Chapter VII:

Conclusion

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Chapter - VII

Conclusion

7.1. Conclusion

The Shias religion of Isna Ashari flourished in Deccan in the 16th century AD.

However, before that, (approximately in 748-936/1347-1528) Bahmanid Kingdom

was the first government, which prepared the basis for penetration of 12-Imamid

Shiism in this region. Bahmanid rulers established independent kingdoms in Ahmad

Nagar, Bijapur and Golkandeh, which resisted untill the Mongol invasion. After

spread of Imamia religion in the time of Shah Ismail Safavid in Iran, Bijapur was the

first government to announce Shiism as its official religion in Deccan. This historical

period also has been carefully studied in this project and of course the social as well

as economic lives of Mysorean Shias population that is a very small scale of this great

historical and cultural event in India. This project lasted for 2 years with its scientific

and discovering studies by applying quantitative and qualitative methods and journey

to the different Muslim settled cities of Mysore, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kerala,

Lucknow, Aligarh, Delhi, Bidar, Gulbarga, Pune, etc. Famous libraries were utilized

and documentary studies were applied along with participation in the international

conference in Hyderabad related to history of Adilshahis by presenting an article titled

“The Role of Iranians in Spread of Shias Culture in the Adilshahi Period”. The writer

in this way gained more knowledge about the nature of introduction of Shiism to

India. Eventually, by interviews with different leaders of religious schools in different

Shias settled cities of India, this study finished as a thesis paper in anthropology.

In fact (yousuf Adil Shahi) introduced Shia Islam to India. he was from

Iranian Shias; Iranians who were scholars, saints, literati and politicians took refuge in

the different states of India. They laid the foundations for development of Iranian and

Islamic culture with the support of Indian powers in the north and south of India, with

their Persian language, which was the language of politics and literature. Formation of

Islamic governments in the soil of India was equal to weakening of racial elements of

Turkic, Indian and Mongol nations in the Iranian culture and civilization.

Islam entered India mostly through Iran; this means that people understood

Islam in that country through Persian and they mostly converted to Islam through

Iranian preachers, Sufis and scholars. Muslims of the Indian Subcontinent became

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familiar with Hadiths (sayings of the Prophet) and Tafseers (interpretations) of the

Quran through their Persian translations. Commuting of the immigrants from Iran to

and fro India brought more reciprocal cultural influences. Since the 10th century HG,

in the Safavid period in Iran and Temurid period in India, these relationships have

developed in all aspects; presence of Adilshahi Dynasty in Bijapur, which was part of

Deccan, caused more immigration of Shias to that region especially because of this

dynasty’s close relations with Safavids in religion and beliefs. Adilshahis were very

much concerned about buildings and turned their capital, Bijapur into one of the finest

examples of Islamic architecture in India. They were supporters of arts and wisdom.

Following that, the Shias thinkers and scholars enriched sciences and philosophy

remarkably. Since the beginning of the Islamic history untill the end of the 18th

century, the Indian born Shias started developing the thought system of the country.

As a result, the history of the thought system of Shias in India is the same history of

the Iranian immigrants who brought a share of their best teachings from their country

and introduced it to the society of cultures and arts in India. In addition to other

reasons, development and spread of Shias Islam and Islamic Sufism is due to the

efforts of scholars, Sufis, Iranian preachers as well as introduction of Persian books.

In this research, we deal with the role of Iranians in spreading the Shias culture in the

Adil Shahi period. It also studies the dynasties in Deccan and the most influential

person over Yusuf Adil Shah i.e. Mahmud Gavan and after that, Adil Shahi Dynasty

and spread of Shiism which was because of Iranian culture.

We must consider that the immigrants in Deccan were not only Christians and

Iranian Zoroastrians, but after embracing Islam, a large number of the immigrants

were Muslims who had set off for India because of the abusive behavior and cruelty

of Omavi, Abbasid and even Iranian rulers. What encouraged Iranians to migrate to

India was the Indian belief in the profound culture of Behkati and the Indian love or

Gnosticism, which regards the right to let live, even for the enemies. The slogan of

Hindus “Live and Let Live” had made India a refuge for Iranians from long ago;

despite their different beliefs, even though in some cases they were against Hindu

beliefs. The few but influential ones who migrated to India were Sufis who had great

roles in spreading Islam. It was in this time that the first Iranian Dynasty called

Bahmani was founded in Deccan. Ala-ed-Din Hassan, founder of the dynasty believes

that his family tree reaches Bahman son of Esfandyar, the Kiani prince; and therefore,

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the dynasty that he founded became known as Bahmani. Bahmani Dynasty was one of

the main reasons for the vast presence of Iranians in Deccan. Gradually, well-known

figures appeared in this region; the most famous ones were the family of Shah

Nematullah Wali, Mahmud Gavan Gillani, Sadre Jahan Shushtari, etc. Some of the

Muslim dynasties selected Shiism as the formal religion of Deccan by some of the

Muslim dynasties in the 9th and 10th centuries HG. These dynasties were derived

from the first independent Muslim government in southern India. Bahmanis made

many efforts in their ruling periods to support Sadat and Shias. The ninth Sultan of

this dynasty, Ahmad Shah Wali converted to Shias religion, and supported and

encouraged Shia scientists and politicians in his kingdom with all his power. In the

following periods, founder of Bijapur Dynasty (Yusuf Adil shah) was the first man to

publically announce Shiism as the formal religion. Sultan Quli Qutub Shah, founder

of Qutub Shahi Dynasty also believed in Shiism before entering India; therefore,

immediately after declaring independence and following Shah Ismail Safavi, he

formalized Shiism in his territories.

Bahmania Sultans who were Iranians encouraged scientists in the military as

well as Iranian merchants to settle in their country. They never lost any chance to

prepare the bed for development of Shiism in Deccan. Despite being Sunnis,

throughout their periods, Bahmanis had special attention towards Sadat and Shias and

made many efforts to have relationships with this group and encourage them to

migrate to Deccan. The following cases were the reasons for migration of many Shias

from Iran and also from other Islamic countries to this region: a lot of relationships

between Deccan and Shias as well as Sadat of Medina, Mecca, Najaf and Karbala,

Bahmanis’ support of Iranians and Sadat, as well as the unstable political and social

situations in Iran and Iraq at the time of founding this dynasty. Some of these

immigrants were appointed to important positions and posts. These immigrant Shias

were the first group who introduced Shias culture to Deccan. Sultan Taj-ud-Din

Firouz accelerated the entrance of Iranian Shia scientists by sending the royal navy.

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Figure 7.1: (Shia centre in Lucknow India)

According to the stated analyses and studies in this research, qualitative

(descriptive) as well as quantitative (statistical) methods have been applied.

Quantitative analyses have been done according to the statistical output by SPSS

(software package used for statistical analysis in social science) software. According

to the table of Location of Shias, the most populated area was Mandi Mohalla and

after that Lashkar Mohalla; of course, most of the Ashorakhanas as well as Jafaria

Mosque are located in this area and Mandi Mohalla. Dispersal of Shia-settled areas is

also studied. It shows that wealthier people are settled in Bannimantap. The average

age of family heads is over 41-50 and the first language of Muslims is Urdu,Hindi,

then Kannada and then English. It must be mentioned that India has three formal

languages, namely Hindi, Urdu and English. On the street signs in the city of Delhi,

street names are in all these three languages. Verbally, Urdu and Hindi are almost the

same languages with two different scripts. Both of them are mixtures of Sanskrit,

Persian, a little Arabic as well as Turkish; however in Urdu, most vocabulary is

Persian and in Hindi, most vocabulary is Sanskrit. In higher education, men are more

educated than women; in the past, because of economic problems fewer girls had the

chance to study in higher levels of education, but at the moment, Shia girls also go to

universities alongside boys. Analysis of these results among children, women and

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men of families is comprehensively reflected in the tables related to education and its

levels. In relation to marriage and according to the interviews, boys’ age of marriage

has been less in the past; but according to the achieved data, at the moment, it has

risen up. This is because of more employment and investment. About the construction

material applied in houses, we must say that they are not very expensive; since we

went to houses of people for getting the questionnaires filled up, we saw that the

rental houses were better than personal houses. In fact, most of the material in these

houses was made of cement; and in cheaper houses, it was a mixture of mud and

cement.

Most houses were rental and this shows that almost half of the family’s

income goes for the rent. Despite the upper class people who have personal and

inherited houses, most of these houses have small rooms which are averagely two.

Considering the size of families, they are small. Their vehicles are motorcycles and

they rarely drive cars. Some of them use Auto-Rikshaws for commuting. It might

seem that most of them go to work more than 6 months, but more than half of them

have jobs within 6 months or whenever the working conditions are more appropriate.

In relation to jobs, they mostly don’t have highly paid jobs and majority of them are

in business or handicraft production. Some of them work in railway; some people also

are in government jobs and very few of them –a little more than 100- go to Arab

countries and work in different jobs like business, engineering or construction in those

countries. Income is divided into three categories; the upper class which earn more

than Rs 30,000 a month, the middle class which earns between Rs 10,001 to Rs

30,000 a month, and the lower class which earns less than Rs 10,000. The achieved

tables and outputs show that the income is lower than average and that recently it has

risen a little higher; and those who work in Arab countries also have distributed a lot

to betterment of the economy and to the circle of money among Shias of Mysore.

Almost 40 persons are retired and some of them have responsibilities over families.

Recently, women, compared to the past, participate more actively in the social

activities, although most of them are housewives and some of them have jobs like

teaching, working in offices or in hospitals, etc. their mother tongues are either Urdu,

Hindi, Kannada or English. The university education system has let most of the

women in the new generation learn English. Age of marriage among girls also has

risen up a little in comparison to the past. One of its reasons is following up education

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in higher levels and searching for jobs, although many of them become housewives

after education. Despite their religious interests, the children in the families, children

who are the young generation- try to acquire education, knowledge and consequently,

jobs. Study of jobs among people shows that most people in the lower class are

salespersons, handicraft producers, construction workers or work in railway; but jobs

in the middle or the second class change into business, working out of Mysore,

Bangalore or working in Arab countries. Members of the third category i.e. the upper

class are government employees, engineers, doctors or people in big businesses.

Nevertheless, considering the hypothesis and questions, the middle class has more

statistical members in the society. Considering the economic and social conditions,

the achieved data show us that from the lower middle class upwards, these conditions

are getting better. There is the urgent need of cultural and educational training for this

minority in Mysore, because the studies show that as these levels rise, the social

position of individuals also show positive changes. It means that according to the

achieved tables, as the level of education, income and employment rise, especially of

the family head, it has positive influences on social and economic position of family

members. However, the average capitation income of an Indian individual i.e. more

than Rs 5,000 and of a Shias i.e. a little more than Rs 4,000 per month reveal that still

there is much difference between this standard and the reality for an average life in

India. Shias and their future: at this moment, Shias are considered as a backward

community in India. One of the main reasons for this backwardness is that

considering the conditions in which they are living, Shias have to rely on their own

facilities; and since their living conditions are lower than the average and these

facilities are very limited, they cannot achieve economic development. Another

reason is Taqia, which has persuaded Shias in the course of history to conceal their

religion for saving their lives and this has brought about some kind of vagueness of

identity. Shias, as a community and as an influential element in the world of Islam can

bring their potentials into action; and on the other hand, the Indian society must be

admired for keeping so many religions altogether.

About globalization and socio-economic situation of Shias, we must say that

on the one hand, they have an almost independent historical, social and cultural

position in the world; and on the other hand, they remain as a minority among other

Islamic sects. This minority consists almost 3percent of India’s Muslim population

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i.e. almost 30 million. Results of a study by “National Association of Economic

Studies” and “University of Maryland” in the U.S show that the monthly income of

almost one third of Indian Muslims is less than Rs 550. This research, that has studied

the economic situation of Muslims in 2004 and 2005, shows that three out of every 10

Muslims in India live below the poverty line. According to this study, Muslims in

urban areas have better situations than Muslims living in rural areas, and the villagers

spend their lives only with Rs 338 a month. It must be mentioned that India’s

population is over 1 billion out of which Sunni Muslims are 15percent and Shias are

3percent. Considering the fact that the issue of globalization with a positive

perspective and a self-sufficient movement claims to bring convergence in the nations

and tribes and create a global common culture in the world, on the other hand, it is

dictatorship of especial countries over weaker countries, which brings about cultural

gaps. Therefore, it must be mentioned that the Islamic view and ideology about

globalization is an ideal perspective, which has its roots in the hearts and souls of its

(Shiism) followers. Economic unity of different nations all over the world is the basic

ideal of human beings. It is the belief in Mahdavi doctrine and its justice; it means

that by the advent of the twelfth Imam of Shias, according to their beliefs, he will

bring stable economic development for people’s welfare and happiness, will bring

human unity, and will remove the gap between the rich and the poor. Not all of these

are possible unless the inter-religious sects come together, and become united.

Analysis and study of the research conclusion: according to the carried out scientific

researches, there have not been studies specifically about Shias of Mysore in the past.

Therefore, it was necessary that a comprehensive study analyzes the functional and

structural space of Mysorean Shias.

For this purpose, an anthropological study was carried out with a descriptive,

interpretative and explanatory perspective applying qualitative and quantitative

methods in which quantitative method has helped very much in the progression of

research. Another feature of this research is its historical and comparative look upon

the social and economic situation of Shias in the past and present, which clarifies

strong and weak points of this religious minority in the periods of history. Their

present situation also has been analyzed with clarification of data as well as the ideal

situation. The Shias society is not an organized society and actual or juridical persons

do activities individually, or in the form of small organizations. The Shias society

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must be managed; a society of so many millions needs local as well as state

associations. It also needs an active counseling association with material and spiritual

supports. In the present environment of India, it is necessary that Shias train elites,

scholars and characters with different quantities and study economic, social and

cultural issues in their associations. Also in the cultural field, the media and the virtual

space must be more active, and more TV canals must be established. It seems that

there are two TV canals in Mysore broadcasted from London in Urdu language. They

are called Hadi and Hedayat canals. Of course, there are Iranian and Arabic canals as

well. In addition, the relationship between these Shias minorities through these

centers in the different states of India will lead to formation of economic, social and

cultural identities for them. At this moment, the Indian Board of Islamic Legislation,

which is one of the greatest Islamic organizations in India, has activities about

juridical, social and political issues that related to Muslims. Dr. Kalbe Sadiq is the

representative of Shias in this board and Mr. Mirza Athar is the selected head of the

board. Considering the recent situation of Muslims in India, this board follows

objectives like studying and solving major problems of Muslims (especially with so

much of crisis in the region), establishment of educational centers for raising the level

of Shias’ education. It also makes efforts for creating job opportunities and increasing

the abilities of Shias youth, economic and social development, establishment of

economic centers as well as different factories and workshops especially reopening

the handicraft workshops of Shias in Mysore which are closed. It plans for creation of

part-time and short-term jobs, creation steady job opportunities in these centers,

bringing national and party-related unity among Shias, dealing with cultural and

economic issues of Shias especially the young generation, and activating the scholars

and thinkers in cultural and educational issues. These are the tasks ahead, which must

be practically followed up. An economic study of Shias in southern India: India has a

huge amount of natural resources, and with its recent economic development, this

country has been influential on its religious minorities as well. Economy is one of the

great aspects of human life; so much, so that in some teachings, it is considered as

foundation of the society. Although economy is not a foundation in Islam, it has a lot

of importance in this religion because it plays a great role in improvement or

destruction of other aspects of human life. This article tries to clarify the economic

situation of Shias in Mysore with a historical, analytical and quantitative approach by

the use of historical sources and field studies. In this research, initially the economic

situation has been studied chronologically and then we have dealt with the economic

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situation of Shias in Mysore. According to the findings of this research, the main

sources of wealth in Mysore are firstly business, construction and migration of many

citizens to Arab countries which have helped to improve their economy. Shias of

Mysore are engaged in small and big businesses, services, construction, government

jobs as well as handicraft production. Shias have had a greater share in business than

in agriculture or other jobs. Some other Shias who have been merchants utilize its

benefits in exchange business, shop-keeping, small business, etc. for betterment of

their lives. The quantitative statistics of the 2500 Mysorean Shias and study of 250

family heads with the average of 5 members in each family has shown that more than

54percent of the family head’s income has direct relationship with the economic

situation of Shias in Mysore. The level of poverty among Muslims: the amount or the

size of population below the poverty line only shows the scope or the spread of

poverty among the social groups, but it does not reveal the intensiveness or the depth

of poverty among the social groups. In order to study the intensiveness of poverty

among the social groups of India, coefficient or the ratio of intensiveness of poverty

has been applied. This coefficient has been achieved by studying the ability of the

poor population to pay or by studying their family expenditures in each group as well

as studying the poverty line in the Indian society. When the number of poverty depth

gets closer to zero, it shows more poverty, and when it gets closer to 1, it shows less

poverty depth. The achieved results show more poverty depth among Hindu and

Muslim tribes compared to other social groups of India. Of course, it must be

mentioned that poverty depth in the cities is different from villages, and Muslims in

villages with less poverty depth have better situations even than the other social

groups in India.

Study of equality and inequality among the social groups: economically, one

of the most important issues in the economic evaluations is the study of inequality

within every social group. In fact, it is identifying this issue that how much of

economic difference exists between members of a social group? Alternatively, is the

gap between those who have much income and those who have less income within a

group either big or small? For clarifying this issue, we have applied Jini indicator. Jini

indicator is one of the indicators that are applied for measuring the amount of

inequality within a group in this way that the higher the Jini number is, the more

inequality exists in the society, and the closer this number gets to zero, the more

equality it shows. In an equal society, the Jini indicator becomes zero. The achieved

results for the social groups of India show more inequality in the urban societies of

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India and less inequality in the rural societies of this country. Among the social

groups of India, Muslims and Hindus in the lower social levels and also Hindu tribes

economically have more societies that are equal.

Ordinary Hindus and other minorities have economically unequal societies. In

other words, although the ordinary Hindus and other minorities have better economic

situations than Muslims and other two groups, still the gap between the rich and the

poor is too much within these two groups, especially in the urban areas; and Muslims

economically more societies that are equal. The rate of participation among rural

Muslims in the rural societies is much less, than other social groups of India, but in

urban societies, the rate of participation among Muslims is only higher than high-

ranked Indians. It is almost equal with Indian minorities.

One of the main reasons for low rate of participation among Muslims is the

low rate of activities among Muslim women. The rate of Muslim women’s activities

is the lowest among the social groups of India. This could be because of the cultural

perspective of Muslims about women’s work, since they prevent women from

working. In India, almost 44percent of women and 85percent of men in the age group

of 15-64 participate in economic activities. This rate among Muslim men is

approximately 85percent and among Muslim women, it is almost 25percent. In the

rural areas, almost 70percent of Hindu women participate in working while this rate

among the rural Muslim women is almost 29percent. One of the main reasons for the

lack of participation of Muslims in the economic activities of India is the fact that it is

a young society between the social groups of India. As it was mentioned in previous

chapters, approximately 22.00 percent of India’s population is in the age group of 10

or lower, but almost 27.00 percent of Muslims are in this age group. Additionally, in

the age groups of 10-14, population of Muslims is 2.00 percent more than the other

groups. Being young in the Muslim societies increases the rate of dependence among

Muslims; therefore, it decreases the rate of participation among Muslims in the

economy of India compared to other groups in India (Hollister, 1994).About the

questions and hypothesis of research, our main focus is on social, economic,

occupational, educational situations and at last social and economic study of Shia

Muslims in Mysore. Questions are approved to be in accordance with objectives of

research in the interviews and in researcher’s observations in the field of study.

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Figure 7.2: Economy Status

60percent of the individuals have mentioned the economic variant as an important

element; Hence, by increasing of a standard digression in the economic variant, the

amount of socio-economic basis also will change and vice versa.

Figure 7.3: Social Status

Social position also has been categorized. Level 1 i.e. low includes 15

members 6.0percent; level 2 i.e. medium has 167 members i.e. 66.8percent and level

3 or high includes 68 members 27.2 percent. They are mentioned in the chart as well.

Economy status shows 79 people i.e.31.6 percent in level 1; 143 members 57.2

percent in level 2; and 28 people 11.2 percent in level 3.

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Figure 7.4: Level Status Shia Muslims in Mysore

In this figure, social and economic status of Shia Muslims in Mysore is

demonstrated. In the first or low level, there are 21 members 8.4percent; in the second

or medium level, there are 182 members 72.8percent; and in the third or high level,

there are 47 members 18.8percent. Eventually, recognition of cultural identity and the

influences of globalization on their economy are also remarkable aspects of these

changes.

Figure 7.5: Income head of family

Studying income to three status shows that 154 heads of families 61.6 percent

have incomes between 1000-10,000 (low), 79 members 31.6 percent have 10,001-

30,000 (medium) and 17 members 6.8 percent have incomes of 30,000+ i.e. RC

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(high). Of course, the income is calculated for one month for each member of the

family heads according to the table.

Figure 7.6: Income family

Studying income to three status shows that 157 families 62.8 percent have

incomes between Rs 15,000 , about 15.2 percent have Rs 30,000 and 14.0 percent

have incomes of Rs 1000 etc.

Figure 7.7: Educational level men

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Education level of men shows that 10 people go to school; 96 people go to

college and 135 are go to institutions.

Figure 7.8: Educational level women

Education level of Women shows that 149 people go to school; 71 people go

to college and 12 are go to institutions.

According to the figure of ranks, the higher the level of education is, the

higher will be the level of socio-economic positions of the individuals. In this

hypothesis, through the division of the project, it has been studied among the Shias

men and women in Mysore; in the table, for women it is 152.2 and for men it is 163.4

who have the highest ranks in university.

In the course of history, when Islam entered India, the Shias established their

Dynasties in important regions of this country and made their customs and rituals

dominant, but the kingdom of Shias in India could not stabilize their situations in this

country very much. This was because the main concern of Shia rulers was power.

Shiism was interpreted not as an institution but as a set of glorious customs and

rituals, which represented their political power. In many cases as well, Shias

considered Taqia and did not openly express their religion or some of them like Qazi

Nurullah Shushtari died for their beliefs. Sunni Muslims of the Subcontinent,

compared to Sunnis of other countries, especially Arab countries, have had far better

relations with Shias in most cases. The most outstanding point of this good

relationship is the love of non-Shia Indian Muslims for Ahl-Albeit (family of the

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Prophet PBUH), especially Imam Hussein (PBUH). Every year, they participate in the

ceremonies of Moharram. The love for Imam Hussien (PBUH) has even spread

among non-Muslims like Hindus and Sikhs. India is the only non-Shia and non-

Muslim country where the day of Ashora (10th Moharram) is a government holiday.

In some parts of India, Sunnis and Hindus have entered their customs so much in

Moharram ceremonies that they have totally changed the nature of this day. In most

parts of India, there is a big marching with drums and trumpets. I have witnessed this

big marching in Delhi, for so many years. This marching starts from different parts of

the city and ends at Karbala Husseinia; thousands of Sunnis participate in this

marching for the respect of Imam Hussein (PBUH). This ceremony was not only in

cities like Lucknow and Hyderabad, but it was under the Shia government. It is even

held in Delhi which has never been under Shia kingdoms; hence, it cannot be

considered as a heritage of Shia kingdoms. Many Sunnis keep Tazia or the model of

Imam Hussien (PBUH)’s shrine at their homes and bring them out on the day of

mourning in Moharram to join the mourning groups. Maybe the number of Hindus

who take part in these ceremonies is more than Sunnis; because the events of Karbala

are interesting for Hindus and influences them. Even there are some common stories

among Hindus about a Hindu prince who had come out for hunting and was informed

either through dream or through some messenger that Imam Hussein (PBUH) had set

out. He tried to help him, but reached late to the scene. According to Hollister’s

research (1946), some low casts in the state of Bihar worship Imam Hussein as a god.

Many Hindu men and women patients give offerings in Moharram ceremonies for

fulfillment of their needs. Hollister mentions many cases in his research about

participation of Hindus in Moharram. For example, he says, “There are many castes in

Baroda who believe in mourning as a holy custom and do different things for

fulfillment of their needs. For example, they pass from beneath the Tazia or lie down

on the ground before the Tazia. Hindu women who want children throw themselves

before the Tazia on the ground and try to rub themselves to the peacock feathers

which are like fans on the Tazia so that their need is fulfilled. Children who are born

as a result are named Hassana, Husseinia, Faqireh, Fateme, Bai, Netchiama, etc. In

fact, these children are offered to Alams or Tazias and every year, they fulfill the

intentions made by their parents through participating in the mourning ceremonies

and even by distributing foods among the mourners. Of course, unfortunately

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sometimes due to the ignorance of Shias and Sunnis, the mourning ceremonies turn

into bloody fighting scenes between Sunnis and Shias. Some Shias, especially in

Lucknow and perhaps according to the tradition remaining from the Shia dynasties

gather near the Sunni mosques or near Sunni-settled areas to show their hatred

towards the first three Caliphs; this provokes some Sunnis who praise these Caliphs

near some Husseinias (Imam Bareh), of course without any insult to the Shia Imams.

Eventually, these two inconvenient actions lead to conflict and even bloodshed

between Shia and Sunni Muslims. In Lucknow, such bitter events have happened

many times and the colonizing government of Britain in India and after independence,

the Indian governments banned mourning ceremonies and the marching groups of

Husseini mourners for long times. The latest one was in 1977 A.D. when this

ceremony was banned for 19 years. At last in 1996A.D., the local government which

belonged to BJP cancelled this banning for the sake of winning the votes of Shias and

because of the insistence of Shia scholars. Mourning ceremony of Shias in India has

some differences with the ceremony of Iranians and has been mixed with some

superstitions and deeds which do not have roots in the religion of the family of the

Prophet and perhaps have Hindu origins. For example, decorating an Arab horse as

the symbol of Zol-Janah, Imam Hussein (PBUH)’s horse in the event of Karbala and

doing offerings to and asking needs from this horse and touching it.

Despite their poor economic conditions, Shias have to spend a lot to take care

of this horse all over the year. Some researchers have mentioned this as a similar

custom to the tradition of respecting cow by Hindus. In India, because of their beliefs,

Shias hold Moharram ceremonies in the first 10 days of the month most gloriously. In

the mourning ceremonies, they sing about the events of Karbala in verse and prose

very enthusiastically. Following that, they have elegies along with rhythmic beats on

the chest. They keep small models of shrines similar to the shrine of Imam Hussein

(PBUH) which are called Tazia, and also some flags known as Hazrat Abbas’s flag in

holy places called “Imam Bareh” which are in fact similar to Husseinias in Iran and

are known as Ashorakhanas in Mysore. The compassion of Imam Hussein (PBUH)’s

disaster has a great spiritual influence over women; so much so that, they remove

their pearl bracelets in the mourning ceremonies, do not comb their hairs, do not wear

jewelry, do not wear bright colors and hide their happiness and laughter. This

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mourning sometimes continues untill Arbaeen of Imam Hussein (PBUH)’s murder

called Chehelom. Some of the rituals related to Imam Hussein (PBUH)’s ceremony

and his disaster have been influenced by Hindu traditions in India. The respect of

Indian scholars to Imam Hussein (PBUH) is also remarkable. Mahatma Gandhi, many

times in his works, has praised Imam Ali (PBUH) for his justice in his ruling period

and the primitive bravery and sacrifice of Imam Hussein (PBUH) in the event of

Karbala and the day of Ashora. He has even mentioned the life of Hazrat Fatima

(PBUH) as his motivator in the following the opposition movement against

colonization.

The presented articles and seminars such as the article of India’s contemporary

president, Shankar Dayal Sharma in Nahj-ul-Balagha Seminar 1995A.D. inaugurated

by president of Iran in that time, Hashemi Rafsanjani, are remarkable examples. In the

Seminar, it was difficult for many Iranian guests to believe that these presenters were

not Muslims or Shias. Professor Pandeh, the knowledgeable researcher of history and

governor of Indian states was the close friend and the last remaining companion of

Gandhi in recent years. He died in 1998 A.D. He has gloriously praised Hazrat Ali

(PBUH) in different articles and valuable research works. The love of Indian people

for the innocent family of the Prophet (PBUH) whom were introduced to them mostly

by immigrant Iranian scholars and Sufis is so much. Because of the lack of Imams’

and their children’s graves in India, they visit the graves of Sadat which are believed

to be their offspring or Sufis who were their followers and preachers. Even the holy

places like the graves of innocent Imams (PBUT) especially in Najaf and Karbala are

pilgrimage sites for so many people including Shias, Sunnis as well as Hindus. So

many Hindus bring offerings to these places for getting their problems solved. There

were Hindu poets as well who have written fine and deep poems in praise of Imam

Hussein (PBUH). Generally, the political situation of Shias in India started declining

in the 20th century in the Subcontinent. Of course, great personalities in the anti-

colonization movement were Shias like Seyed Amir Ali, Badr-ud-Din Tayib Ji,

Muhammad Ali Janah and Eskandar Mirza, the first president of Pakistan. At this

time, also some of the Isna Ashari and Esmaili Shias in Pakistan have reached the

high political and military ranks in Pakistan. In India, also fewer ones have reached

such positions; but none of these people, when they reached power or before and after

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that, had any commitment to spread Shias teachings or to improve the Shias society.

Therefore, considering the range of poverty and illiteracy among Shias, which is even

more than Sunnis, we can say that this community is a more underprivileged minority

within the minority of Muslims in India. In 1907 A.D, Indian Shias in Lucknow held

the National Conference of Shias as a non-political organization with the aim of

developing educational activities. Later, this conference joined the supporters of the

Political Party activities. Religious schools of Shias are mostly in Lucknow and some

are in Hyderabad, jaunpur and Delhi. These schools had high levels of construction

and facilities in the time of establishment due to the kingdom of Shias; but nowadays,

they are in very poor conditions. It is because of the economic situations, destruction

of the donated facilities, deliberate or non-deliberate inattention of the Indian

government, lack of learned teachers and the low level of welfare. Some of the Indian

Shia students study in the schools of Qum, Najaf and Damascus. Among these

students, especially the students in Qum are some intelligent and bright personalities

who raise the hope to bring many changes in future. In the past, most of the Shia

clerics were graduates from Najaf, but after the Islamic revolution in Iran and the war

between Iran and Iraq, some of the students selected the religious school of Qum for

studies and some of them went to Syria. In the old days, great personalities appeared

among the Indian Shia clerics. Two of them who have eminent works on the Shias

culture are Qazi Nurullah Shushtari and Allama Mir Hamed Hussein Hindi who are

both originally Iranian.

Now-a-days, religious and general schools of Shias have special importance.

Almost in all centers of Shia-settled regions, there are religious schools, teachers and

students. Most important schools are in Lucknow and Hyderabad. Although because

of economic hardships, very few students come for religious studies, the academic

level of these schools, compared to the schools of Najaf and Qum, are lower and the

aim of these schools is mainly training preachers.

The love of Shias for Ahle Bait and especially for the mourning ceremony of

Aba Abdullah (PBUH), even those who according to the common criteria are not

considered as religious people, has given the clerics and the elegy singers (Maddahs)

specific positions even though they are not educated people. Even Shias settled in the

U.S, Europe and Africa, who hold Moharram every year better than the previous year,

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invite them regularly for speeches on Menbar. Although unfortunately, the elegy

singers (Maddahs) do not have enough religious knowledge and mix the elegies with

non-reliable and superstitious words about the events of Karbala just in order to

provoke people emotionally. Because the public welcomes them, clerics also either

rue over them or imitate them.

Now-a-days, some educated Shias are trying to take steps by establishing

educational and welfare organizations with the help of Shias living abroad India to

compensate for the backwardness of the Shias society. Although these activities in

comparison to the activities of organizations from other sects like Hindus, Sikhs and

even Sunni Muslims are very little, it seems that they have taken the right decision. Of

course, the situations of Bohras, Ismaili Khojas and Isna Ashari Khojas are different.

One of the Shias leaders in the city of Lucknow who is a great personality and has

carried out many activities for the betterment of situations for Shias through his

cultural understanding and political thinking is Maulana Dr. Kalbe Sadeq.

Shias do not have independent political organization for themselves and the

political Shias figures follow their political activities separately in all parties; hence,

they are far behind Sikhs in this case. Unfortunately, the few Shia political figures in

India do not have much concern for the improvement of the poor cultural and

economic situation of Shias in this country. Shias are in very lower conditions

compared to followers of other religions and sects. The considerable cultural and

social organizations of Shias all over India are very few in numbers. Unfortunately,

since the Shias in India consider themselves a minority, they have always been

thinking about defending themselves and have rarely had the opportunity to spread the

teachings of Ahle Bait. In order to defend themselves, they have sometimes made

mistakes in knowing their enemies as well.

Status of Muslims state agencies should actively develop and implement

policies geared to improving the socio-economic status of Shia Muslim women and

the Muslim community generally to ensure their full participation in public life as

Indian citizens. Such measures could include central government (collaboratively with

state governments) implementation of loan schemes to facilitate the setting up of

small businesses or skill training for Muslims; and the implementation of schemes for

Muslim girls’ and women’s education in both rural and urban areas. This should be in

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conjunction with socio-economic measures so that Shia Muslim women, particularly

in urban areas (where illiteracy levels are high), can enjoy such economic benefits.

7.2. Recommandations

Status of Shia Muslims: given the poor educational and low socio-economic

status of Shia Muslims in general, the central and state Governments should ensure

the implementation of primary and secondary education programmes for Shia

Muslims, particularly Shia Muslim women. A survey of availability of textbooks in

minority languages should be undertaken, after which state governments should take

up printing and distribution of textbooks.

The central and state governments must take measures to ensure the

availability of teachers for Muslim communities, the appointment of women teachers,

and the establishment of girls’/women’s hostels with the provisions of mid-day meals

and school uniforms. Schemes for adult literacy and reading rooms for Muslim

communities must be undertaken by the central and state governments in order to

address the compelling literacy needs of Shia Muslim women. In addition, state

governments should institute scholarships for minority students. Removing social

prejudice against Muslims: the central government must take appropriate action

against people, institutions and political figures that practise or propagate

discrimination or intolerance based on religion.

Furthermore, textbooks, films or writing which portray cultural stereotypes of

Muslims should be withdrawn from school curricula. Efforts must be made to

introduce textbooks which include Muslim history and positive references to all

cultures in order to promote communal harmony.

Hygiene is an essential component of healthy living, In fact, Hygiene is

integral to achieving good health and preventing disease and infection. Not just

selecting the right food choices but also cooking and consuming them in a hygienic

way is equally important in preventing the infectious diseases. Adopting hygienic

practices and promoting hygiene in the Shia Muslims community, schools and

workplace prevents innumerable infectious diseases.