chapters 10 and 11 thinking, language, and intelligence
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Chapters 10 and 11 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence. Thinking. Cognition mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Chapters 10 and 11Thinking, Language, and
Intelligence
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Thinking
Cognition mental activities associated with thinking, knowing,
remembering, and communicating Cognitive Psychologists
study these mental activities concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation
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Thinking
Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas,
or people Prototype
mental image or best example of a category matching new items to the prototype provides a quick
and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
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Which one is the prototype?
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Thinking
Algorithm Step by step procedures that guarantee a
solution methodical, logical rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a particular problem contrasts with the usually speedier–but
also more error-prone--use of heuristics
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Thinking
Heuristic simple thinking strategy that often
allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
usually speedier than algorithms more error-prone than algorithms
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Thinking
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?
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Heuristic searching To search for hot cocoa mix, you could search every supermarket aisle (an algorithm), or you could check the breakfast, beverage, and baking supplies sections (heuristics). The heuristics approach is often speedier, but an algorithmic search guarantees you will find it eventually.
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Thinking
Insight sudden and often novel
realization of the solution to a problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Creativity the ability to produce
novel and valuable ideas
The Aha! moment A burst of right temporal lobe activity accompanies insight solutions to word problems
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five components of creativity
1. Expertise2. Imaginative thinking skills3. A venturesome personality4. Intrinsic Motivation5. A creative environment
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What Hinders our Problem Solving?
Confirmation Bias tendency to search for information that confirms one’s
preconceptions Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective impediment to problem solving
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The Matchstick Problem
How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
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The Three-Jugs Problem
Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?
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The Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
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Example of Fixation
Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way especially a way that has been
successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
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Example of Fixation
Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things only
in terms of their usual functions impediment to problem solving
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The Matchstick Problem
Solution to the matchstick problem
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The Three-Jugs Problem
Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.
b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.
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The Candle-Mounting Problem
Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container
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Heuristics (Mental Shortcuts) Representativeness Heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
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Heuristics Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash
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Thinking
Overconfidence tendency to be more confident than
correct tendency to overestimate the accuracy
of one’s beliefs and judgments
How can overconfidence lead to cramming?
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Thinking Framing
the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can significantly
affect decisions and judgments Example: What is the best way to
market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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Framing and Options
• Preferred portion size depends on framing– SuperSize Me?
• Why choosing to be an organ donor depends on where you live. – Automatic?
• How to help employees decide to save for their retirement.– Opt-In or Opt-Out
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Thinking
Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem
valid or valid conclusions seem invalid Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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Intuition
• Intuition- an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
• Faced with complex decisions involving many factors, the best advice may indeed be to take our time—to "sleep on it"—and to await the intuitive result of our unconscious processing.
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Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence designing and programming computer
systems to do intelligent things to simulate human thought processes
intuitive reasoning learning understanding language
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Artificial Intelligence Computer Neural Networks
computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells
performing tasks learning to recognize visual patterns learning to recognize smells
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Language Language
our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Bat= phonemes b, a and t 869 exist, but English only uses about 40 Changes in phonemes produces changes in meaning
Ie bat, bet, beet, beat, bit, etc.
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Language
Morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that carries
meaning may be a word or a part of a word (such as a
prefix or suffix) Grammar
a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others
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Language Semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
also, the study of meaning Ie add –ed to a verb and it is past tense
Syntax the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a given language Ie adjectives come before nouns
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Language We learn about 3500 words per year We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all
the world’s languages
100908070605040302010
0
Percentage ableto discriminateHindi t’s
Hindi-speaking
adults
6-8 months
8-10months
10-12months
English-speaking
adultsInfants from English-speaking homes
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How Do We Learn Language?
• Skinner and Operant Learning: Through association, imitation, and reinforcement once the vocal musculature becomes able to learn
• Chomsky: Language is an acquisition device than can be turned on and off; there is a universal grammar that exists
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Language Babbling Stage
beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which the
infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during which
a child speaks mostly in single words
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Language
Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during which
a child speaks in mostly two-word statements Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words
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Language
Summary of Language Development
Month(approximate)
Stage
410
12
24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals households language.
One-word stage.
Two-world, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly intocomplete sentences.
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Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience activates them as it modifies the brain
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Language
New language learning gets harder with age
1009080706050 Native 3-7 8-10 11-15 17-39
Percentage correct ongrammar test
Age at schoolYoung children have a readiness to learn language. Ten years after coming to the United States, Asian immigrants took a grammar test. Although there is no sharply defined critical period for second language learning, those who arrived before age 8 understood American English grammar as well as native speakers did. Those who arrived later did not
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Language Limits
• When a young brain does not learn any language, its language-learning capacity never fully develops.
• Childhood seems to represent a critical (or "sensitive") period for mastering certain aspects of language– Deaf children who gain hearing with cochlear implants by
age 2 develop better oral speech than do those who receive implants after age 4
– Natively deaf children who learn sign language after age 9 never learn it as well as those who become deaf at age 9 after learning English.
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Language
The interplay of thought and language
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Does language influence our thinking?
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Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity• The idea that
language determines the way we think (not vive versa).• The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past.
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Do people that speak more than one language think differently depending
on their language at that time?
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Thinking without Language• We can think in words.• But more often we think in mental
pictures.
In 1977, Reggie Jackson hit 3 HR’s against the Dodgers. He has stated that before each at bat, he visualizes crushing a home run. Do you think visualization helps?
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Do Animals think?
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Kohler’s Chimpanzees• Kohler
exhibited that Chimps can problem solve.
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Honeybees seem to communicate
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Apes and Signing