Chapter Seven Chapter Seven

PragmaticsPragmatics

What is pragmatics? What is pragmatics? • Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning

in context.in context.• Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost coPragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost co

ncerned with the study of what is communicated by a ncerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader.

• Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves tAnalysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language he interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.in a particular context.

• Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expresIntended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/resed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.aders make inferences about what is communicated.

What are the differences between the two What are the differences between the two linguistic studies of meaning – semantics linguistic studies of meaning – semantics and pragmatics?and pragmatics? • Semantics studies literal, structural or lexical meSemantics studies literal, structural or lexical me

aning, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implianing, while pragmatics studies non-literal, implicit, intended meaning, or speaker meaning.cit, intended meaning, or speaker meaning.

• Semantics is context independent, decontextualiSemantics is context independent, decontextualized, while pragmatics is context dependent, conzed, while pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized.textualized.

• Semantics deals with what is said, while pragmaSemantics deals with what is said, while pragmatics deals with what is implicated or inferred.tics deals with what is implicated or inferred.

Deixis and reference (1)Deixis and reference (1)

•Deixis is a word originally from Greek. It Deixis is a word originally from Greek. It means pointing via language. An expressmeans pointing via language. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify sion used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.omething is called deictic expression.

•Out of context, we cannot understand seOut of context, we cannot understand sentences containing deictic expressions, ntences containing deictic expressions, because we do not know what these expbecause we do not know what these expressions refer to respectively. ressions refer to respectively.

Deixis and reference (2)Deixis and reference (2)

•According to referential content, deiAccording to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, plaxis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse ce deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.deixis.

•Person deixis: I, we, you, me, he, etc.Person deixis: I, we, you, me, he, etc.•Place deixis: here, there, above, ovePlace deixis: here, there, above, ove

r, this, that…r, this, that…

Deixis and reference (3)Deixis and reference (3)

• Proximal and distal termsProximal and distal terms• Proximal terms are used when something iProximal terms are used when something i

s close to the speaker, while distal terms ws close to the speaker, while distal terms when something is away from the speaker.hen something is away from the speaker.

• Time deixis: next…, by…, before…, etc.Time deixis: next…, by…, before…, etc.• Tenses: coding timeTenses: coding time

Deixis and reference (4)Deixis and reference (4)

•Discourse deixisDiscourse deixis• Anaphoric: backward referenceAnaphoric: backward reference• Cataphoric: forward referenceCataphoric: forward reference• The deictic centre – ego-centric centreThe deictic centre – ego-centric centre

Speech acts (1)Speech acts (1)

• In linguistic communication, people do not meIn linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do sorely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various cmething through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking ircumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.are called speech acts.

• Performative sentencesPerformative sentences• Implicit performatives – It’s cold here.Implicit performatives – It’s cold here.• Explicit performatives – Please close the door.Explicit performatives – Please close the door.

Speech acts (2) Speech acts (2)

• Types of speech actsTypes of speech acts• Locutionary speech act – the action of mLocutionary speech act – the action of m

aking the sentenceaking the sentence• Illocutionary speech act – the intentionsIllocutionary speech act – the intentions• Perlocutionary speech act – the effectsPerlocutionary speech act – the effects•Of these dimensions, the most importanOf these dimensions, the most importan

t is the illocutionary act.t is the illocutionary act.

Speech acts (3)Speech acts (3)• In linguistic communication people respond to an illocuIn linguistic communication people respond to an illocu

tionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker.tended by the speaker.

• If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the procIf a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act ess of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect tof demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about – one of the students will go he utterance brings about – one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.and get some chalk – is perlocutionary.

• In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labeIn English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, complils, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions.ific labels name various speech functions.

Speech acts (4)Speech acts (4)

•As functions may not correspond to fAs functions may not correspond to forms, speech acts can be direct and iorms, speech acts can be direct and indirect.ndirect.

•Searle: two ways of communication Searle: two ways of communication (performing acts)(performing acts)

•Direct speech act: Close the door.Direct speech act: Close the door.• Indirect speech act: It’s cold in here.Indirect speech act: It’s cold in here.

Speech acts (5)Speech acts (5)

• Why do people often speak indirectly in social commuWhy do people often speak indirectly in social communication?nication?

• Different social variables: age, sex, social conditionDifferent social variables: age, sex, social condition• Politeness: communicative strategyPoliteness: communicative strategy• Indirect speech acts are related to appropriateness.Indirect speech acts are related to appropriateness.• Indirect speech acts are made for politeness, not vice Indirect speech acts are made for politeness, not vice

versa. To make appropriate choices does not necessarversa. To make appropriate choices does not necessarily mean indirect speech acts.ily mean indirect speech acts.

Lexical sense relations (6)Lexical sense relations (6)

•PolysemyPolysemy•A polyseme is a word which has sevA polyseme is a word which has sev

eral related senses.eral related senses.•Polysemy is based on the intuition oPolysemy is based on the intuition o

f native speakers as well as the etyf native speakers as well as the etymology or history of words.mology or history of words.

Cooperation and implicature (1)Cooperation and implicature (1)

• Conversational ImplicatureConversational Implicature• In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in con

versation are generally cooperating with each other. Iversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each othn other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfuller, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners hy. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead tave to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which hem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumpeople having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant ied to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another.nformation from one another.

Cooperation and implicature (2)Cooperation and implicature (2) •However, in real communication, the intHowever, in real communication, the int

ention of the speaker is often not the liteention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The rral meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is calleal intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature. For examed conversational implicature. For example:ple:

• [1] A: Can you tell me the time?[1] A: Can you tell me the time?•B: Well, the milkman has come. B: Well, the milkman has come.

Cooperation and implicature (3)Cooperation and implicature (3)

• In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B iIn this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not ns not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but through saying “the milkman has co the accurate time, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. The answer B gives is ome”, he is in fact giving a rough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely trelated to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication. The theory of chat. That is often the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaining hoonversational implicature is for the purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.w listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.

• The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (19The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communica67), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating tion, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectively through cowith each other so as to communicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle nversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims), that is the co(CP) elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims), that is the cooperative principle.operative principle.

Cooperation and implicature (4)Cooperation and implicature (4)

• The Cooperative PrincipleThe Cooperative Principle• Make your conversational contribution such as is required, Make your conversational contribution such as is required,

at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Thdirection of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. The maxims are:e maxims are:

• QuantityQuantity• Make your contribution as informative as is required (for thMake your contribution as informative as is required (for th

e current purposes of the exchange).e current purposes of the exchange).• Do not make your contribution more informative than is reDo not make your contribution more informative than is re

quired.quired.• Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.• Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say what you believe to be false.• Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Cooperation and implicature (5)Cooperation and implicature (5)

• Relation – Be relevant.Relation – Be relevant.• Manner – Be perspicuous.Manner – Be perspicuous.• Avoid obscurity of expression.Avoid obscurity of expression.• Avoid ambiguity.Avoid ambiguity.• Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).• Be orderly.Be orderly.

The politeness principle (PP) The politeness principle (PP) (1)(1)• Leech points out that CP in itself cannot explaiLeech points out that CP in itself cannot explai

n why people are often so indirect in conveyinn why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean. Grice’s theory of CP is, fung what they mean. Grice’s theory of CP is, fundamentally, logic-oriented.damentally, logic-oriented.

• Conversational interaction is also social behavConversational interaction is also social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in laniour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological guage use. There are social and psychological factors that determine the choice. factors that determine the choice.

The politeness principle (PP) The politeness principle (PP) (2)(2)• Besides being cooperative, parBesides being cooperative, par

ticipants of conversations norticipants of conversations normally try to be polite. The speamally try to be polite. The speakers consider the matter of fackers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Be for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leecased on this observation, Leech proposes the politeness prinh proposes the politeness principle (PP), which contains six ciple (PP), which contains six maxims.maxims.

• TactTact Minimize cost to other.Minimize cost to other. Maximize benefit to other.Maximize benefit to other.• GenerosityGenerosity Minimize benefit to self.Minimize benefit to self. Maximize cost to self.Maximize cost to self.

• ApprobationApprobation Minimize dispraise of other.Minimize dispraise of other. Maximize praise of other.Maximize praise of other.• ModestyModesty Minimize praise of self.Minimize praise of self. Maximize dispraise of self.Maximize dispraise of self.• AgreementAgreement Minimize disagreement between Minimize disagreement between

self and other.self and other. Maximize agreement between selMaximize agreement between sel

f and other.f and other.• SympathySympathy Minimize antipathy between self Minimize antipathy between self

and other.and other. Maximize sympathy between self Maximize sympathy between self

and other.and other.

The politeness principle (PP) The politeness principle (PP) (3)(3)• The maxims expressed in terms of maximize entail the concept oThe maxims expressed in terms of maximize entail the concept o

f gradience in politeness. The tact maxim expressed in terms of cf gradience in politeness. The tact maxim expressed in terms of cost and benefit can be exemplified by the following:ost and benefit can be exemplified by the following:

• Clean the rooms. Cost to H Less politeClean the rooms. Cost to H Less polite• Get some chalks for me. ↑ ↑Get some chalks for me. ↑ ↑• Look at the map.Look at the map.• Take a seat.Take a seat.• Enjoy your trip. ↓ ↓Enjoy your trip. ↓ ↓• Have another cup of coffee. Benefit to H More politeHave another cup of coffee. Benefit to H More polite• Cost to hearer:Cost to hearer:• Peel the potatoes. More direct Less politePeel the potatoes. More direct Less polite• Can you peel the potatoes? ↑ ↑Can you peel the potatoes? ↑ ↑• Will you peel the potatoes? ↓ ↓Will you peel the potatoes? ↓ ↓• Would you possibly peel …? Less direct MoreWould you possibly peel …? Less direct More

The politeness principle (PP) The politeness principle (PP) (4)(4) • Benefit to hearer:Benefit to hearer:• Would you have another sandwich? Less direct Less politeWould you have another sandwich? Less direct Less polite• Will you have another sandwich? ↑ ↑Will you have another sandwich? ↑ ↑• Have another sandwich. ↓ ↓Have another sandwich. ↓ ↓• You must have another sandwich. More direct More politeYou must have another sandwich. More direct More polite• Politeness and appropriatenessPoliteness and appropriateness• Distance, power, situational contextDistance, power, situational context• Relation between CP and PPRelation between CP and PP The PP is the superordinate principle standing above the CP.The PP is the superordinate principle standing above the CP.

The PP overrides the CP. The PP overrides the CP. People sometimes violate the CP in order to follow the PP.People sometimes violate the CP in order to follow the PP.

the principle of relevance (RP)the principle of relevance (RP)• From the four maxims of CP to the RPFrom the four maxims of CP to the RP• The code modelThe code model Communication is a process of coding and decoding.Communication is a process of coding and decoding.• The inferential modelThe inferential model Communication is a process of producing and interpretiCommunication is a process of producing and interpreti

ng, or coding and inferring.ng, or coding and inferring.• Theoretical assumptionsTheoretical assumptions General law: to use the minimal effort for the maximal eGeneral law: to use the minimal effort for the maximal e

ffect for human behaviour.ffect for human behaviour.• To communicate is to claim others’ attention.To communicate is to claim others’ attention.• Contractual effect/processing effort = relevanceContractual effect/processing effort = relevance

Conversational implicature Conversational implicature

•What is a conversation?What is a conversation? A conversation is changing ideas, or convA conversation is changing ideas, or conv

ersing.ersing. Conversation is the basic form of speech Conversation is the basic form of speech

in human communication.in human communication. Conversation is the dialogic form in spokConversation is the dialogic form in spok

en and written discourse. en and written discourse.

Analysis of conversation (1)Analysis of conversation (1)

• The global analysis – to analyze the whole structure, tThe global analysis – to analyze the whole structure, the whole process of a conversation.he whole process of a conversation.

• The local analysis – to understand the internal structuThe local analysis – to understand the internal structure of a conversation.re of a conversation.

• Turn-takingTurn-taking Turn-taking refers to having the right to speak by turns.Turn-taking refers to having the right to speak by turns. Conversations normally follow the pattern of “I speak Conversations normally follow the pattern of “I speak

– you speak – I speak – you speak”, if there are two p– you speak – I speak – you speak”, if there are two participants.articipants.

• Any possible change-of-turn point is called a transitioAny possible change-of-turn point is called a transition relevance place (TRP). n relevance place (TRP).

Analysis of conversation (2)Analysis of conversation (2)• Adjacency pairAdjacency pair Adjacency pairs are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.Adjacency pairs are a fundamental unit of conversational structure. Greeting/greeting, question/answer, invitation/acceptance, offer/Greeting/greeting, question/answer, invitation/acceptance, offer/

decline, complaint/denial are common cases of adjacency pairs.decline, complaint/denial are common cases of adjacency pairs.• Insertion sequenceInsertion sequence Not all first parts are immediately followed by second parts. It ofteNot all first parts are immediately followed by second parts. It ofte

n occurs that the answer is delayed by another pair of question ann occurs that the answer is delayed by another pair of question and answer. Look at the following example:d answer. Look at the following example:

- May I have a bottle of Mich? (Q1)- May I have a bottle of Mich? (Q1) - Are you over 21? (Q2)- Are you over 21? (Q2) - No. (A2)- No. (A2) - No. (A1)- No. (A1) The second part of adjacency pair is violated here.The second part of adjacency pair is violated here.

Analysis of conversation (3)Analysis of conversation (3)

• A conversation sometimes is organized in a prA conversation sometimes is organized in a preferential way.eferential way.

• Pre-sequencePre-sequence• Pre-invitationPre-invitation• Pre-requestPre-request• Pre-announcementPre-announcement• Post-sequencePost-sequence• ExplanationExplanation