chapter1绪论
TRANSCRIPT
I, too, started small……..
Peter VollhardtUniversity of California at Berkeley
Organic Chemistry:Organic Chemistry:The Chemistry of CarbonThe Chemistry of Carbon
Organic Organic ChemicalChemical
s in s in ActionAction
ChemicalsChemicals
Saccharin (1879): 300 Saccharin (1879): 300 Times as Sweet as Times as Sweet as
SugarSugar
MmmmmmmmmmmmmhhhMmmmmmmmmmmmmhhhh!!!!h!!!!
Chemical Warfare in Chemical Warfare in Nature:Nature:
BenzoquinonBenzoquinone,e,
Hydrogen Hydrogen peroxide, peroxide,
100ºC100ºC
The Bombardier BeetleThe Bombardier Beetle
SeahareSeaharePinkFloydPinkFloyd
Chemical Protection in Chemical Protection in NatureNature
Nature is not always Nature is not always green….green….
Polyacetylene: Polyacetylene: Organic ConductorsOrganic Conductors
The Polyamide The Polyamide KevlarKevlar
Bulletproof!Bulletproof!
Organics Harder Than Organics Harder Than MetalMetal
Polystyrene Polystyrene from styrenefrom styrene
Suntan lotionSuntan lotion
The Sands Hotel, Las Vegas,
11.26.1996
Nature is the Biggest Nature is the Biggest PolluterPolluter
Top Four US Prescription Top Four US Prescription DrugsDrugs
Total U.S. sales of pharmaceuticals reached $224 billion in 2003, with lipitor leading at $6.3 billion.
Male Male ChromosomesChromosomes
ClonesClones
DNA: the Double HelixDNA: the Double Helix
Ban Dihydrogen Ban Dihydrogen MonoxideMonoxide
Matthew James Tvedten (Poison:
Chlordane) Michigan (1/27/81)
6,000+and continuing at a rate of 10 to 15 per month
(Poison: methyl
isocyanate and others)
Bophal, India (Deaths since
12/2/84)
Death/Injury ongoing (Poison: Dow's Agent Orange) New Plymouth,
NZ (1965-present)
Jesse (Poisons:
NIX ® and
Lindane) U.S.
(9/11/93)
Dedicated to the Martyrs of Pesticide Poisoning Dedicated to the Martyrs of Pesticide Poisoning May they (and we) find justiceMay they (and we) find justice
Baby Evans (Poison:
Termiticide) St. Petersburg,
FL (5/2000)
Colette Chuda
(Poison: various
pesticides) New Jersey
(4/21/91)
Cindy Duehring (Poison: various
pesticides) Bismark, ND
(6/30/99)
24 Children (Poison: methyl
parathion by Bayer)
Tauccamarca,
Peru (10/24/99) Julia
Kendall (Poison:
Malathion)
California (7/12/97)
Marianna Cates and Family
(Poison: various agricultural)
Ulster County, New York (6/1995)
Memorial Memorial 547 Men, Women and Children will Die today 547 Men, Women and Children will Die today
from Pesticide Poisoning from Pesticide Poisoning (Statistically known as "acceptable risks" for pesticide poison registration)(Statistically known as "acceptable risks" for pesticide poison registration)
No Chemicals in KailuaNo Chemicals in Kailua
Water: The Solvent of Water: The Solvent of LifeLife
The Hydronium IonThe Hydronium Ion
OrbitalOrbital
H
H
HO
ChargeCharge
Cornflowers:Cornflowers: Blue Blue (Unprotonated)(Unprotonated)
Poppies:Poppies: RedRed (Protona(Protonatedted))
What to Expect: an What to Expect: an OutlineOutline
CC CC
HH
HH
HH
HHHH
HH
Structure and BondingStructure and Bonding
AlkanesAlkanes
HaloalkanHaloalkaneses
CycloalkanCycloalkaneses
StereoisomerisStereoisomerismm
CCHH33 ClCl--++
CCHH22
CCHH22
CCHH22
HH22CC
HH22
CC
CCHH22
Basic ReactionsBasic Reactions
CCHH33 HH ++ClCl22 CCHH33 ClCl ++HHClClhvhv,, Δ
SubstitutionSubstitution
CCHH33 ClCl++K K II++ --
CCHH33 II K K ClCl++ --
++
Radical HalogenationRadical Halogenation
Reaction versus MechanismReaction versus Mechanism
CHCH22 CHCH22 ++ HH22C CHC CH22
HH II
basbasee
EliminationElimination
Reaction:Reaction: The recipe and molecular alteration. The recipe and molecular alteration.Mechanism:Mechanism: What is the exact pathway by which What is the exact pathway by which alteration occurs? alteration occurs?
Functional GroupsFunctional Groups
OHOHCC C CC C C CC C
RRCOCOHH
OO
RR RR’’
OO
CC NHNH22RR
Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy: NMR, IRNMR, IR
SynthesisSynthesis: :
Wöhler (1828): Wöhler (1828):
Made anMade an “organic” “organic” compound from an compound from an “inorganic” “inorganic” salt.salt.
Pb(OCN)Pb(OCN)22 + 2 H + 2 H22O + 2 NHO + 2 NH33 2 H 2 H22NCNHNCNH22 + + Pb(OH)Pb(OH)22
OO
UreaUrea
How do we make How do we make penicillin?penicillin?
OOOO
NN
NN
SS
CCOOOOHH
Or Or cubane ?cubane ?
HH HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
Before we get into this, we need to review the basics.Before we get into this, we need to review the basics.
HH
BondingBonding
Atom 1Atom 1 + + Atom 2Atom 2 A:A:AA or or A A A A ““favorable”favorable”““Rules”Rules”
::1.1. Opposite charges attract each Opposite charges attract each
other (other (Coulomb’s LawCoulomb’s Law).).
2. Electrons spread out in space 2. Electrons spread out in space (delocalization).(delocalization).
3. Noble gas configuration is 3. Noble gas configuration is desirable.desirable.
1736-18061736-1806
Covalent Bonding: Covalent Bonding: Sharing ElectronsSharing Electrons
DimensionDimensions:s:
Nuclear diameter ~ 10Nuclear diameter ~ 10-15-15 m m
Electronic orbit ~ 10Electronic orbit ~ 10-10-10 m m
five five orders of orders of magnitudmagnitudee
Mass ratio proton : electron = ~ Mass ratio proton : electron = ~ 18001800
Internuclear PotentialInternuclear Potential
Ionic Bonding:Ionic Bonding: “No” Sharing of “No” Sharing of
Electrons Electrons
Who donates and who accepts?Who donates and who accepts?
Valence electrons
Duet
Octets
Partial Periodic TablePartial Periodic Table
Why Do Elements Why Do Elements React?React?
AiAimm1.1. ““Ionic” Ionic”
BondsBondsLiLi2,12,1
NaNa2,8,12,8,1
FF2,72,7
[Li[Li22]]++
[Na[Na2,82,8]]++
[F[F2,82,8]]--+1+1ee
--1e1e--
1e1e
Therefore:Therefore:++ --
Noble Gas ConfigurationNoble Gas Configuration
2 Na F2 Na FFF222 Na2 Na ++
Transfer Transfer of of
Valence Valence ElectronsElectrons
Covalent Bonds
-4e-4e
Shows onlyShows onlyvalencevalence ee
(He)(He) (Ne)(Ne)
Compromise: electron-sharingCompromise: electron-sharing
CC..
HHHH
HHHH..
. . . .
HH O O HH.... ..
..
2. “Covalent” Bonds2. “Covalent” Bonds
CC44
+++4e+4e
4 4 HH
CC
CC
2 2 HH22 OO22++
++
CC4-4-
Elements in the “middle” of the periodic Elements in the “middle” of the periodic table have a problem with table have a problem with electron affinity electron affinity (EA)(EA) and and ionization potential (IP)ionization potential (IP)::
Lakehurst, NJ,Lakehurst, NJ,May 3, 1937May 3, 1937
The Hindenburg:The Hindenburg:
3. Most Bonds Are “Between” Covalent 3. Most Bonds Are “Between” Covalent and Ionic:and Ionic:
Polar CovalentPolar Covalent
PaulingPauling electronegativity electronegativity scalescale
HH II ClCl HH33CCFF
:::::: ::--++
:::::: ::
--++ --++FF
:::::: ::
AA ::BB--++
1901-1994 Nobel prizes for chemistry and 1901-1994 Nobel prizes for chemistry and peacepeace
push pull
:: 0.3 < 0.3 – 2.0 < 0.3 < 0.3 – 2.0 < 2.02.0CovalenCovalen
ttPolar Polar
CovalenCovalentt
IonicIonic
Increase
Decrease
The Shape of MoleculesThe Shape of Molecules
Controlled by Controlled by valence electron valence electron repulsionrepulsion
Diatomics:Diatomics: linear (of course), linear (of course), e.g.e.g. Triatomics:Triatomics: either linear (i.e. not bent), either linear (i.e. not bent), e.ge.g.
HH :: HH LiLi :: HH
FF
:::::: :: FF
:::::: ::BB
eeFF
:::::: :: ::
FF
:::: ::
BBee
or bent, when there are lone e-pairs, or bent, when there are lone e-pairs, e.g. e.g.
Tetraatomics:Tetraatomics: either trigonal, e.g.either trigonal, e.g.
OO
:::::: ::
HHHH
ClCl
:::::: ::
ClCl::
::::::
ClCl::
::::::BB
nonott
FF
:::::: :: FF
:::: ::
Or pyramidal, when there are lone e-pairs, e.g.Or pyramidal, when there are lone e-pairs, e.g.
Pentaatomics:Pentaatomics: tetrahedral, e.g. tetrahedral, e.g.
But other shapes are possible, when there are But other shapes are possible, when there are more electrons,more electrons,e.g. in transition metals (octahedral etc.).e.g. in transition metals (octahedral etc.).
HHHH
HH
HH
NN
:
HHHH
HH
CC
Lewis StructuresLewis Structures Draw molecular skeleton (given)Rule 1:Rule 1:
Count total number of valence electronsCount total number of valence electronsRule 2:Rule 2:
Octet (Duet) RuleOctet (Duet) RuleProvide octets (duets for H) around all atomsProvide octets (duets for H) around all atoms
Rule 3:Rule 3:
How to distribute valence electrons:How to distribute valence electrons:
COCO22 O C OO C O CHCH44 CCHH
HH HHHH
CC.. ....
.... ..OO ::....HH BrBr
:::::: ....
HH :: HH FF
:::::: :: FF
:::: :: OO
::::::::
HH HH
Take care of charges, if any. Charges occur Take care of charges, if any. Charges occur when the formal when the formal “effective” electron count“effective” electron count around the nucleus differs from around the nucleus differs from valence valence electron countelectron count..
““Effective” electron count:Effective” electron count: Each bond with twoEach bond with twoshared electrons counts as 1e; lone pairs count as 2e.shared electrons counts as 1e; lone pairs count as 2e.
HH33OO NONO COCO
Rule 4:Rule 4:
:NN:::OO:++
:CC:::OO:++--
HH:OO:HHHH....
++
Valence electron count:Valence electron count: Rule 2 Rule 2 (# of valence (# of valence electrons).electrons).
++++
ExamplExample:e:1. Atom 1. Atom
arrangement:arrangement:2. Valence 2. Valence electrons:electrons:3. Octet rule3. Octet rule
Shortcut:Shortcut:1. Connect all bonded atoms with “2e 1. Connect all bonded atoms with “2e line”. line”. 2. If there are e left, add them as lone pairs to any 2. If there are e left, add them as lone pairs to any atom to give it an octet until no e left. atom to give it an octet until no e left.
3. If some atoms lack octet, move lone pairs into 3. If some atoms lack octet, move lone pairs into shared positions.shared positions.
COCO22
:....
..:..OO CC OO
OO CC OO
..
......OO CC OO:
..
....
:..OO CC OO
O C OO C O
OO 66ee,, CC 44ee 1616ee totaltotal
Gilbert LewisGilbert Lewis(arrived in Berkeley in 1912)(arrived in Berkeley in 1912)
ResonanceResonanceOften several octet structures are Often several octet structures are possible for a molecule: possible for a molecule: Resonance Resonance formsforms
Form A Form A form Bform B move move
electronselectrons(pairs)(pairs)
Molecule is a Molecule is a superposition superposition of these formsof these forms
Carbonate, COCarbonate, CO332-2-. All forms are equivalent. All forms are equivalent
..
OO
OOCC
OO----
..
....
.... OOCC
OO--
.... ........OO
CCOO
-- ..... . . . . . ..
--:OO:
..--:OO:
..
The carbonate ion is delocalized:The carbonate ion is delocalized:
symmetrical!symmetrical!
Electrostatic Potential Map: Electrostatic Potential Map: RedRed = relatively = relatively electron electron richrich
BlueBlue = relatively = relatively electron electron poorpoor
Resonance FormsResonance Forms
OOCC
OO--
.... .... ..
--:OO:
..
RulesRules
1. 1. Octet ruleOctet rule (wins over all other) (wins over all other)
Nonequivalent Resonance Nonequivalent Resonance FormsForms
66ee--
majormajor
OO OO
HHCC CC
HH HH HH++
66eemajormajor
NN NN OO++ ++
which ones are better?which ones are better?
OO
2. When there are two or more forms with 2. When there are two or more forms with
complete octets: complete octets: electronegativity electronegativity rules.rules.
Example: enolate Example: enolate ionion
charge on charge on more e-negative more e-negative elementelement
majormajor
HH----
HH
HHHHHH
HHCC CC CC CC
OOOO
But:But: 66eemajormajor
NN NN OO++ ++OO When in doubt, rule 1 wins !When in doubt, rule 1 wins !
3. 3. Minimum charge separationMinimum charge separation
Formic acidFormic acid
majormajor
--
HHCC CC
HH HH HH
OO OO
++OO OO
Note: Rule 1 wins !Note: Rule 1 wins !:CC:::OO:++--
19001900 Planck, EinsteinPlanck, Einstein: Light = : Light = photonsphotons E = h E = hνν
νν = c/ = c/λλ c = 300,000 km sec c = 300,000 km sec-1-1
Atoms absorb/emit energy in discrete Atoms absorb/emit energy in discrete packages: packages: quantaquanta (to avoid “ultraviolet (to avoid “ultraviolet catastrophe”)catastrophe”)19231923 DeBroglieDeBroglie: All mass (m) moving with velocity v : All mass (m) moving with velocity v has a has a wavelengthwavelength λλ . .
Quantum MechanicsQuantum MechanicsLight and objects as waves or particlesLight and objects as waves or particles
hh
mv mv
λλ = =
19271927 HeisenbergHeisenberg: : Uncertainty Uncertainty (∆)(∆) principle principle ∆ ∆ (position) x ∆ (momentum) > h(position) x ∆ (momentum) > h
h = Planck’s constant = 1.34 x 10h = Planck’s constant = 1.34 x 10-34-34 cal seccal sec
OrbitalsOrbitals: : SolutionsSolutions to wave to wave equations equations (wavefunctions)(wavefunctions)
BornBorn: Square of a value of the : Square of a value of the wavefunction = wavefunction = probability of finding probability of finding the electron therethe electron there
19271927 SchrödingerSchrödinger: : Wave equationsWave equations for an electron moving around the for an electron moving around the nucleusnucleus
Spherical (three-dimensional) Spherical (three-dimensional) shape.shape.
Contrast to mechanical waves Contrast to mechanical waves (guitar string, rubber band)(guitar string, rubber band)Two-Two-dimensional dimensional wavewave
+/-+/- = signs, not charges = signs, not charges
OrbitalsOrbitals
nodenode
amplitudeamplitude++
--00
“ “ball”ball” spherical spherical “eight”“eight”
Actual solutions: 1Actual solutions: 1ss, 2, 2ss, 2, 2ppxx, 2, 2ppyy, 2, 2ppzz, , 33ss, 3, 3ppxx, 3, 3ppyy, 3, 3ppzz, etc. , etc.
((increasing energyincreasing energy))
++
--
nodenode
Most important orbitals Most important orbitals (for us):(for us):
#s are related to#s are related toclassical shellsclassical shells
s Orbitals Orbital p Orbitalp Orbital
The 1s OrbitalThe 1s Orbital
s-Orbital
The 2s OrbitalThe 2s Orbital
The Three 3p OrbitalsThe Three 3p Orbitals
p-Orbitalp-Orbital
Energy diagram depicting solutions as energy Energy diagram depicting solutions as energy “levels”:“levels”:
There are rules There are rules for “filling up” for “filling up” levels withlevels with ee
1.1. Lower energy orbitals filled first (Lower energy orbitals filled first (closed shellclosed shell))
2.2. PauliPauli: : Exclusion principleExclusion principle: 2: 2ee max max
3.3. Hunds Hunds rulerule: Equal energy orbital (i.e. : Equal energy orbital (i.e. ppx,y,zx,y,z) filled ) filled with one with one ee each first each first
electrons (He)electrons (He)11ss
22ss ppxx ppyy ppzz
Aufbau PrincipleAufbau Principleor: where the electrons goor: where the electrons go
Energies of Orbitals Calculated for H Energies of Orbitals Calculated for H AtomAtom
Therefore, Therefore, electronic electronic configurations:configurations:
H(1H(1ss))11; ; He(1He(1ss))22; ; Li(1Li(1ss))22(2(2ss))11; ; Be(1Be(1ss))22(2(2ss))22; ; B(1B(1ss))22(2(2ss))22(2(2pp))11; ; C(1C(1ss))22(2(2ss))22(2(2pp))22..
BondingBonding occurs by occurs by overlapoverlap of of atomic orbitals to give atomic orbitals to give molecular molecular orbitalsorbitalsIn phaseIn phase overlap overlap bondingbonding molecular molecular orbitalorbitalOut of phaseOut of phase overlap overlap antibondingantibonding molecular molecular orb.orb.
antibondingantibonding(node)(node)
bondingbonding
Energy Energy diagramsdiagrams
11ss 11ss 11ss
22pp
BondingBonding
EE
-Orbitals “split” energy levels when entering into overlap.-The better the overlap [e.g. same type of orbital, same energy (shell)], the larger the splitting. -For orbitals of unequal energy, the higher orbital “goes up”, the lower “down”.
e go downe go down
no eno e
goodgood
badbad
11ss
22pp
The Types of Orbital The Types of Orbital OverlapOverlap
This is Real!This is Real! Direct Observation of d-Orbitals in CuDirect Observation of d-Orbitals in Cu22OO
Zuo et al.Zuo et al. Nature Nature 19991999,, 401 401, 49., 49.
Li : H 2Li : H 2ss + 1 + 1ss no shape “issues” no shape “issues”
H : Be : H is linear; but Be H : Be : H is linear; but Be atom has filled shells atom has filled shells (1(1ss))22(2(2ss))22!!How does it bond?How does it bond? Use an empty Use an empty pp
orbital:orbital:
Hybridization and Hybridization and ShapeShape
--++++
--
This allows for bonds, but gives This allows for bonds, but gives wrong structure:wrong structure:
Intraatomic overlapIntraatomic overlap of 2s and one 2p of 2s and one 2p orbitals generates two new hybrid orbitals generates two new hybrid molecular orbitals: molecular orbitals: s + p s + p two two spsp hybrids, hybrids, with with linearlinear arrangement: arrangement:
Better: “Hybridization” of OrbitalsBetter: “Hybridization” of Orbitals
sp-Hybridsp-Hybrid
Note: Note: nn atomic orbitals atomic orbitals nn new new orbitalsorbitals
We shall see next that other We shall see next that other combinations of intraatomic overlap combinations of intraatomic overlap (hybridization) are possible: (hybridization) are possible:
s + p + p s + p + p 3 3 spsp22 with with trigonaltrigonal shapeshape
s + p + p + p s + p + p + p 4 4 spsp33 with with tetrahedraltetrahedral shape shape
Example: Bonding in BHExample: Bonding in BH33. . Hybridization to TrigonalHybridization to Trigonal
spsp22-Hybrid-Hybrid
Bonding in Methane: Bonding in Methane: Hybridization to Hybridization to
TetrahedralTetrahedral
spsp33-Hybrid-Hybrid MethaneMethane
Bonding in Ethane: Bonding in Ethane: Overlap of Two Overlap of Two spsp33 Hybrid Hybrid
OrbitalsOrbitals
EthaneEthane
More More spsp33 Hybrids: NH Hybrids: NH33 and and HH22OO
Double and Triple Double and Triple Bonds: A PreviewBonds: A Preview
EtheneEthene EthyneEthyne
Delocalized Electrons: Delocalized Electrons: Fe Atoms on a Cu Fe Atoms on a Cu
SurfaceSurface
Molecular Models: Molecular Models: Use Them!!!Use Them!!!
The Dashed-Wedged The Dashed-Wedged Line NotationLine Notation
RhondaRhonda WalbaWalba