chapter outline - pearson

CHAPTER OUTLINE

LET’S GET STARTED 251

Audience and Purpose of Instructions 252

Types of InstructionalFormats 252

Ethical and Legal Implications 257

Elements of EffectiveInstructions 258

Content, Style, and Design Considerations 261

STRATEGIES for AchievingReadability 263STRATEGIES for Creating anAccessible Design 264

Procedures 264

Usability Testing 267STRATEGIES for Instructions and Procedures 269CHECKLIST for Instructions and Procedures 271

Applications 271

AFTER YOU READ THIS CHAPTER,YOU WILL BE ABLE TO

3 Identify the various types of instructions and how they are used

3 Understand the ethical and legal implications of instructions

3 Understand the components of instruction

3 Determine the level of detail and technicalitynecessary for a given set of instructions

3 Write instructions with a readable style and accessible design

3 Understand the components of procedures

3 Write a set of procedures

3 Test instructions and procedures for usability

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Instructions spell out the steps required for completing a task or series of tasks(say, installing printer software on your hard drive or operating an electron

microscope). The audience for a set of instructions might be someone who doesn’tknow how to perform the task, or someone who has performed the task but can’tremember how or wants to perform it more effectively. In any case, well-writtenand carefully designed instructions enable users to get the job done safely and efficiently.

Procedures, a special type of instructions, serve as official guidelines forpeople who typically are already familiar with a given task (say, firefighters whoare evacuating a high-rise building). Procedures ensure that all members of agroup coordinate their activities when performing a task. More so than instruc-tions, procedures may need to be reviewed and approved by an official body of

Instructions and Procedures 251

Almost everyone writes instructions. Think about the last time someone asked

you how to get to your apartment or house. You may have told them to look it up

on Google maps, but you probably also gave them some simple step-by-step

instructions (“Get off at Exit 12. Turn left. Go about 1/2 mile. . . .”). Before reading

the material in this chapter, write instructions that tell a new student how to get

from your classroom to the student union (or to a good pizza place, or similar).

Questions to ask about the instructions you wrote as you review the material in

this chapter:

3 Did I provide enough of an introduction?

3 Are steps listed in order?

3 Are the steps visually easy to follow?

3 Am I using imperative verb forms?

3 Am I providing enough detail, or too much?

At the end of this chapter, review your initial Let’s Get Started instructions with

your instructor or with a group of students, to see how much you might change

or modify the instructions based on what you have learned from the chapter.

LET’S GET STARTEDInstructions

Definition of procedures

Definition ofinstructions

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252 CHAPTER 13 Instructions and Procedures

Formats ofinstructions and procedures

Audienceconsiderations

some sort. For example, official surgical procedures may need to be approvedby a hospital’s safety and ethics board.

Instructions and procedures can be written and designed in a wide variety offormats, from brochures and print materials to PDFs available on the Internet toinstructions that come on a CD with a product. The format should be chosenbased on the people who will be using the material and the environment where thematerial will be used. For example, instructions for connecting a battery charger toyour car’s battery should not be provided on a CD, since most people will not havea laptop computer handy while performing this task. Instead, these instructionsshould be printed directly on the charger itself, with a longer brochure (containingsafety information) included in the box.

This chapter will first explore various aspects of instructions, followed by procedures.

AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTIONSBefore writing instructions, find out how much your readers already know aboutthe task. For instance, if you are writing for technicians who have done a similartask with a different piece of equipment, you may not need as much detail or context.If on the other hand, you are writing for a general audience, such as consumerswho are trying to assemble a new stereo cabinet or use a new Bluetooth headset,you will need more details but in a less technical manner. If you have a mixed audi-ence (some experienced users, some new users), you will need a layered approach,offering a “quick start up” document for those in the know and a more compre-hensive user guide for the new users. Keep in mind that readers across the globe,some who may not speak English as a first language, might use your instructions.Therefore, write in a straightforward, simple style, with plenty of visuals, andremain sensitive to cultural differences (See pages 000, 000.).

The purpose of instructions is simply to help users perform a task or series oftasks. As you write, keep the following questions in mind: “How is the task done?”“What materials are needed in order to complete the task?”“In which order should thesteps in the task be completed?” “What could go wrong when performing the task?”and “Are any safety issues involved?” Ask yourself if the primary purpose is to allowusers to complete the task quickly (as when people are trying to assemble a new stereocabinet and don’t want to take all day), or to complete the task incrementally and overa longer period (such as when people are using a kit to test for radon in their homes).

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL FORMATSAs discussed above, instructions and procedures alike come in many formats. Themost common formats for instructions are instructional brochures, user manuals,quick reference cards, hyperlinked instructions, and computer instructions.

Purposeconsiderations

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Types of Instructional Formats 253

FIGURE 13.1 An instructional brochure

Source: Used by permission of Partnership for Food Safety Education.

Instructional BrochuresInstructional brochures can be posted, handed out, mailed, or otherwisedistributed to a broad audience. Typically, brochures contain both text andvisuals, which helps increase the audience appeal. Figure 13.1 shows aninstructional brochure. Notice its user-friendly design: In addition to thecartoon illustration at the top, which immediately catches a reader’s attention,clear visuals reinforce each main section (“Clean,” “Separate,” “Cook,” and“Chill”). Each main section also begins with an action verb, includes a briefintroduction, and uses bulleted lists (which also use action verbs) to break upthe text into easy-to-digest chunks. Finally, a URL at the end points readers tofurther information.

Features of effectiveinstructionalbrochures


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INTRODUCTIONWelcome to the world of compact copying on the Z-85II Copier. The Sharp Z-85II has been designed for greater copying versatility while occupying a minimum amount of space and featuring intuitive operating ease. Special features include:• One enlargement and two reduction ratios• Stationary Platen• Auto start mode• Two-way paper feed• Automatic exposure control• Color copyingTo get full use of all Copier features, be sure to familiarizeyourself with this Manual and the Copier. For quick reference during Copier use, keep the Manual in a handy location.

CONTENTS• UNPACKING• A WORD ON COPIER INSTALLATION• CAUTIONS • SET-UP • MAKING COPIES • SPECIAL PAPERS (MANUAL BY-PASS FEED) • TWO-SIDED COPYING • COLOR COPYING • LOADING COPY PAPER • MISFEED REMOVAL • TD CARTRIDGE REPLACEMENT • DRUM CARTRIDGE REPLACEMENT • USER MAINTENANCE • COPIER TROUBLE? • MOVING INSTRUCTIONS • SUPPLIES AND ACCESSORIES PART NUMBERS • SPECIFICATIONS

1

Page2334689

10111213141516181819

FIGURE 13.2An overview and

table of contents

from a user

manual

User ManualsUser manuals tend to be the most comprehensive form of instructions: Manualsoften contain instructions for using a product, along with descriptions and specifi-cations, warnings, maintenance and troubleshooting advice, and any other infor-mation the user is likely to need. For complex products (for example, a spreadsheetprogram), the user manual can be a sizable book. Given the cost of printing anddistributing such a large book and keeping print material current, companies areincreasingly providing smaller (“Getting Started”) manuals that contain the basicoperating tips and then putting the more lengthy information on a Web site.In some cases (for legal or other reasons), full-scale user manuals are still beingproduced, but the trend is toward smaller documents.

Figure 13.2 illustrates an overview and table of contents for a photocopier usermanual. Although most people will gravitate directly to the section on making copies,the other sections are available for reference in the case of special needs (two-sidedcopies) or problems (misfeed removal). Note how this manual provides basic informa-tion first, followed by more technical information, with specifications at the very end.

Source: Reproduced by permission of Sharp Electronics Corporation.

Overviewintroduces theproduct and lists itsspecial features

Table of contentsrefers users tospecific tasks

Features of effectiveuser manuals


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Types of Instructional Formats 255

FIGURE 13.3A quick-reference

Web page (partial

view)

Quick Reference MaterialsQuick reference materials are a form of instructions typically written and designedto fit on a single sheet of paper, a small or wallet-sized card, or a Web page. Theinstructions focus on the basic steps for users who only want enough informationto perform a specific task rapidly and continue on with their work.

Figure 13.3 shows a quick reference Web page for performing basic InternetExplorer tasks using keyboard commands. Notice how it is organized into logicalcategories so that users can find what they need quickly, how it uses action verbs todescribe each task across concisely, and how the layout (two columns, alternatingwhite and color rows, plenty of white space) is easy to navigate.

Features of effectivequick referencematerials


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FIGURE 13.4 Hyperlinked instructions


Hyperlinked InstructionsOnline instructions that contain hypertext (links within the text) allow readers toexplore various layers of information without losing their place on the page.Hyperlinked instructions allow companies to keep the material on their Web sitescurrent by easily updating as needed.

Figure 13.4 shows hyperlinked instructions. The main Web page, of course, con-tains the main instructions, but readers can learn more about a particular portion ofthe main instructions, by clicking on the hyperlink (e.g., “eligibility requirements”).

Features of effectivehyperlinkedinstructions

Features of effectivecomputer instructions

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Computer InstructionsComputer instructions are found within your computer software, rather than on aWeb site. This format does away with paper entirely by putting the instructionswithin the product. For example, if you are using Microsoft Word or WordPerfect


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and don’t remember how to create a table of contents or make a word italic or bold,you simply type your question into the “help” box to access the instructions.

Just like instructions in a printed book, computer instructions, as in Figure13.5, usually offer an index you can use to look up a topic. Notice how theinstructions in Figure 13.5 pop up on the screen without totally obscuring thedocument, allowing users to read the instructions and view part of the documentat the same time.

Ethical and Legal Implications 257

FIGURE 13.5 Computer instructions

Source: Microsoft product screen shot reprinted with permission from Microsoft Corporation.

ETHICAL AND LEGAL IMPLICATIONS Instructional documents carry profound ethical and legal obligations on the part ofthose who prepare them. Among all technical documents, therefore, instructionsinvolve the strictest requirements for giving readers the most accurate informationin an accessible format.


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Countless injuries result from misuse of consumer products such as powertools, car jacks, or household cleaners—types of misuse often caused by defectiveinstructions. Clear, easy-to-follow instructions that contain just the right amountof detail can provide the difference between the unsafe and safe use of a product.

Any person injured because of unclear, inaccurate, or incomplete instructionscan sue the writer as well as the manufacturer. Courts have ruled that a writingdefect in product support literature carries the same type of liability as a design ormanufacturing defect in the product itself (Girill, “Technical Communication andLaw” 37). Some of the legal liabilities resulting from faulty instructions include

• Failure to instruct and caution users about the proper use of a product: forexample, the proper use of a household cleaning product (should not bemixed with other products)

• Failure to warn against hazards from proper use of a product: for example, therisk of cutting your fingers on a vegetable slicer

• Failure to warn against the possible misuses of a product: for example, thedanger of improperly installing a child safety seat

ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONSAll instructions must include a title, a brief overview or introduction, a bodysection (including the required steps involved in following the instructions), and aconclusion. In addition, most instructions should also include visuals, as well asnotes, cautions, warnings, and/or danger notices.

TitleBe sure your title provides a clear and exact preview of the required task. Forexample, the title “Instructions for Cleaning the Drive Head of a Laptop Com-puter” tells people what to expect: instructions for a specific procedure involvingone selected part. But the title “The Laptop Computer” gives no such forecast; adocument with a general title like this might contain a history of the laptop, adescription of each part, or a wide range of related information.

Overview or IntroductionExplain the purpose of the instructions and what the instructions contain. You don’twant to bury users in an overly long overview/introduction, nor do you want to setthem loose without adequate preparation. Know your audience—what they need anddon’t need. For example, you might begin with a short paragraph such as the following:

These instructions provide complete information for the use of the lab’s electron microscope. The first section explains the set-up steps,and the second section describes how to create a slide and view it withthe microscope.

Include a clear and exact title

Legal implications of instructions

Provide a briefoverview orintroduction to orientreaders before theybegin the task

Ethical implicationsof instructions


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Elements of Effective Instructions 259

Include a bodysection with tasksteps in correct order

Wrap up with aconclusion, ifappropriate

BodyExplain each step and substep of the task, in the correct order. Insert notes, cau-tions, warnings, dangers, and visuals as needed (see below for more information onthese elements). Begin each step with a definition or purpose statement, as appro-priate. Users who understand the reasons for a step will do a better job. Segment thesteps with a numbered list. Begin each substep of a complex process on a new line.

ConclusionThe conclusion of a set of instructions might summarize the main steps of thetask, describe the results users should experience, offer follow-up advice,or provide troubleshooting tips. You might do all of these things in the conclusion—or none of them. If the body section has given users all they need, omit theconclusion altogether.

VisualsVisuals in instructions play a vital role: They show what to do, attract the reader’sattention, and help keep words to a minimum. (For more, see Chapter 7.) Visualscan illustrate any step that might be hard for people to picture. For instance,describing in words how to locate something is a lot less effective than simplyshowing the location with a drawing or photograph. Visuals can also help tell thewhole story—offer users the “big picture”—in one glance, something that wouldbe far less effective using words only. Figure 13.6 enables users to visualize a task.Figure 13.7 shows users the full story at a glance.

Provide visuals toenhance usability

FIGURE 13.6A visual that

illustrates a task

(how to apply

weatherstripping)

Source: From www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/28039.pdf


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When to usewarnings

When to use adanger notice


Boulders should all be approximatelythe same size: 6"-12" or 12"-18"or 18"-24" diameters. Maximize contact

between boulders

Keep spaces assmall as possible

Put largest boulderson bottom.

soil line

25% setback

topsoilmulch

FIGURE 13.7A visual that

shows the full

picture (how to

build a boulder

wall) in one

glance

Notes, Cautions,Warnings, and Danger NoticesNotes provide additional information, while cautions, warnings, and dangers preventdamage, injury, or even death. Use notes, cautions, warnings, and dangers only whenneeded; overuse will dull their effect, and readers may overlook their importance.

A note clarifies a point, emphasizes vital information, or describes options oralternatives. For example:

NOTE: If you don’t name a newly initialized disk, the computerautomatically names it “Untitled.”

Whereas a note is designed to enhance performance and prevent error, cautions,warnings, and dangers are vital for safety reasons.

A caution prevents possible mistakes that could result in injury or equipmentdamage. For example:

CAUTION: A momentary electrical surge or power failure will erase thecontents of internal memory. To avoid losing your work, every fewminutes save on a backup file what you have just typed into the computer.

A warning meanwhile alerts users to potential hazards to life or limb.For instance:

WARNING: To prevent electrical shock, always disconnect your printerfrom its power source before cleaning internal parts.

A danger notice identifies an immediate hazard to life or limb. For example:

DANGER: The red canister contains DEADLY radioactive material. Do not break the safety seal under any circumstances.

When to usecautions

Source: From http://www.sustland.umn.edu/implement/boulder_walls.htm University of Minnesota extension service.

Always includenotes, cautions and warnings for user safety

When to use notes


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CONTENT, STYLE,AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS In addition to including all the necessary elements in a set of instructions, you alsoneed to decide about matters of content, style, and design.

Detail and TechnicalityReaders who know a great deal about the product or task(s) to be covered don’tneed a lot of detail and can typically handle a high level of technical informa-tion. But readers who are new to the situation need more detail and fewer tech-nical terms. Use the techniques described in Chapter 4 to determine how muchyour readers already know. Unless you learn that your audience has the relevantbackground and skills, write for more general readers. For example, if you arewriting instructions for providing first aid to a victim of electrical shock, youmight write the following for an audience with extensive medical background:

FIRST AID FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCK

1. Check vital signs.

2. Establish an airway.

3. Administer CPR as needed.

4. Treat for medical shock.

But for an inexperienced audience, not only will the above details be inadequate, butalso terms such as “vital signs” and “CPR” will be too technical. Such instructionsposted for workers in a high-voltage area who are not medically trained would be use-less. Illustrations and explanations would be needed, as demonstrated in Figure 13.9.

StyleInstructions must always be clear and easy to follow upon first reading, becausepeople usually take immediate action. Follow the Strategies on p. 000.

Content, Style, and Design Considerations 261

When you include cautions, warnings, or dangers, be sure to accompany them withthe appropriate visual symbol or icon to indicate these conditions, as in Figure 13.8.

Warning Do not enter Radioactivity Fire danger

FIGURE 13.8Caution, warning,

and danger

symbols

Provide an adequatelevel of detail andtechnicality

Instructions for ahighly technicalaudience

Write with a readable style


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3 Use direct address, active voice, and imperative mood. To emphasize the user’s role,write in the second person, as direct address. Begin all steps and substeps with actionverbs, using the active voice and imperative mood. In certain cases, you may want toprovide a clarifying word or phrase that precedes the verb:

STRATEGIESfor Achieving Readability

Methods of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)

Mouth-to-Mouth Breathing

Step 1: If there are no signs of breathing or there is no significant pulse, place one hand under the victim’s neck and gently lift. At the same time, push with the other hand on the victim’s forehead. This will move the tongue away from the back of the throat to open the airway. If available, a plastic “stoma,” or oropharyngeal airway device, should be inserted now.

Step 2: While maintaining the backward head tilt position, place your cheek and ear close to the victim’s mouth and nose. Look for the chest to rise and fall while you listen and feel for breathing. Check for about 5 seconds.

Step 3: Next, while maintaining the backward head tilt, pinch the victim’s nose with the hand that is on the victim’s forehead to prevent leakage of air, open your mouth wide, take a deep breath, seal your mouth around the victim’s mouth, and blow into the victim’s mouth with four quick but full breaths. For an infant, give gentle puffs and blow through the mouth and nose and do not tilt the head back as far as for an adult.

If you do not get an air exchange when you blow, it may help to reposition the head and try again.

If there is still no breathing, give one breath every 5 seconds for an adult and one gentle puff every 3 seconds for an infant until breathing resumes.

If the victim’s chest fails to expand, the problem may be an airway obstruction. Mouth-to-mouth respiration should be interrupted briefly to apply first aid for choking.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

FIGURE 13.9Adequate detail

and technicality

for a general

audience

Source: Reprinted with permission from New York Public Library Desk Reference, 3rd ed., copyright © 1998, 1993, 1989 by the New York Public Library and the Stonesong Press, Inc.

3


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3 Use short and logically shaped sentences. Use short sentences—one sentence foreach step—so that users can perform one step at a time. If a single step covers tworelated actions, describe these actions in their required sequence:

Before switching on the computer, insert the CD in the drive.

Insert the CD in the drive; then switch on the computer.

3 Use parallel phrasing. Parallelism is important in all writing, but especially so ininstructions, because repeating grammatical forms emphasizes the step-by-steporganization. Parallelism also increases readability and lends continuity to the instruc-tions. For example, notice how all the sentences below are structured identically:

To log on to the VAX 380, follow these steps:

1. Switch the terminal to “on.”

2. Press the CONTROL key and the C key simultaneously.

3. Type “logon” and then press the ESCAPE key.

4. Type your user name, and then press the ESCAPE KEY

3 Use affirmative phrasing. Instructions are more easily understood when peopleread information that is stated in the affirmative, not the negative:

3 Use transitions to mark time and sequence. Transitional expressions (page 000)provide a bridge between related ideas. Some transitions (“first,” “next,”“meanwhile,”“finally,”“after,”“then,” etc.) mark time and sequence and are thereforeespecially useful in instructions, emphasizing their step-by-step nature: For instance:

First, plug in the power cord, and then turn on the printer.

After the printer warms up, insert the paper in the paper slot.

Finally, hit the “print” button.

Say this Not this

Examine your disk for dust Verify that your disk is not contamination. contaminated with dust.

Say this Not this

Insert the disk. or [To run You should insert the disk.the program,] insert the disk.

Key in your access code. or [To The user keys in her access code.log on,] key in your access code.

Plug in the power cord. or [When The power cord is plugged in.you are ready to power up,] plug in the power cord.

STRATEGIES continued

263


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DesignInstructions rarely receive undivided attention. The reader, in fact, is doing twoactivities more or less at once: interpreting the instructions and performing thetask. Therefore, design instructions so that users can leave and return to thedocument as needed and easily find their place. Follow the Strategies below.

3 Use informative headings. Clear headers tell readers what to expect, emphasize whatis most important, and provide cues for navigation. A heading such as “How to Initial-ize Your Compact Disk” is more informative than “Compact Disk Initializing.”

3 Arrange all steps in a numbered list. Unless the procedure consists of simplesteps, list and number each step. Numbered steps not only announce thesequence of required actions, but also help users remember where they left off.

3 Separate each step visually. Single-space within steps and double-space between.

3 Make cautions, warnings, and dangers highly visible.Use ruled boxes or highlightingand plenty of white space to make these items stand out. Also, use caution, warning, ordanger symbols if possible; if not, use bold text and capital letters for emphasis.

3 Make visual and verbal information redundant. Let the visual repeat, restate, orreinforce the prose, rather than provide entirely new information.

3 Place visuals and prose steps that are connected close together. If room allows,place a visual that goes with a step right beside the step; if not, right after the step.Set off the visual with plenty of white space.

3 Keep the design simple and easy to navigate. Readers may be overwhelmed by anexcessively complex or inconsistent design.

3 For lengthy instructions, consider a layered approach. In a complex manual,for instance, you might add a “Quick-Use Guide” for getting started, or atable of contents, with cross-references to pages containing more detailed andtechnical information.

STRATEGIESfor Creating an Accessible Design

Figure 13.10 shows a set instructions that have been prepared for general readerswho need to make a common home repair.

PROCEDURESProcedures provide rules and steps for people who are required to follow acceptedpractice. For example, if different people in your organization perform the sametask (say, monitoring groundwater pollution) at different times, with different

Create an accessibledesign

Function ofprocedures


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Procedures 265

FIGURE 13.10A complete set

of instructionsHOW TO REPLACE A WORN FAUCET WASHER

IntroductionA leaking faucet, caused by a worn washer, can lose up to fifteen gallons of water per day. This loss can result in a higher water bill, overuse of the septic system and well pump, an increase in your hot-water bill, and rust or chlorine deposits in your sink basin. These instructions detail how to replace a worn or broken faucet washer. No special knowledge or skills are necessary.

Overview

The typical faucet consists of a round knob or a handle (Figure 1) which, when turned, causes the stem to screw down until the washer sits snugly over the seat. With the washer in place, the flow of water is stopped. A worn washer loses the ability to form a tight seal, causing a leak or drip to develop. Replacing the worn washer eliminates the leak.

Equipment and Material Needed

• pliers• regular or Phillips (crossed head) screwdriver• new washer of same size and shape as worn washer• valve for shutting off water supply

INSTRUCTIONS 1. Shut off the water supply. Look under the sink or fixture for the shutoff valve. If you are unable to find a valve in this location, use the main shutoff valve located in the basement or beneath the house. The water pipe (one-half to one inch in diameter) usually originates from an inside cellar wall. Locate the shutoff valve by following the pipe from the wall until you come to an attached valve, usually within a few feet of the wall (Figure 2). Turn this valve as far as possible in a clockwise direction. With your water supply shut off, you can take the faucet apart.

Note and Caution These instructions only apply to faucets that have washers. Avoid using any excessive force on the threaded parts, because they are made of soft metal and could easily strip.

Figure 1. Typical faucet in exploded view

caphandlepacking nutpacking washer

stemfaucet washerwasher screw seat

base

water source

spout

Clear titleannounces thedocument’s exactpurpose

Introductionprovidesappropriate detailfor first-time users

Brief overalldescription andprinciple ofoperation

Visual reinforces the prose

Note and cautionalert users beforethey take action

The body sectionprovides step-by-step guidance


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2. Disassemble the faucet. Before removing the handle, open the faucet enough to allow any remaining water in the pipe to escape. Using your screwdriver, remove the screw located on top of the handle. If a cap covers the screw, pry it off with a screwdriver (Figure 1). Remove the handle.

Next, loosen the packing nut, using the pliers to turn the nut in a counter-clockwise direction. The flat circular nut washer can now be lifted from the base of the faucet. With the packing nut and washer removed, screw the stem out of the base by turning the faucet in the same direction as when opening the faucet. Lift the stem out of the base and proceed to step 3.

3. Replace the worn washer. Using your screwdriver, remove the screw holding the washer at the base of the stem (Figure 1). Remove the worn washer causing the drip and replace it with a new one of the same size, using the washer screw to hold it in place. (Washers of various sizes can be purchased at any hardware store.) If the screw holding the washer is worn, replace it with a new screw. When the new washer is fixed in place, proceed to step 4.

4. Reassemble the faucet. Reassemble your faucet before turning your water supply back on. Follow the reverse of the sequence described in step 2. Caution: Do not overtighten the packing nut!

Using pliers, screw the stem into the base until it ceases to turn. Next, place the packing washer and nut over the threads in the collar. Tighten the packing nut using the strength of one hand. Finally, secure the handle with your screwdriver. When the faucet is fully assembled, turn the handle to the “off” position and proceed to step 5.

5. Turn on the water supply. Turn on your water supply in order to complete your plumbing procedure. First, check to see that your faucet is fully closed. Next, turn on the water slowly (about one-half turn each time) until the shutoff valve is fully open. These slow turns are necessary to prevent a sudden buildup of pressure, which could damage the pipes. Your faucet should now be as good as new.

Figure 2. Location of main shut-off valve

Cellar

Wall

Shut-off Valve

To Restof House

Caution precedes step

Because the bodysection has givenusers all they need,no conclusion isrequired

FIGURE 13.10(Continued)


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Usability Testing 267

equipment, or under different circumstances, a written procedure may need to bestandardized to ensure that all work is done using the same techniques with identi-cal measures of accuracy and precision.

Audience and Purpose ConsiderationsUnlike instructions, which will be read mostly by users unfamiliar with the giventask, procedures may be used by people already familiar with a procedure but whoneed to follow a standard. For example, if apprentice chefs in a famous restaurantwho normally prepare salads and appetizers are asked to take over on the prepara-tion of special sauces, those workers probably already know the basics, but wouldneed more information on the specific sauces required, amounts of ingredients,reduction techniques, and so on.

Determine how your readers will use these procedures. Will they need to usethe procedures in a hurry while evacuating a building? Would the procedures bebetter distributed on paper or via computer? Once you know exactly how theprocedures will be used, you can make decisions about the document’s length,format, level of detail, and medium.

Types of ProceduresThe most common types of procedures are standard operating procedures (SOPs),general safety procedures, and medical or health procedures.

Standard operating procedures are formal procedures designed to give anorganization an official record of the procedure and how it should be performed.SOPs, kept up to date and in a location or format available to employees, arerequired by law in many workplace environments, including those that deal withchemicals or industrial waste. SOPs are also written to inform the public abouthow a particular procedure is performed.

Safety procedures, as in Figure 13.11, are required in many settings. Hotelrooms typically list fire exit procedures on the back of the entry door. Most organi-zations have official procedures for dealing with emergencies.

Medical procedures can be written for medical professionals or for consumers.Procedures for medical professionals might include SOPs on hand washing, surgi-cal techniques, and other steps involved in patient care in the hospital. Today, withthe vast amount of medical information available on the Internet, many medicalprocedures are written for nonexperts.

USABILITY TESTINGAny technical document must be written and designed for the right audienceand with the right level of information. With instructions and procedures,however, accuracy and ease of use are especially important. Otherwise, users

Consider youraudience

Consider yourpurpose

Standard operatingprocedures

Safety procedures

Medical procedures

The importance of usability testing of instructions andprocedures


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and assign one or more people, including back-up personnel, to help them.

■ Ensure that during off-hour periods, systems are in place to notify, evacuate, and account for off-hour building occupants.

■ Post emergency numbers near telephones.

What should workers know before an emergency occurs?■ Be familiar with the worksite's emergency

evacuation plan;■ Know the pathway to at least two

alternative exits from every room/area at the workplace;

■ Recognize the sound/signaling method of the fire/evacuation alarms;

■ Know who to contact in an emergency and how to contact them;■ Know how many desks or cubicles are

between your workstation and two of the nearest exits so you can escape in the dark if necessary;

■ Know where the fire/evacuation alarms are located and how to use them; and

■ Report damaged or malfunctioning safety systems and back-up systems

What should employers do when an emergency occurs?■ Sound appropriate alarms and instruct

employees to leave building.■ Notify police, firefighters, or other

appropriate emergency personnel.■ Take a head count of employees at

designated meeting locations, and notify emergency personnel of any missing workers.

What should employees do when an emergency occurs?■ Leave the area quickly but in an orderly

manner, following the worksite's emergency evacuation plan. Go directly to the nearest fire-free and smoke-free stairwell recognizing that in some circumstances the only available exit route may contain limited amounts of smoke or fire.

The National Fire Protection Association defines "high-rise building" as a building greater than 75 feet (25 m) in height where the building height is measured from the lowest level of fire department vehicle access to the floor of the highest occupiable story. Appropriate exits, alarms, emergency lighting, communication systems, and sprinkler systems are critical for employee safety. When designing and maintaining exits, it is essential to ensure that routes leading to the exits, as well as the areas beyond the exits, are accessible and free from materials or items that would impede individuals from easily and effectively evacuating. State and local building code officials can help employers ensure that the design and safety systems are adequate. When there is an emergency, getting workers out of high-rise buildings poses special challenges. Preparing in advance to safely evacuate the building is critical to the safety of employees who work there.

What actions should employers take to help ensure safe evacuations of high-rise buildings?■ Don't lock fire exits or block doorways,

halls, or stairways.■ Test regularly all back-up systems and safety systems, such as emergency lighting and communication systems, and repair them as needed.■ Develop a workplace evacuation plan, post

it prominently on each floor, and review it periodically to ensure its effectiveness.

■ Identify and train floor wardens, including back-up personnel, who will be responsible for sounding alarms and helping to evacuate employees.

■ Conduct emergency evacuation drills periodically.

■ Establish designated meeting locations outside the building for workers to gather following an evacuation. The locations should be a safe distance from the building and in an area where people can assemble safely without interfering with emergency response teams.

■ Identify personnel with special needs or disabilities who may need help evacuating

OSHAFACT

Eva

cuat

ing

Hig

h-R

ise

Bu

ild

ings

SheetFIGURE 13.11A set of

procedures

(safety

procedures)

Title (“EvacuatingHigh-RiseBuildings”) is clearand easy to spot

Overview/introductionsection defines theissue and providesbackground

Headings in theform of readerquestions helppeople find theinformation theyneed

Bullets, instead ofnumbered list ofsteps, appropriatefor this document

Source: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.


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could make costly and dangerous errors. Therefore, among all the types of tech-nical communication, instructions and procedures present the most criticalusability issues.

To identify which parts of the document work or don’t work, conduct a usabil-ity analysis, using the Basic Usability Survey in Figure 13.12. The survey is designedfor both the writers and the users. Essentially it asks one main question (brokeninto more specific questions): “Do these instructions or procedures enable you tocarry out the task safely, efficiently, and accurately?” Notice how the phrasingencourages responses containing examples instead of merely yes or no answers.

3 Analyze your audience. For instructions, assume a general audience that doesnot know how to perform a task. For procedures, assume that your audience doesknow something about the procedure but needs a set of standard guidelines.

3 Analyze your purpose. Consider where the document will be used, and how topresent the information for maximum usability.

3 Always remember the ethical and legal implications. Instructions and proce-dures must always be written with the reader safety at the forefront.

3 Use standard organization and include all needed elements. Always include aclear and exact title; always include an overview or introduction for instructions(but only if appropriate for procedures); always include a body section (in num-bered list format for instructions, but not necessarily for procedures); and includevisuals, notes, cautions, warnings, dangers, and a conclusion as appropriate.

3 Provide an appropriate level of detail and technicality. Do not give your audi-ence too much or too little detail, and use only as much technical language asyour audience will understand.

3 Write with a readable style. Use direct address, active voice, imperative mood,short and logically shaped sentences, parallel phrasing, affirmative phrasing, andtransitions.

3 Design for maximum accessibility. Maintain a simple overall design; arrangeinformation in logical order; use informative headings; separate steps; keep visualand verbal information redundant; place related prose and visuals close together;and always make cautions, warnings, or dangers highly visible.

3 Always test for usability. Instructions and procedures must be easy to grasp inone reading, lead to successful completion of a task or procedure, and ensurereader safety. Make sure every word and image are just right.

STRATEGIESfor Instructions and Procedures

What a basicusability survey asks


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1. Briefly describe why this document is used.

2. Evaluate the content: • Identify any irrelevant information.

• Indicate any gaps in the information.

• Identify any information that seems inaccurate.

• List other problems with the content.

3. Evaluate the organization: • Identify anything that is out of order or hard to locate or follow.

• List other problems with the organization.

4. Evaluate the style: • Identify anything you misunderstood on first reading.

• Identify anything you couldn’t understand at all.

• Identify expressions that seem wordy, inexact, or too complex.

• List other problems with the style.

5. Evaluate the design: • Indicate any headings that are missing, confusing, or excessive.

• Indicate any material that should be designed as a list.

• Give examples of material that might be clarified by a visual.

• Give examples of misleading or overly complex visuals.

• List other problems with design.

6. Identify anything that seems misleading or that could create legal problems or cross-cultural misunderstanding.

7. Please suggest other ways of making this document easier to use.

Basic Usability Survey

FIGURE 13.12 A basic usability survey

Source: Adapted from Carliner 258; Daughterty 17–18; Hart 53–57.


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CHECKLISTfor Instructions and Procedures

INSTRUCTIONSHave I determined what type of instructional format I should use?

Have I carefully assessed the ethical and legal implications of my instructions?

Have I provided a clear and exact title?

Have I included an orienting overview or introduction?

Have I provided step-by-step instructions in the body?

Have I used visuals to enhance usability?

Have I included notes, cautions, warnings, and dangers whenever necessary?

Have I provided the appropriate level of detail and technicality for my audience?

Have I followed the strategies for writing with a readable style?

Have I followed the strategies for creating an accessible design?

Have I performed a Basic Usability Survey?

PROCEDURESHave I carefully considered my audience and purpose?

Have I provided a clear and exact title?

Have I provided a clear introduction, and numbered steps or visuals,if appropriate?

Have I included notes, cautions, warnings and dangers whenever necessary?

Have I provided a conclusion?

Have I provided an appropriate level of detail, a readable style,and an accessible design?

Have I performed a Basic Usability Survey?

GENERAL APPLICATION

Select part of a technical manual in your field—or instructions or procedures fora general audience—and make a copy of the material. Using the Checklist on

APPLICATIONS


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, evaluate the sample. In a memo to your instructor, discuss the document’sstrong and weak points or be prepared to explain them in class.

TEAM APPLICATION

Divide into small groups and visit your computer center, library, or any place oncampus or at work where you can find operating manuals for computers, lab oroffice equipment, or the like. (Or look through the documentation for your owncomputer hardware or software.) Locate fairly brief instructions that could userevision for improved content, organization, style, or format. Make sure the instruc-tions cover a task that you will be able to carry out. Make a copy of the instructions,test them for usability, and revise as needed. Submit all materials to your instructor,along with a memo explaining the improvements; or, be prepared to discuss yourrevision in class.

GLOBAL APPLICATION

In many cultures, the use of imperative mood is considered impolite or too direct.For instance, instructions that state “Place the disk into the disk drive” may soundbossy and inconsiderate. Find a set of instructions that use imperative mood (forexample, Figure 13.10 in this chapter) and rewrite these for a cross-cultural audi-ence where the imperative mood would be offensive. For instance, you might usean indirect imperative (“Be sure to insert the disk into the drive”).

COMPUTER AND WEB-BASED APPLICATION

Think of a product that you have at home, one for which you no longer have theuser manual. For instance, you have may have a coffee maker, a snowblower, or alaser printer. Use the Internet to locate the product’s user manual. In what formatis the manual: a Web page? a PDF document? Would the document be easier to useif it were in print? If so, why? Write and design a much shorter quick referencemanual that can be printed and used with the device.



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chapter outline - pearson

Documents