ery idea o% transition -- *e hae to thin5 o% this econoy as a complex

!tr%ct%re #hich i!H!tr%ct%red in dominance H& De entally grasp a structureli5e this as a speci%ic cobination o% seeral odes o% production o% *hichone is dominant.#t is this doinant ode o% production that pereates the

entire syste and modifie!the conditions in *hich the subordinate odes o%production %unction and deelop&

#n other *ords, by irtue o% their ery subordination, these Hodes o%productionH are different%ro *hat they are in their HpurityH& Mar/ spea5s inthis conne/ion o% the HetiolationH o% these odes o% production&

Dhat is true, ho*eer, o% the subordinate odes o% production isreciprocally true o% the doinant ode o% production, the %eatures o% *hichare also to soe e/tent odi%ied by the ere %act o% its HdoinantH role&


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Finally, each o% these cople/ structures constitutes not a siple7u/taposition o% odes o% production, but a cople/ structure *hich is uniue,endo*ed *ith its o*n structural causality; At the sae tie, this uniue

(a*e 1&

structure is sub7ect, in general, to the doinance o% a speci%ic structure *hichcorresponds to that o% a gien ode o% production; %or e/aple, the capitalistode o% production& his is *hy it is that *hile, in a cople/ structure o% thistype, li5e nineteenth-century France, say, *e %ind nuerous structuraleleents belonging to odes o% production other than the doinant ode, *eare neertheless 7usti%ied in saying that this structure corresponds to that o% acapitalist econoy&

#% the siultaneous presence and interaction o% seeral odes o% production

is a %eature o% any actual econoic structure *hatsoeer, then it is, o% course, a%eature o% an econoy in transition; but an additional eleent enters in here,naely, the ode o% doinance and the ethods o% eliinating the non-doinant structures& his is one o% the probles *e shall hae to e/aine&

# should li5e to illustrate the obseration # hae 7ust put %or*ard by ta5ingthe e/aple o% the situation in the .oiet =nion in 1918 and in 1921&

#n his report on the ta/ in 5ind, dated 9 April, 1921, enin said

Ha5e a close loo5 at the actual econoic relations in >ussia& De %ind

at least %ie di%%erent econoic systes, or structures, *hich, %robotto to top, are %irst, the patriarchal econoy, *hen the peasant%ars produce only %or their o*n needs, or are in a noadic or sei-noadic state, and *e happen to hae any nuber o% these; second,sall coodity production, *hen goods are sold on the ar5et;third, capitalist production, the eergence o% capitalists, sall priatecapital; %ourth, state capitalis; and %i%th, socialis&H:

ere *e hae a typical instance o% a cople/ econoic structure, but alsoan e/aple o% an econoy in transition to socialis, because, as eninstresses in this sae report, the *or5ing class holds state po*er and also Hthe%actories, transport and %oreign tradeH&8:

=nder these conditions, een a certain deelopent o% capitalis, *hetherin the %or o% concessions to %oreign capital, liited in scope and strictlyregulated, or in that o% a certain gro*th o% internal capitalis, is incapable o%changing the predoinant orientation, o*ing to the *or5ing-class nature o%the state and o% the latter3s grasp o% *hat enin calls the Hcoanding heightso% the econoyH&

# no* return to the probles set by the analysis o% any cople/ econoic

structure& #n order to analyse such a structure, and especially in order to%oresee ho* it *ill deelop, *e can apply the 5no*ledge aailable to us
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concerning the *ay each o% these Heleentary structuresH %unctions anddeelops& De ust appreciate, ho*eer, that this ethod is onlyappro/iatie& #ts *ea5ness is that it treats as independent odes o%

production eleentary structures *hich possess no HautonoousH e/istencee/cept in the idea that *e %or o% the as distinct odes o% production, that

is, as odes o% production *hich, in their ery concepts, are pure structures&his is *hy the conclusions *e can dra* %ro such proceedings are still onlyappro/iate& >ecognition o% the diergences bet*een these conclusions andreality ust in the end lead to the conceptual construction o% a

(a*e 1

cople/ structure, structured in doinance, the structural causality o% *hichcorrespond better to that o% the actual econoic syste&

o this # should li5e to add that the Hi/edH character o% the actualstructures and systes is not erely an HinternalH %eature o% the ariousnational econoies but is also, and to an een greater e/tent, a %eaturecharacteristic o% the *orld econoy& For the deelopent o% the productie%orces in eery country is to soe e/tent conditioned by #orld prod%ction3relation!.his can be seen especially in the countries doinated byiperialis but it is also true in the doinating countries& his there%oreeans that the *orld econoy itsel% is a cople/ structure o% cople/structures& Bo*, the *orld econoy is the ultiate econoic reality& #t is inthe *orld econoy that are HcobinedH (in seeral diensions) the ostdierse mode! and !y!tem! of prod%ctionand the vario%! national economie!

*hich %or parts o% this cople/ totality&

hus, *hen *e study the *or5ing o% a particular national econoy in *hicha certain ode o% production sees to be HdoinantH -- %or e/aple, theeconoy o% soe country in atin Aerica in *hich large-scalelando*nership is doinant on the spot -- *e ought not, i% *e *ant to arrie ateaning%ul conclusions, consider this econoy other*ise than in its mode ofrelation! #ith the mode! of prod%ction #hich are dominant on the #orld !cale; because *e cannot understand this national econoy i% *e do not grasp thatit is a part o% *orld production-relations& #t is thus as an integrated structure,%or e/aple, as a structure doinated by the Aerican econoy, that thespeci%icity o% deelopent o% this econoy can be understood&

.iilarly, the trans%orations o% structures and the di%%erent stages o%transition that a national econoy can undergo cannot be analysed in a alid*ay e/cept by putting these trans%orations bac5 into the *orld structuraltotality& #n this *ay *e can understand ho* it is that the stages o% transition o%each econoy that carries out its socialist reolution can be ualitatielydi%%erent %ro the Happarently analogousH stages passed through by thecountries *hich hae preceded it on the sae road& his is so not erely %orreasons internal to each econoy, that is, because o% the particular leel o%

deelopent o% its productie %orces and the uneennesses o% this leel o%deelopent, the class characteristics peculiar to this econoy, and so on, but


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also because the *orld totality has itsel% been trans%ored& Fro thisstandpoint, the !ctober >eolution ar5s the beginning o% a ne* age, not only%or the >ussian econoy but also %or the *orld econoy, the structure o%*hich *as pro%oundly trans%ored&

his leads e to %orulate the %ollo*ing proposition *ith the diiding upo% the *orld by iperialis, a *orld econoic syste *as established& he

brea5-up o% the unity o% this syste began *ith the !ctober >eolution& .incethen, *orld econoy has entered a period o% transition& he characteristics o%this transition, its speci%ic phases, need to be studied as an ob7ectie

phenoenon *ith both national and international aspects& .uch a studyreuires the elaboration o% speci%ic concepts& For the oent, *e possess only

practical concepts, and ery poor ones at that, such as Hco-

(a*e 1%

e/istence on the *orld scaleH or Hthe *orld struggle bet*een the t*o systesH&.uch concepts erely point to the e/istence o% a proble, naely, that o% the%ors and phases o% transition on the *orld scale; they do not as yet enable usto set this proble on the scienti%ic plane& Dhat constitutes the di%%iculty o%the proble is not erely its si


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he sho*s ho*, #ithin the #omb of the fe%dal mode of prod%ction, thecondition!%or the capitalist ode o% production *ere %ored, and this throughthe speci%ic *or5ing not only o% the econoic structures but also through thato% the political structures, as, %or e/aple, the interention o% the politicalauthority to proulgate and put into e%%ect the enclosure acts in ngland& he

sae theoretical necessity deands today that *e discoer the conditions %orthe socialist ode o% production *hich are in process o% %oration *ithin the*ob o% the capitalist ode o% production (in the sense in *hich enin said,%or e/aple, that Hsocialis loo5s out o% all the *indo*s o% present-daycapitalisH)&

he theory o% the constitution, *ithin one ode o% production, o% soe o%the conditions o% another ode o% production, is thus also that o% thetrans%oration and dissolution o% the e/isting production-relations& hisdissolution a%%ects the *hole social structure, and not erely the structure

(a*e 2

o% production& #t is ar5ed by speci%ic %ors o% interention in thein%rastructure by the superstructure&

#n contrast to the theory o% the constitution o% the conditions %or a ne* odeo% production, it ust be said that the theory o% the passage %ro one to theother is on a di%%erent leel o% abstraction, because it is speci%ically concerned*ith the idealpassage %ro one production-structure to another, and there%orenot *ith an hi!toricalpassage&

his brings us bac5 to the actual theoretical nature o% the ode o%production, as a aried cobination o% the constituent eleents o% eerypossible ode (the *or5ing people, the eans o% production), a cobination*hich ta5es place in accordance *ith the t*o relationships (o% property and o%real appropriation) *hich are %eatures o% the structure o% eery ode o%

production&

he idealnature o% the odes o% production conceied at this leel o%abstraction has as its conseuence that their succession in the real o% ideasay be di%%erent %ro the real transition %ro one econoic syste toanother& his transition is, indeed, neer the succession o% one ode o%

production to another, but al*ays a transition %ro one cople/ ode o%production, structured in doinance, to another cople/ ode o% production,structured in doinance&

his 5ind o% succession is not sub7ect to any single-line deelopentbecause here the di%%erent leels o% the entire !ocial !tr%ct%rereact on eachother and ay create the conditions %or a direct transition %ro one doinantode o% production to another, *here as, in the ideal series, these odes o%

production do not succeed one another& De see that the ery cople/ity o% the

social structures rules out any unilinear deelopent&


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As # recalled 7ust no*, this cople/ity e/tends to the *orld scale, sinceeach national econoy, *hich is itsel% a cople/ o% structures, constitutes alin;, either doinated or doinating, *ithin *orld econoy, and thecontradictions that deelop in a gien country are not erely HinternalHcontradictions, but result also %ro the ode o% insertion o% the country in

uestion into the *orld econoic and political cople/ (hence the concept o%Hthe *ea5est lin5H)&

Accordingly, *hile *e can conceie o% abstract la*s o% passage %ro oneode o% production to another, *e cannot state that any la* o% linearsuccession is historically necessary, as bet*een the doinant odes o%

production o% the cople/ social systes& De 5no*, %urtherore, that thedissolution o% a ode o% production creates erely the condition!%or theappearance o% another deterinate ode o% production& #t does not establishthe nece!!ityo% this ode, %or this necessity is deterined by the conditions o%trans%oration o% a structure that is uch ore cople/ than the econoic

structure alone, naely, the conditions o% trans%oration o% the totality o% thesocial structure and the political and ideological superstructures&

hus, the dissolution o% the capitalist ode o% production does not create allthe conditions %or its succession by the socialist ode o% production

(a*e 21

unless the political and ideological conditions %or this succession are presentas *ell& his ay there%ore ta5e place either sooner or later, depending on the

!tr%ct%re of conj%nct%re!through *hich eery historical social %orationpasses& .o, in the *orld totality o% today, countries *hich hae not deelopedinternally the capitalist ode o% production, or hae hardly deeloped it, areable, o*ing to internal and international contradictions, to e/perience aconj%nct%re*hich enables the to do *ithout the deelopent o% this odeo% production so %ar as they are concerned, and to pass directly to the buildingo% socialis; the 4eocratic >epublic o% +ietna is an e/aple o% such a

process&

ere *e see that, in addition to a theory of the origin!o% a gien ode o%production, *e need not erely a theory of(ideal )pa!!agebut also a theoryo% the!tr%ct%re of conj%nct%rethat opens the *ay to a transition& hiscon7uncture is usually one ar5ed by the collision o% a nuber o%contradictions, *hich gies a certain oent o% history a reolutionaryuality and proo5es the re-structuring o% a social %oration, that is, thereplaceent o% one social %oration by another& #t is then that there opens a

period o% transition *hich can itsel% be the ob7ect o% the theory of tran!ition.

#% *e loo5 at these atters on the plane o% the national econoies, *e cansay that the current period sho*s us t#o main type!o% transition

(1) hat %ro an econoy preiously doinated by capitalis (een i%internal capitalis *as *ea5 or practically non-e/istent there) to an econoy


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eoling to*ards socialis; this transition-in-the-strict-sense iplies apreliinary condition -- the passing o%!tate po#erto the *or5ing class, or toa coalition o% %orerly-e/ploited classes *ithin *hich the *or5ing class playsthe doinant role&

(2) he second type o% transition (transition in the broader sense) is thate/perienced by an econoy *hich, haing been sub7ected to direct colonialdoination, no* enters a post-colonial period&

his second type o% transition, *hich does not eliinate the internal %orso% e/ploitation o% an by an, iplies a uch less thoroughgoing breach *iththe past than occurs in the %irst type, since, at botto, the preious doinationis not abolished but erely odi%ied& #t is not abolished because a syste*hich preseres the e/ploitation o% an by an and in *hich the state is notin the hands o% the *or5ing people but in those o% the e/ploiting classes ust,in the last resort, see5 bac5ing in that part o% the *orld econoic and political

syste *hich stries to uphold class priileges and is there%ore in politicalsolidarity *ith any and eery syste o% e/ploitation&

hese are, ultiately, the internal econoic, social and political conditionsthat deterine the integration o% a country either in the *orld capitalist systeor in the *orld socialist syste&

here%ore, the e/pression Heconoy o% transitionH, *hen it is used %or thepost-colonial econoies, sees to be capable o% t*o di%%erent eanings

(1) he e/pression ay siply ean that the preious %or o% doinationhas been odi%ied *ithout the nature o% this doination being altered&

(a*e 22

his is the case *ith a country li5e #ndia, *here state capitalis has been usedby the #ndian bourgeoisie to rein%orce its o*n po*er& ?ut the ery liits*hich the e/isting econoic syste sets to the deelopent o% the #ndianeconoy hae in the end obliged the #ndian bourgeoisie to stay under thedoination o% %oreign capital&

(2) he e/pression Heconoy o% transitionH, *hen applied to a post-colonialeconoy in *hich po*er has not passed into the hands o% the *or5ing people,sees capable o% being used also to describe a situation o% oentaryeuilibriu bet*een the social classes con%ronting each other& .uch aneuilibriu, *hich ay lead to the %oration o% class coalitions (*hether%oral or not) is einently unstable& #t cannot proide the social %oundation%or an econoic situation *ith speci%ic la*s o% deelopent& .uch a situationo% unstable euilibriu *as that *hich #ndonesia 5ne* do*n to .epteber196& # consider that in cases li5e this one ought not to spea5 o% an Heconoyo% transitionH, but rather o% a Hsituation o% transitionH a situation o% this 5ind

is, oreoer, usually ar5ed, in the econoic sphere, by an alost totalabsence o% deelopent&


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#% *e accept, proisionally at any rate, the terinology *hich has 7ust beensuggested, *e shall say that, at the leel o% a single country, the theoretical

proble o% the econoy o% transition concerns the theory o% a cople/ odeo% production #hich ha! j%!t replaced another complex mode of prod%ction,%ollo*ing a rupture in the %orerly e/isting structured totality&

he econoy o% the transition period is thus the econoy o% the perioddirectly after a brea;, and this is *hy the theory o% the transition is not atheory o% origins but a theory o% beginning!.#n the strict sense o% the *ord it isthe theory o% the beginning! of a ne# mode of prod%ction.!ne o% its ob7ectsconsists o% the initial stage, or rather o% the probles o% the period o% initialinstability, o% the period preceding *hat Mar/ calls the Hsocial stabilityH o% theode o% production&9:

he initial stage is that in *hich the %ate o% the ne* social %oration has notbet been sealed, or in *hich this %ate is still uncertain& #n both cases this stage

corresponds to the Horning a%terH a brea5 *ith a ode o% production that *aspreiously doinant, or to a serious shoc5 to the %orer doination (the caseo% the period iediately %ollo*ing Hde-colonisationH in a %orerly colonialcountry)& his Horning a%terH ay, o% course, e/tend in soe cases oer anuber o% years&

o*eer, the probles o% the econoy o% transition, as # propose to deal*ith the here, go beyond this phase o% initial instability& hey concern, as #hae said, not erely the initial stage, as the %irst stage o% the transition period,

but the *hole o% the transition period as the %irst phase o% a period o% history&For e/aple, in the case o% the .oiet =nion, # shall interest ysel% both in the

period iediately %ollo*ing the !ctober >eolution and in the presentperiod&

Dhat, then, constitutes the Htran!ition pha!e H (in the sense o% the phase o%transition bet*een capitalis and socialis, %or e/aple) is no longer the %acto% instability or the absence o% doination, but the %act o% a still

(a*e 27

relatiely great lac; of conformitybet*een the essentials o% the ne* socialrelations *hich are hence%orth doinant and the productie %orces, a state o%a%%airs *hich also eans a certain type o% contradiction bet*een the %or o%

property and the real ode o% appropriation& =nder these conditions, the ne*social relations do not yet doinate by their o*n strength; in other *ords, theconditions %or e/panded reproduction o% these social relations are not yetgien&10:

Dhen such a situation o% lac5 o% con%ority bet*een the ne* socialrelations and the productie %orces e/ists, the doinance o% the ne* socialrelations can be ensured only through ediations, %or e/aple, in the case o%

the econoy in transition to socialis, by haing recourse to those t*oe/tree types o% ediation, use o% the ar5et (as in the e/aple o% the
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B&&$&), or adinistratie centralisation (as in the e/aple o% the %irst Fie-Cear $lans)& hese ediations testi%y to the still ery great depth o% theinternal contradictions&

he latter can only be resoled through a deelopent o% the productie

%orces *hich *ill bring about con%ority bet*een the ne* social relations andthe productie %orces theseles in the case o% the socialist econoy, thisdeelopent ust lead to an integration and interdependence o% the

productie %orces %ar-reaching enough %or the echanis o% the ar5et andthe echanis o% adinistratie centralisation to be ali5e discarded andreplaced by a co-ordinated anageent o% the econoy through originalechaniss, at the centre o% *hich there *ill be a planning center o% a ne*type&

he aboe obserations call %or additional terinological de%initions& #tsees right to resere the ter Hpha!e H to indicate the t*o great oents in

the development of a !ocial formation, naely

(1) that o% its beginning!, i&e&, the transition phase in the strict sense *hich isalso that o% a speci%ic non-correspondence bet*een productie %orces and

production-relations (this is a point to *hich # shall coe bac5) and,

(2) the phase o% expanded reprod%ction of the prod%ction3!tr%ct%re, *hichcan be sub7ected to a synchronic analysis and is ar5ed by a dynais o% itso*n&

ach o% these phases is distinguished by a speci%ic interconne/ion bet*eenthe leels o% the social %oration and bet*een their contradictions, and so by acertain type o% uneen deelopent o% these contradictions& #n the course o%one and the sae phase, that *hich at one oent is a principal contradiction

becoes a secondary one, or else a secondary aspect o% this contradictionbecoes a principal aspect& hese shi%ts in contradictions sho* the pace o%deelopent o% the di%%erent!tage!o% a gien phase; they are ar5ed bychanges in relations bet*een classes or bet*een the di%%erent strata o% thesae class& #t *as thus that the @ronstadt reolt and the econoic crisis

preceding it indicated such a shi%t and copelled the ?olshei5 $arty tochange its econoic policy& enin *rote at that tie

Hconoics in the spring o% 1921 *as trans%ored into politics&3@ronstadt&3H11:

(a*e 29

aing arried at this point, *e %ind t*o 5inds o% proble coing up

(1) #s there a typical *ay o% diiding up the transition period into stages,*ith speci%ic %eatures #% so,
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(2) *hat are the relations bet*een these typical stages and the historicalperiods through *hich the econoies o% the socialist countries hae passed

hese are the uestions *hich *e ust try to ans*er&

/// f:ndamental feat:re of the transition (eriod

De ust, ho*eer, begin by o%%ering at least the beginning o% an ans*er tothe %ollo*ing theoretical uestion i% *e are to consider the transition phase asa *hole, at the leel o% a national econoy, is there any %eature coon to the*hole o% the phase *hich 7usti%ies us in regarding it as onephase

#% this uestion be ans*ered in the a%%iratie, a %urther uestion thenarises i% there is a %eature common to the #holeo% the phase o% transition %roone ode o% production to another (in the strict sense o% the *ord), candi%%erent transition phases also hae %eatures in coon #n other *ords, i%

there is a %undaental %eature o% the phase o% transition %ro the %eudal odeo% production to the capitalist ode o% production, is a siilar %eature to be%ound, in a di%%erent %or, that is, *ith other ters, in the phase o% transition%ro the capitalist ode o% production to the socialist ode o% production

he point o% departure %or ans*ering this uestion is obiously proided byanalyses relating to the transition %ro the %eudal ode o% production to thecapitalist ode o% production&

As tienne ?alibar has sho*n, the phase o% tran!ition to capitali!m*as

ar5ed by a certain %or o% non3corre!pondencebet*een the %oral ode o%appropriation and the real ode&

heformalode o% appropriation in the phase o% transition to capitalis*as already the capitalist %or o% property, that is, the separation o% the*or5er %ro his eans o% production; ho*eer, the realode o%appropriation *as not yet the ode o% appropriation speci%ic to capitalis,naely, large-scale industry&

Mar/ *rote on this sub7ect

HAt %irst, capital subordinates labour on the bases o% the technicalconditions in *hich it historically %inds it& #t does not, there%ore,change iediately the ode o% production&H12:

his %irst phase, this phase o% the transition to capitalis is that o%man%fact%re.Manu%acture thus appears as the mode of prod%ctiono% the phaseo% transition to capitalis& Dhat is characteristic o% this ode o% production isthat anu%acture erely radicalises to an e/tree degree *hat *as thedistinctie %eature o% handicra%t *or5, naely, the unity o% labour-po*er *iththe eans o% labour&


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hus, *hereas social production-relations bring about aformal di!!ociationbet*een the *or5er and his eans o% production, the labour-process aintainstheir %nity. *on3corre!pondencebet*een social production-relations and

(a*e 2'

the labour-process is thus characteristic o% the period o% transition tocapitalis&

his non-correspondence is abolished later on, through the industrialreolution, the deelopent o% *hich *as ade possible by the %oralsub7ection o% labour to capital& he industrial reolution, that is to say, thedeelopent o% the productie %orces *hich this change iplies, brea5s up the%nityo% the *or5er *ith his eans o% production& he latter cease to beindivid%aland becoe collective.hence%orth there is!eparationo% the

*or5er %ro his eans o% *or5 on the plane o% the *or5-process no less thanon that o% social production-relations& here thus coes about acorrespondence, *hat tienne ?alibar calls an homology, bet*een the t*o%ors o% appropriation& Dith large-scale industry, the sub7ection o% labour tocapital is no longer erely %oral, it is real, as-Mar/ puts it&1":

As *e 5no*, this homologyhas at the sae tie an underlyingcontradiction, naely, that *hich counterposes theprivateo*nership o% theeans o% production to the!ocialcharacter o% the productie %orces&

o return to the period o% transition to capitalis, *e see, then, that this is

ar5ed by a certain form of non3corre!pondence.he latter also %indse/pression as a chronological gap, bet*een the %oration o% the di%%erenteleents in the structure capital as a Hsocial relationH e/ists preious to andindependent o% the HrealH sub7ection o% the *or5er, that is, o% the speci%ic %oro% real appropriation *hich corresponds to the capitalist ode o% production&1':

he uestion *e no* hae to ans*er is the %ollo*ing is the period o%transition to socialis also ar5ed by non-correspondence and aHchronological gapH, this gap being itsel% destined to be closed by the triupho% a ne* type o% industrial reolution, that is, by the predoinance o%

productie %orces *ith characteristics corresponding to the ne* social-production relations; and this predoinance itsel% being ade possible as aresult o% the prereuisite appearance o% socialist production-relations, that is,as a result o% a certain type o% Hchronological gapH

# thin5 this uestion can be ans*ered, in the a%%iratie, by putting %or*ardthe %ollo*ing propositions, *hich, o% course, need to be elaborated& #t seesthat the %or o% Hnon-correspondenceH speci%ic to the phase o% transition tosocialis is the %ollo*ing the ode o% property is %orally -- so %ar as thechie% eans o% production are concerned -- that o% o*nership by society as a*hole, *hereas the real ode o% appropriation is still by liited groups o%

*or5ing people, since it is only at the leel o% these groups that realappropriation o% nature ta5es place&1:
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he chronological gap peculiar to the ode o% production o% transition tosocialis *ould thus also ean the constitution o% a ode o% %oralappropriation HprecedingH the corresponding ode o% real appropriation&

he aterial basis o% this non-correspondence thence%orth appears as being

constituted by the nature o% the productie %orces that are set to *or5

(a*e 2+

*ithin the %rae*or5 o% *hat is still called the socialist HenterpriseH, orH%irH, that is, o% HenterprisesH or H%irsH *hich hae to be allo*ed a certaindegree o% autonoy precisely because they %or the %rae*or5 in *hich thereal appropriation o% nature ta5es place&

Fro no* on, ho*eer, the deelopent o% the productie %orces in certain

branches, e&g&, in the production o% electricity and in the large-scale cheicalindustry (in the %or o% big cobines) reeals the appearance o% a ode o%real appropriation *hich can still be doinated at the leel o% society as a*hole& Dhen this eolution is coplete in essentials, that is, *hen these

productie %orces o% a ne* type are the doinant productie %orces, there *illbe a state o% homologybet*een the ode o% appropriation and the ode o%property, there *ill be coincidence bet*een 7uridical po*er and e%%ectiecapacity, and the transition phase *ill be oer& #t *ould see that it can besaid straighta*ay that this presupposes a ery %ar-reaching deelopent o%autoation, technical integration and reote control ethods o% anageent&

!n the basis o% the %oregoing, *e see that *hat ar5s the transition phase asa *hole is not ainly the instability o% the ne* social order, nor is it theabsence o% doination by the ne* production-relations, it is the %act that thereis still a relatiely large degree o% non-correspondence bet*een the ne*

production-relations, hence%orth doinant, and the nature o% the essentialproductie %orces&

he lo*er the local leel o% deelopent o% the productie %orces in a giencountry, the higher the degree o% non-concordance o% *hich *e spea5& #t *asin this sense that enin *rote in 1921 that

H(he economic ba!i! of !ociali!m i! not yet there &H16:

A gap li5e this has iportant conseuences as regards the articulation o% thedi%%erent leels o% the social structure& his non-correspondence iplies, in%act, a speci%ic e%%icacity o% the political leel& .o long as there is non-concordance bet*een the ne* production-relations and the nature o% the

productie %orces, the %unctioning o% the econoic syste can be ensured onlyby speci%ic ediations& For e/aple, in the case o% the econoy in transitionto socialis, recourse has to be had to such ediations as state capitalis, useo% the ar5et (as *ith the B&&$&) and strong adinistratie centralisation (as

in the %irst Fie-Cear $lans)&


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his sees to e ery iportant in relation to the study o% the politicalsuperstructures o% the transition period, in particular the %ors o% deocracyand the role o% the adinistratie apparatus& his is precisely *hy enininsisted on the idea o% the Heconoic %oundationsH %or the H*ithering a*ay o%

bureaucracyH and the probles o% *hat he called Hcobating the eils o%

bureaucracyH&16:

# thin5 that it is by starting %ro the idea o% non3corre!pondencebet*eenthe %oral and the real odes o% appropriation, and by ta5ing into account theextentand the!pecific form!o% this non-correspondence, that *e hae to

proceed in tac5ling the probles that arise at the di%%erent stages o% theeconoy in transition to socialis, and that *e can try to construct a theory

(a*e 2&

o% these stages& hat *ill enable us to see that, depending on the countriesconcerned, that is, on the initial extento% the non-correspondence and the!pecific form!o% this non-correspondence, this transition period can be longeror shorter, and, aboe all, can be ar5ed by the playing o% a radically di%%erentrole, as bet*een one country and another, by the bureaucratic apparatus, andso by di%%erent %ors o% socialist deocracy&

!n the econoic plane, it is the e/tent and the speci%ic %ors o% non-correspondence that ust be ta5en into account in correctly setting the

probles o% the role played by the ar5et and by oney, o% the role (no*being so uch discussed in the .oiet =nion) o% direct relations bet*een

socialist enterprises, o% organisational %ors in agriculture, o% changes to beade in the actual echanis o% planning, and so on&

All these probles are both econoic and political& .oling the calls intouestion the relations bet*een classes or the relations bet*een the di%%erentstrata o% one and the sae class, the relations bet*een the Htop sectionH andthe Hlo*er ran5sH, and so on& & & &1:#n other *ords, it is a atter o% bringing tolight the contradictions engendered by a certain type o% non-correspondence&.uch contradictions, i% not properly dealt *ith, ay ta5e on an antagonisticcharacter, or %ro contradictions o% the secondary order becoe principalcontradictions& For e/aple, i% the proble o% sall-scale peasant productionis not handled correctly, this ay lead either to a setbac5 in the productie%orces o% agriculture (*hich had occurred be%ore the introduction o% B&&$&) orto such an increased role being played by the ar5et that the deelopent o%socialist production relations ay be seriously coproised (as has happenedin Cugoslaia)&

#n concluding these obserations regarding the period o% transition tosocialis, a point needs to be ade about the diensions and the nature o% the

brea5 separating the phase o% transition to socialis %ro the phase o%socialis3s %urther deelopent& #t is obious that this brea5 *ill be een

greater than that separating the transition phase %ro the last phase o%capitalis& De can see already that this brea5 *ill ean the end o% the


24/264

separation bet*een anual and ental *or5 and bet*een operatie *or5 andanageent, that is to say, the end o% subdiisions *hich are still iportant*ithin the *or5ing class itsel%&

A%ter these obserations regarding the transition to socialis, # should li5e

to go uic5ly oer soe probles relating to econoies *hich hae eerged%ro the colonial period& ere it is iportant to raise the uestion o% thespeci%ic nature o% these econoies in transition&

!ne o% the speci%ic %eatures o% this transition is that theprincipalaspect o%their present situation is not a result o% the internaldeelopent o% their pasteconoic structure, that is, o% an internal eolution o% their productie %orces*hich caused the to eole %ro one stage to another& !n the contrary, the

productie %orces o% these countries *ere generally in a stagnant condition&Further, their post-colonial situation is doinated by the brea;do#no% a

political dependence& his brea5do*n opens the *ay to

(a*e 2

ne* possibilities, through speci%ic interentions %ro the political plane intothe plane o% production-structures&

Just as the encounter bet*een these colonial societies and the Desterncapitalist societies belonged, according to ?alibar3s analysis, to the diachronyo% these societies, because it brought about a trans%oration in their ode o%

production,18:so the brea5do*n o% their dependence tends to bring about

(uic5ly or slo*ly) a trans%oration in their ode o% production& As *ith anytransition o% this 5ind, *e see a speci%ic ode o% interention by the state, la*and political %orce in the ode o% production& he rapid deelopent o% stateinterention, the proulgation o% deelopent plans, the nationalisation o%

productie enterprises and %oreign trade, are e/aples o% these nuerousirruptions %ro aboe at the leel o% the econoic structures& Dhat ar5s o%%these interentions %ro the transition to socialis is that they do not eanate%ro a state achine that belongs to the *or5ing class, or to an alliance o%classes led by the *or5ing class, but %ro a state achine that upholds andde%ends the priileges o% the econoically doinant classes; here, *hat playsthe decisie role is the contradiction bet*een the a5ing o% certaininestents and certain o%t!ideinterests, and not, directly, the contradictions*ithin the gien society&

# *ould %urther add that, *here econoies that hae eerged %ro thecolonial period are concerned *e shall hae to study essentially soethingthat, though it loo5s to us li5e an initial stage, is perhaps only the last stage o%the old ode o% production, that is, a dissolution that should then lead on to arealtransition; *here the socialist econoies are concerned, on the otherhand, *e shall hae to study seeral stages o% the transition period& his *ill

be the case, in particular, *ith the .oiet econoy, o% *hich the on-going

transition phase can already be subdiided into a certain nuber o% speci%ic


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stages, each *ith its o*n distinct social and econoic, and there%ore political,%eatures&

Accordingly, *hat # propose to e/aine are essentially the probles o%these t*o types o% econoy o% transition *hich are characteristic o% the *orld

today

(1) he probles o% the economie! #hich have carried thro%gh a !ociali!trevol%tion, that is, in *hich the probles o% building socialis are on theorder o% the day&

#t is not, o% course, y ai to e/aine all these probles& #t *ould certainlybe ore %ruit%ul to gie priority to those aong the regarding *hich there isreason to beliee that they present us *ith the ost %undaental uestions o%theory& Aong these there is, in particular, the place o% siple coodity

production, and een o% petty capitalist production, in the %irst stages o% an

econoy eoling to*ards socialis& his is one o% the uestions that *ereraised ery sharply at the tie *hen the B&&$& *as %orulated&

Another uestion is that o% the %ors o% transition %ro siple coodityproduction to co-operation& ere *e %ind, notably, the case o% the

(a*e 2%

collectiisation o% agriculture in the .oiet =nion, but it is necessary also toe/aine other procedures %or trans%oring agriculture, such as those that hae

been eployed in hina&

A %urther uestion is that o% the %ors o% ediation needed in order todoinate e%%ectiely the contradictions that ay arise %ro the non-correspondence bet*een the odes o% %oral and real appropriation& De ustinestigate, especially, the progressie role that these contradictions ay becapable o% playing, that is, the *ay they can drie the productie %orces%or*ard, and the conditions that hae to be %ul%illed in order that this ayactually occur&

he uestions raised by the lin5age o% probles o% planning and probleso% anaging the econoy *ill also hae to be loo5ed into, particularlythrough the e/perience o% uba and the discussions that hae ta5en placethere&

Dhen these uestions are gone into thoroughly, it becoes apparent thatthey are %undaentally theoretical in character, and it is this content that *eust endeaour to bring out, by analysing recent historical processes and thetheoretical re%le/ions already %orulated regarding these processes&

(2) he probles o% the post-colonial econoies& Aong the uestions

raised by the eolution o% these countries # *ill ention that o% the role andsigni%icance o% state capitalis& here is reason, %or instance, to analyse the


26/264

speci%ic di%%erences bet*een thi!state capitalis %ro that *hich isdeeloping, on the basis o% onopoly capitalis, in the big iperialistcountries& here is reason, too, to consider the speci%ic di%%erences bet*een thestate capitalis o% countries *hich, li5e #ndia, are doinated by a po*er%ulindustrial bourgeoisie, and the state capitalis established in countries *ith

productie %orces that are ery little deeloped or *here only a ery sall-scale bourgeoisie, essentially peasant and ercantile in character, is to be%ound, as, %or instance, in Mali or abodia&

Finally, it is essential to study the ne* structures o% capitalis, %or thet*o%old reason that the study o% these structures is undoubtedly eryinstructie %or our understanding o% certain probles that con%ront the socialisteconoies theseles and that on the other hand, the recent eolution o%capitalis entails %ar-reaching repercussions on the potential eolution o% the

post-colonial econoies& ere there arises, especially, the proble re%erred toby the practical concept o% Hneo-colonialisH&

hese are, %or the oent, the ain thees # propose to deal *ith& # haeothers in ind, too, but # thin5 it is better to begin *or5ing together on theesthat hae already been de%ined, be%ore trying to de%ine ore precisely thethees *hich *e shall tac5le later, or the order in *hich these *ill be tac5led&

(#ntroductory stateent to the seinarat the Ecole Borale .upGrieure, $aris,on Hhe $robles o% ransitionH,4ece-

ber, 196&)

(a*e 7

3TES T3 C!PTE /1 & Althusser, & ?alibar, >& stablet-ire le $apital, $aris (Maspero), 196, +ol&2, pp& 19-8& (ng& ednReading $apital, Be* e%t ?oo5s, 190&) p&1':2Ibid., +ol& 2, pp& 182-"& p&1':

"& ?alibar %r le! concept! fondamenta%x d% mat&riali!me hi!tori'%e(!n the basicconcepts o% historical aterialis), in ibid., +ol& 2, pp& 18-""2& p& 1:' Mar/,-e $apital, oe +#, p& 2& (ng& ersion %ro $apital, ###, F&&$&& edn&, p& 2"9&)p&1:

Althusser et al&, op. cit., p& 182& p&1:6Ibid., p& 18"& p&1: +& #& enin, +e%vre! complete!, 'th edn&, Mosco*, 1962, +ol& "2, p& "1" (ng& ersion %ro$ollected


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situation is that o% iperialis in its last stage, copelled to hae recourse either to iolenteasures o% coercion or to rapid increase o% unproductie e/penditure (ainly *are/penditure, but also any other %or o% e/penditure aied at dierting part o% theaccuulation %und %ro productie use)& his point *ill hae to be e/ained separately& p&2":11 enin, op. cit., +ol& "2, p& "' (ng& ersion, p& "2 (ran!criber)! *ote .ee enin3s H$lan o%

the $aphlet (he (ax in :ind H& -- DJR:)& p&2":12 Mar/, op. cit., oe #, p& "0" ($apital, #, ng& edn& o% 19"8, p& 29)& p&2':1" Mar/, op. cit., oe #, p& " ($apital, #, ng& edn& o% 19"8, p& 18)& p&2:1'& ?alibar, op. cit., +ol& 2, pp& 228-9& p&2:1 hese are points *hich # hae endeaoured to analyse belo*, in hapter 2, Hhe socio-econoic %rae*or5 and the organisation o% social planningH, and inhapter ",HFors andethods o% socialist planning and the leel o% deelopent o% the productie %orcesH& p&2:16 enin, op. cit., +ol& "2, p& "'6 (ng& ersion, p& "2)& p&26:1 enin, ibid. p&2:18 ?alibar, op. cit., +ol& 2, p& "1'& p&28:

(a*e 71

28 The socio-economic frame-

wor) and the or*anisation of

social (lannin*1:

/ *eneral s:r"ey of the mode of or*anisation of

(resent-day (lanned economies

he reality o% socialist planned econoy is ore cople/ than any picture it*as possible to try and %or be%ore there had been actual e/perience o% it&

his 5ind o% econoy does not erely entail a central authority, thee/clusie centre *here social decisions are ade, and *hich dra*s up a planso highly detailed that the units o% production or distribution are reduced to aerely technical %unction that consists in strictly carrying out the order!receied %ro the central authority, *hich has %oreseen eerything andcalculated eerything&
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#n %act, the plan *or5ed out at the centre, ho*eer detailed it ay be, laysupon the production units only a liited nuber o% tas5s o% an obligatorynature (*hat are o%ten called the obligatory HindicesH or HindicatorsH)& A oreor less e/tensie argin o% initiatie is thus le%t to the production- anddistribution-units&

onseuently, these units are not ere technical subdiisions o% *hat ighthae been conceied as a Hsingle state trustH& his e/pression, Ha single statetrustH, *as, *e 5no*, used by ?u5harin in his boo5 (he conomy of the(ran!ition Period, in *hich he aintained that, in an 3organised socialeconoyH, there *as no place %or econoic science, but only %or directadinistration o% things& De 5no*, too, that this ie* *as not accepted by theother .oiet leaders enin, in particular, regarded it as utopian and ase/pressing an Hultra-e%tH attitude&2:

#n the practice o% present-day planned econoy, the units o% production are

not ere technical units, but economic !%bject!, *hich as such ta5e deci!ion!,and *hich hae had to be accorded a argin o% initiatie and responsibilitythat a5es o% the alsoj%ridical !%bject!.hese 7uridical sub7ects are, assuch, sources o% rights and obligations& hey are sub7ect not only to theobligations iposed on the by the plan but also to the obligations *hich theytheseles underta5e&

he products that pass %ro one econoic unit to another are, in general,

(a*e 72

not shared out by *ay o% admini!trative order!, but ostly circulate by *ay o%p%rcha!e! and !ale!, *hich gie rise topayment!.

here is thus, in ost cases, not a sharing-out o% products but a circulationo% commoditie! ; there is moneyand there areprice!, that is to say (at least inappearance), there are commodity categorie!, *hich in turn ean a syste o%accounting in ters o% prices, a syste o% calculation in oney, anddi%%erentiated *ages, together *ith afinancialsyste and a syste o% credit,*ith a state ban;ingnet*or5 *hich can a5e %airly long-ter loans&

his is the description one can gie o% all the planned econoies at presentin being, *hether those in *hich the productie %orces are ost highlydeeloped, as in the .oiet =nion or in epublic o%+ietna&

his cople/ reality, this cobination o% socialist state property and socialplanning, on the one hand, *ith coodity categories (or at least theappearance o% the), on the other, ay see to contradict soe o% the

descriptions o% socialist society gien in adance by Mar/ or ngels&
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// Some (assa*es from 0ar; and En*els

# do not intend to spea5 here about the earliest *ritings o% Mar/ and ngels,such as ngels3s speech on 1th February 18', at lber%eld, *hen hedeclared

H#n counist society it *ill be easy to 5no* *hat is being producedand *hat is being consued& As *e 5no* *hat each indiidual needs,on the aerage, it *ill be easy to calculate *hat a de%inite nuber o%indiiduals need, and since production *ill no longer be in the handso% any priate producers but in those o% the oune and itsadinistration, it *ill not be at all di%%icult to regulate productionaccording to needs&H (MLA, rste Abteilung, ?and ', p& "2&)

.uch passages as these antedate the *or5ing out o% scienti%ic socialis& #shall there%ore re%er only to certain later passages&

# shall recall, in particular, that in the$riti'%e of the 7otha Programme(*ritten in 18), Mar/ *rote, aong other things

HDithin the co-operatie society based on coon o*nership o% theeans o% production, the producers do not e/change their products;

7ust as little does the labour eployed on the products appear here asthe val%eo% these products, as a aterial uality possessed by the,since no*, in contrast to capitalist society, indiidual labour no longere/ists in an indirect %ashion but directly as a coponent part o% thetotal labour&H (Nuoted %ro the ditions .ociales, $aris, 190 edn&, p&2" ng& trans&, F&&$&& edn&, p& 20&)

#n this sae $riti'%e of the 7otha Programme, Mar/ e/plains that he has inind not deeloped counist society, but counist society as it has

(a*e 77

7ust eerged %ro capitalist society& #t is %or thi!society, that is, %or thiseconoy o% transition, that he %oresees each *or5er receiing, instead o%*ages in oney, Ha certi%icate %ro society that he has %urnished such andsuch an aount o% labour (a%ter deducting his labour %or the coon %unds),and *ith this certi%icate he dra*s %ro the social stoc5 o% eans o%consuption as uch as costs the sae aount o% labour&H (Ibid., p& 2"; ng&trans&, p& 20&)

According to this passage, there *ill be in socialist society, een at itsbeginning, neither coodities, nor alue, nor oney, nor, conseuently,prices and *ages& his is the sae idea *hich Mar/ had already %orulated in$apitaland *hich about a year later ngels too5 up again in=nti3D>hring,especially *hen he *rote
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Hhe sei


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De ust there%ore also loo5 into the theoretical considerations *hich aregenerally accepted, and see to *hat e/tent *e can carry a little %urther theanalyses *hich underlie the&

his thought is closely lin5ed *ith a thought about the structure o% the plans

and about the eans o% putting the into e%%ect&

?y Hstructure o% the plansH # hae in ind the order o% the diensions in*hich the ais o% the plan are laid do*n (both physical and non-physicaldiensions), the degree o% detail into *hich the planners go in laying do*nthese ais, and the nature o% the plan-indicators that are ade binding on eachenterprise&

?y Heans o% putting the plans into e%%ectH # ean the respectie partsplayed by adinistratie orders, econoic calculation and the ariousinstruents that are aailable %or directing the econoy& For the oent, o%

course, # shall deal *ith these di%%erent probles only in their ost generalaspect&

o begin *ith, # shall say a %e* *ords about the ost obious reasons %orthe apparent contradiction bet*een the present ode o% organisation and%unctioning o% the planned econoies and soe o% the %orulations ade byMar/ and ngels, %orulations *hich they al*ays put %or*ard *ith thegreatest caution and *hich they al*ays re%used to o%%er as anticipations&

Aong the ost obious reasons %or the retention o% coodity categories*ithin the socialist econoies o% today *e ust ention the presence in theseeconoies o% seeral di%%erent %ors o% property&

/< The di"ersity of forms of (ro(erty in the means of

(rod:ction

De 5no* that, inconomic Problem! of ociali!m in the R, .talin put%or*ard a re%utation o% the ie* according to *hich there is a contradiction

bet*een the e/istence o% coodity production in the =..> and the passage*e hae uoted %ro ngels, in *hich the latter declares that Hthe sei


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odity production presupposed the e/propriation o% allthe eans o%production in a country (*hich has not ta5en place either in the =..> or inany other socialist country)& .talin does not see sure, oreoer, thatcoodity production *ould really disappear een i% all the eans o%

production *ere nationalised, at least in countries *here %oreign trade

continues to play a big part&

#ndeed, *e ust ta5e note that, a%ter haing rear5ed that it is only in?ritain that, in his ie*, it *ould be possible, gien the high degree o%concentration o% agricultural production, to nationalise all the eans o%

production and so to eliinate coodity production, .talin adds,iediately

H# leae aside in this instance the uestion o% the iportance o% %oreigntrade to ?ritain and the ast part it plays in her national econoy& #thin5 that only a%ter an inestigation o% this uestion can it be %inally

decided *hat *ould be the %uture o% coodity production in ?ritaina%ter the proletariat had assued po*er and allthe eans o%

production had been nationali


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*ithout Ha certain %reedo o% e/changeH (enin,-)alliance de la cla!!eo%vri?re et de la pay!annerie(he alliance bet*een the *or5ing class

O (ran!criber)! *ote .ee ite 6 in enin3s (enth $ongre!! of the R.$.P.A.B.-- DJR:

(a*e 7+

and the peasantry), Mosco*, 19, pp& '2-") (ng& ersion, $ollected


34/264

All this aounts to saying that, in the planned econoies o% today, the statehas not ta5en possession o% all the eans o% production and this is *hy thecoodity categories surie&

his e/planation sees to e correct so %ar as it goes, but inadeuate& #t

does indeed enable us to understand *hy there is commodity prod%ctiono%t!ide the !tate !ector, and *hy there is commodity circ%lation on the

periphery of thi! !ector, *hen the state sector sells its products to the othersectors or to the consuers, or *hen it buys products %ro the other

producers, but this e/planation does not enable us to understand the retentionof commodity categorie! #ithin the !tate !ector.

Dhy, *ithin the state sector, do the enterprises a5e purch

charles bettelheim-the transition to socialist economy

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